Basic Concepts in Archaeology

Anthropology
The Study of Humankind

CULTURE
Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man [humans] as a member of society -Edward Tylor (1871)

4 Fields of Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology

Ethnography Applied Anthropology Primatology Evolution; Human Biology Osteology, Population Studies

Biological (Physical) Anthropology

Linguistic Anthropology Archaeology

Archaeologists: The Myth

Archaeologists: The Reality

Median Salary by Years Experience Job: Archaeologist

Archaeology
the study of the past using material remains

Tells us how humans, over thousands of years, have adapted Allows us to better see our place in the diversity of human societies Humans have always been interested in their past and where they came from.

Roots of humanity Justification in (pre-)history Learn from past experiences

The Roots of Archaeology can be found in: Antiquarianism

Romanticism, and the growth of public museums

Antiquarianism

Charles Townley with his collection of Greek antiquities. London, 18th Century.

19th Century Evolutionism

1830: Principles of Geology Author: Sir Charles Lyell (17971875)

Key concepts: uniformitarianism, stratigraphy, an ancient earth

1856: On the Origin of Species Author: Charles Darwin (18091882)

Key concepts: variation, natural selection

Identification of human-made stone tools found associated with extinct species (Mammoths, Woolly Rhinos) Discovery of the first fossil hominid (Neander Valley, Germany)

19th Century Evolution of Geological Principles

Principle of Superposition Materials at the bottom of a stratigraphic column will be older than those at the top Principle of Association Materials found in a particular layer should relate to the same time period Principle of Index Fossils Similar

Domains of Archaeological Interpretation

Description Reconstructio n Culture History Explanation

1. Description

Descriptions document attributes & associations Descriptions are not valuefree Descriptions are strongly tied to: Experimentation Ethnographic Analogy

Clovis spear: Fluted lanceolate point with parallel or slightly concave sides and concave base. Grinding of the base and lateral edges for hafting is apparent. The flutes extend no longer than one-half the maximum length

Experimentation

Replicates ancient technologies Examines the effects of site formation processes Experimental Archaeology

Experimentally made and hafted Clovis spear

Use of a living culture to form models to test interpretations of archaeological remains.

Ethnographic Analogy:

Antler harpoons, Mound City site, Ohio ca. A.D. 1000

Their skill at fishing astonishes those who are not accustomed to this kind of fishing. They use a pole eighteen to twenty feet long, at the end of which there is a dart made of a flat and sharply pointed bone with teeth to the top. This dart is pierced and attached with a small cord to the pole in which it fits. When a savage spears a fish in eight to ten fathoms of water this dart leaves the pole and remains attached by the teeth to the body of the fish, which he then draws to him.

2. Reconstruction

General statement about the lifestyle of a society in the past. Similar to the ethnography of the cultural anthropologist

Study of human cultures through first-hand observation

Clovis kill site, Kimmswick, Missouri, ca. 11,300 B.P.

Focus is on technology, economy, social organization, &

Reconstruction of Ancient Lifeways

Technology

Technology is the manner in which people convert natural resources into products they need or want.

Economy

Economy is a broad topic that involves how people obtain foods, materials, and goods to sustain their lives.

Reconstruction of Ancient Lifeways

Social Organization

Organization refers to the roles and relationships in society on a variety of levels.

Ideology

Ideology refers to the means by which people structure their ideas about the universe, their place in that universe, and their relationships with one another.

Regional sequence developed by arranging individual reconstructions in chronological order

Phases or periods Mark continuities in lifestyle within regions Bring order to the record Reveal times of continuity or change A major goal of archaeology

3. Culture History

Regional sequences for three Midwestern drainages, USA (Seeman 1992).

A set of related propositions that strive to understand WHY events occurred through the course of time

4. Explanation

Provide high-order linkages Allow ways to interpret the BIG PICTURE : Theory Building Examples: Cultural ecology, agency theory, processual archaeology, postprocessual archaeology, etc.

Archaeology Uses the Scientific Method

Define Problem Establish Hypothesis Collect Data Test Hypothesis Against Data Evaluate Hypothesis: reject, revise

Two Fundamental Techniques Are Used to Collect Data in Archaeology

Survey Excavation

Survey: A systematic search of the landscape for artifacts and sites.

To Recover And Describe Archaeological Information, Two Main Techniques Are Used: Survey and Excavation

Provide information on site location, size & condition

Methods include walking, aerial photos & geophysical remote sensing

Minimal investment in each site; mapping & notes are critical Data can be used to select sites for excavation and as important information in their own right

Excavation the exposure and recording of buried materials from the past

A research problem guide the investigation A datum point and site grid control the excavation The characteristics of the site itself can also affect excavation strategies The best excavations involve:

Multiple, staged approaches & a diverse team of specialists

Horizontal or Area Excavation

Large, single occupation sites are best approached with horizontal or area excavations.
(Houses or communities)

Santa Elena site (1564-1587), Parris Island Marine base, South Carolina

Vertical Excavation
Deep stratified, multiple component sites are best approached with vertical excavations Test pits or trenches are used to reveal stratigraphy and how materials accumulated E.g., rock shelters & caves, shell

Koster site, Illinois macro-block area

19 cultural components (7000-1000 B.C.)

The Analysis Of Context Requires The Documentation Of In Situ & Spatial Relationships

Survey & Excavations yield:

Artifacts

Object created or modified by humans

straight pins & ball buttons, Santa Elena site, South Carolina (ca. 1566 A.D.).

Artifacts occur in association with one another

Associations carry time, space, functional & social implications Documenting associations requires great care

Ecofacts

Unmodified materials that result from human activity

Can provide important information on subsistence, health, environment and site formation Example: animal bones resulting from butchery or cooking

Bone fragments, domesticated sheep and pig

Artifacts Must Be Cleaned, Catalogued, Classified, Analyzed & Curated

Reconstruction of 17th Century ceramics, Lost Towns Project, Maryland

Curation of ceramics, Museum of the American Indian

Archaeology of Xuenkal, Yucatan, Mexico

Chichen Itza

Research Question

Methodology

Background Research
Archival Remote Sensing

Survey and Reconnaissance Surface Collections Excavation

Satellite Imagery

Survey

Mapping

Surface Collecting

Test Excavation

Horizontal Excavation

Data

Artifacts

Any object or item created or modified by human action. Any of the remains of plants, animals, sediments, or other unmodified materials that result from human activity. An immovable structure or layer, pit, or post in the ground having archaeological significance. Places where people lived or carried out activities (a concentration of artifacts, ecofacts,

Ecofacts

Features

Sites and Settlements

Artifacts

Ecofacts

Features

Sites and Settlement

Scientific Method
Define Problem Establish Hypothesis Collect Data Test Hypothesis Against Data Evaluate Hypothesis: reject, revise

CONCLUSIONS

Archaeology is Anthropology Archaeologists reconstruct culture from past remains Archaeology draws from a wide range of disciplines Research-Driven: Scientific Method Methodology depends on questions asked