TURKISH GRAMMAR

TURKISH GRAMMAR

TURKISH GRAMMAR

TURKISH GRAMMAR

TURKISH GRAMMAR

TURKISH GRAMMAR

TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE AND CONTRASTIVE Yayna Hazrlayan: brahim Halil Behram Grsel Tasarm ve Kapak Tasarn: zgr Gknel Tashih ve dzeltmeler: Yksel Gknel 1. Basm: stanbul / Haziran 2010 ISBN: 978-605-125046-5 Berdan Matbaaclk Davutpaa Cad. Gen San. St. C. Blok No: 215-216-239 Topkap / stanbul Sertifika No: 12491 YKSEL GKNEL 2010

letiim: Fetih Mahallesi, Tunca Sok. No: 234704 Ataehir / stanbul Tel: 0216 470 0944 All rights reserved. No paert of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prmission of the copyright owner.
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TURKISH GRAMMAR TURKISHGRAMMAR

FOREWORD The Turkish Grammar book that you have just started reading is quite different from the grammar books that you read in schools. This kind of Grammar is known as traditional grammar. The main difference of a traditional grammar and that of a transformational one is that the first one describes a natural language as a static object, but the second one describes both the parts of the language engine and how it runs. This is like learning about a motionless car. There is something lacking in this description. It is the dynamics of the parts of a car that runs a hundred and twenty kilometers an hour. Traditional grammars describe only the physical appearance of a language; they do not mind what goes on behind the curtain. The mind of a human being works like the engine of a sports car. It arranges and chooses words matching one another, transforms simple sentence units to use in different parts of sentences, and recollects morphemes and phonemes to be produced by the human speech organs. All these activities are simultaneously carried out by the human mind. Another point that the traditional grammarians generally miss is that they write the grammar of a certain language to teach it to those who have been learning it from the time when they were born up to the time when they discover something called grammar. This is like teaching a language to professional speakers. Then, what is the use of a grammar? I believe most people were acquainted with it when they started learning a foreign language. Therefore, a grammar written for those who are trying to learn a second language is very useful both in teaching and learning a second language. I started teaching English as a second language in 1952, a long time ago. Years passed and one day I found myself as a postgraduate Fulbright student at the University of Texas at Austin in 1960. Although I studied there for only a short period, I learnt enough from Prof. Archibald A. Hill and Dr. De Camp to stimulate me to learn more about Linguistics. After I came back to Turkey, it was difficult to find books on linguistics in booksellers in Istanbul. Thanks to The American Library in Istanbul, I was able to borrow the books that attracted my attention. In those books, I discovered Noam Chomsky, whose name I had not heard during my stay in the U.S.A. I must confess that I am indebted to the scholars and the library above in writing this Turkish Grammar. I am also grateful to my son Dr. zgr Gknel who encouraged me to write this book and to Vivatinell Warwick U.K., which sponsored to publish it. YKSEL GKNEL

TURKISH GRAMMAR
CONTENTS Foreword Contents Transformational Generative Grammar The Turkish Grammar The Turkish Vowel and Consonant Harmony The Vowel Harmon The Consonant Harmony Morphemes and Allomorphs Derivational Morphemes and their Allomorphs Morphemes Attached to Noun Stems to Produce Nouns Morphemes Attached to Noun Stems to Produce Adjectives Morphemes Attached to Adjective Stems to Produce Nouns Morphemes Attached to Verb Stems to Produce Nouns Morphemes Attached to Verb Stems to Produce Adjectives Morphemes Attached to Noun Stems to Produce Verbs Morphemes Attached to Adjective Stems to Produce Verbs Using Adjectives as Adverbs Morphemes Attached to Noun Stems to Produce Adverbs Inflectional Morphemes (ekim Ekleri) The Inflectional Morphemes Attached To Nouns The Defining [] Morpheme and its Allomorphs [i, , , u] [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes Possessor + Possessed Noun Compounds (sim Tamlamalar) Definite Noun Compounds (Belirtili sim Tamlamalar) Indefinite Noun Compounds (Belirtisiz sim Tamlamalar) Noun Compounds Without Suffixes (Taksz Tamlamalar) Noun + Infinitive Compounds (sim Mastar Tamlamalar) Prepositions (Eng) and Postpositions (Turk) (Edatlar) Primary Stress, Secondary Stress and Intonation English Prepositions and Turkish Postpositions The Inflectional Morphemes Attached To Verbs The Simple Present be The Present Modals with Verb be must be cant be may be may not be The Question Forms of Verb be have to be, should be, ought to be, neednt be have to be (zorundaym) neednt be (gerek yok) The Simple Past Verb be Interrogative Words Page III IV 9 16 17 17 19 21 22 22 23 25 25 27 29 29 30 32 32 33 33 37 46 47 52 53 54 55 56 64 67 68 76 76 77 78 79 79 80 81 81 82 85

TURKISH GRAMMAR
[M] (Rumor, Inference) (sylenti, anlam karma) 88 Future Form Of be (will be) 90 The there is, there are; have, (have got) 91 there used to be, used to have 92 there must (may) be, there cant be, there is going to be 92 Imperatves and Wshes 93 Wsh 95 The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) 96 The Verbs Ending With Vowels 99 Some Noun Stems Used Together With et, `yap, ile to Produce Verbs 100 The Negative Form of the Simple Present Tense 102 The Simple Present Positive Question 104 The Simple Present Negative Question 105 The Question Words Used in the Simple Present Tense 106 The Present Continuous and the Present Perfect Continuous 108 The Verbs That Are Not Used In the Simple Present in Turkish 112 Turkish Verb Frames (Trkede Fiil atlar) 114 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 114 Reflexive Verbs 114 The Passive Transformation of the Intransitive Verbs 116 Reciprocal Verbs (te Fiiller) 117 Both Transitively and Intransitively Used English Verbs 119 The Simple Past and the Present Perfect 124 Mili Past Tense (Rumor and Inference) (Mili Gemi) 131 The Simple Future and be going to 135 The Past Continuous Tense 138 The Past Perfect Continuous Tense 141 Was (were) going to 142 used to 142 The Rumor Forms of The Simple Present and The Present Cont. 144 The Past Perfect Tense 145 The Future Continuous Tense 146 The Future Perfect Tens 147 Infinitives (Mastarar) 147 The [mek, mak] Infinitives 149 The [me, ma] infinitives 152 The [i, , , u] infinitives 158 The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] infinitives 158 The Passive Infinitive 159 Modals 161 Present Modals 161 can, may [e-bil, a-bil] 161 must [meli, mal] 165 have to (zorunda) 167 neednt (dont have to) 167 should (ought to) 168

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Past Modals Could was (were) able to would, could (polite request) Perfect Modals must have cant (couldnt) have should have (ought to have) may have might have neednt have didnt need to Transformations (English) The Nominalization of the Simple English Sentences The Simple Sentences Transformed Into Determiners The Productivity of Natural Languages TheTransformed Simple Sentences Used as Adverbs Turkish Sentence Nominalizations Turkish Simple Sentence Nominalization 1: V - [DK] - [pers] - ([]) Simple Sentences with Verb Stem ol (be) Chain Noun Compounds 2. V- [DK]- [pers]-([]) Nominalized Sentences Containing question words Turkish Determiner + Determined Compounds The Passive Transformation The Verb Frames The Structural Composition of the Causative Verb Frames A Short List of Verb Frames The Order Of Allomorphs Causative Verb Frame Examples Passive Causative Some Example Sentences of the Verb Frames Adverb Clauses (Syntactic Adverbs) Time before after when while as soon as until by and by the time since Cause and Reason Concession and Contrast 170 170 171 172 173 173 175 176 177 178 178 179 179 180 184 186 188 190 192 193 195 195 198 201 203 210 212 213 214 217 218 218 219 261 261 261 265 267 270 272 273 275 276 278 280

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Purpose Place Manner as as if (as though) Result so that such that too + adjective + to + V + iin and adjective + enough + to + Verb Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree Positive or Negative Equality Parallel Proportion Wish wish + would wish + past subjunctive wish + past perfect or perfect modal Conditional Sentences Present Real Supposition Present Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition Past Real Supposition Past Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition Orders and Requests Plain Orders and Requests Polite Requests Polite Refusals Offers { V + [P] } Question Tags ( deil mi?) So do I (Neither do I) Conjunctions and Transitional Phrases Intensifiers Reported Speech Symbols and Abbreviations References 282 286 286 286 287 289 290 291 292 292 294 295 296 297 297 295 299 299 300 302 303 303 305 305 306 307 307 308 309 310 310 317 318 320 321

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR Before we begin with the fundamentals of the Turkish Grammar, it may be useful to start with a short summary of the essential concepts of the Transformational Generative Grammar. This revolutionary grammar began to be discussed on the linguistics stage after Prof. Noam Chomsky had published his first book Syntactic Structures in 1957. In his book, he claims that there is another abstract layer of meaning and language generating system below the words and sentences that we hear or read. He calls it deep structure. The chain of words that we actually hear, read or even picture in our minds before articulating or writing it is called surface structure. To understand these two layers of structures, let us first consider the following surface structure sentence: The brown cat was chased by the black dog. If we are asked to interpret this sentence, we can easily dig out three reasonable short thoughts out of it and understand the following: the cat was brown, the dog was black the dog chased the cat These three thoughts, which are considered nearly the same in all natural languages, have been developed and shaped in the labyrinths of the mind as deep structures before they are worded in a language. How the items of these thoughts are gained, stored, and retrieved by the human mind is the concern of Cognitive Linguistics. These shortest groups of thought without words, which covers concrete and abstract concepts and their characteristics and the experiences of an individual are transformed and shaped into specific language words, morphemes and rules to be used in the Nominal Phrase + Verbal Phrase mentally inborn sentence pattern. In the first step, the abstract thought the cat was brown, which includes some fundamental concepts such as subject, object, verb, time, place and reason, etc. is transformed into the cat was brown" in English, or "kedi kahverengi idi" in Turkish surface structures. This thought can be transformed into any natural language in the world with the help of the specific lexical, transformational, and phonological rules of any target language. Using the same transformational rules, the mind can also transform the dog was black into the black dog, and the cat was brown into the brown cat. When these two transformed units are embedded into the sentence the dog chased the cat, we get the sentence the black dog chased the brown cat. If we want to use this last sentence in the NP part of the VP, (V + NP), we transform it into the black dog that chased the brown cat. Then, we use it after the verb V of the sentence, so the sentence becomes:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The gardener kicked the black dog that chased the brown cat.
NP V VP NP

The dog chased the cat can also be transformed into other sentence types such as: The cat was chased by the dog, and the cat that was chased by the dog, etc. The transformed and worded surface structures can also be operated the other way round by the listener or the reader that has heard or read the surface structure. This activation is simultaneously carried out by the mind of an individual by digging out the deep structures by interpretation. The aim of this book is not to teach Transformational Generative Grammar, but to rewrite a Turkish Grammar in the light of American Linguistics, which has been developed since Bloomfield. A Transformational Generative Grammar aims not only at describing a specific grammar such as English, but it also aims at describing all the grammars of all natural languages. It uses initials to cover all the words and phrase structure rules of all languages. In all languages, there are Nominal Phrases and Verbal Phrases, and there are nouns, determiners, adjectives and adverbs Theorists of The Transformational Generative linguistics generally agree that there is a syntactic component in the mind of a human being that keeps, coordinates, and works the base component, the semantic component, the transformational component, and the phonological component coherently. Working in close coordination, these language-producing components form sentences and help to produce the sounds of a language. People also receive and analyze these sounds deep in the mind until they understand them. In order to understand this interwoven, interactive, and complicated mechanism and process, it is better to begin with the semantic component that accumulates all the words and morphemes of a certain language with all the characteristics embedded in them. For example, when we think of the word boy, we know that it is masculine, young, and able to do all human activities. However, when we use the word apple, we already know that it is fruit, it is eaten, it may be red or green, and it has a certain taste and smell, etc. Besides the words (lexicon) of a certain language, the semantic component and the syntactic component also possesses the innate common phrase structures of the Universal Grammar shared by all human beings. (Further explanations of it can be found in the article Chomsky and the Universal Grammar written by Don Crus.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The phrase structures are flexible and expandable mental molds where linguistic potential is shaped and developed. With the assistance of the transformational and phonological components, t hese Phrase Structures produce sentences. The surface structure is what we actually articulate or write, or even what we think in words before we speak or write. The sentence producing system starts to work with the intention of an individual to express him in words. He shapes his thoughts into Phrase Structure mold, then words and articulates them. During this procedure, the semantic component chooses words and other language units; arranges and installs them in Phrase Structure patterns. The first mental mold is the mold of Nominal Phrase (NP). The language units suitable for this mold may be pronouns: I, you, he, etc., proper nouns: Jack, Mary, Ahmet, etc., adjective compounds: a beautiful lady, a sunny morning, an interesting story, a heavy basket Jacks car, a noun compound: the garden gate, the name of the dog, the result of the examination, a phrase: the books on the table, the children in the garden, a bunch of flowers for my mother; or a transformed simple sentence: the book that I read, the boys that were fighting, what he said, the reason why I was late, etc. All these units are shaped and designed by the help of the syntactic, the semantic, the transformational and the phonological components working coherently. The Verbal Phrase (VP) is composed of a Nominal Phrase (NP), whose content is given above, and a Verb (V). The Verb mold covers verb stems, and all auxiliary verbs and suffixes, such as, is, are, has, been, have, must, can, will, [NG], [ED], etc. In Turkish, in place of these auxiliary verbs, there are suffixes (morphemes). All these verb stems and suffixes are ended with personal suffixes (morphemes) in Turkish, which will be explained in detail in the following chapters. There is another important language unit in a nominal phrase called Determiner (D). These units, which define or describe nouns, are placed before or after nouns according to the characteristics of a certain language. The article "the" is a sign that implies an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause following a noun. Only the words "the book" do not convey satisfactory information. When someone says "the book", the listener thinks that something should be following these words. If he says "the red book", "the book on the table" or "the book that I read", the listener is satisfied with it, and waits for the Verbal Phrase to be uttered to complete the sentence. As a result, we can say that the article "the" is a sign that implies the real determiner that may be either mentally in store in one's mind, or in real words following or preceding the noun. Therefore, all adjectives,

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
adjective phrases, and adjective clauses are determiners that are implied by the article "the". In Turkish, when nouns are used in the subject position, no defining allomorphs or words like "the" are used. For example, in the sentences "Mavi kitap benim" The blue book is mine, "Masann zerindeki kitap benim" The book on the table is mine or "Dn okuduun kitap benim" The book that you read yesterday is mine, the nouns "kitap" are used without the determining (suffixes) morphemes [] in Turkish. In these sentences "mavi", "masann sndeki" and "dn okuduun" expressions are enough to determine the nouns "kitap". However, when the same expressions are used in the object position, when they are determined, they inevitably take one of the [i, , , u] defining allomorphs attached to nouns, pronouns or to the determiner + determined compounds: Masa-nn stndeki kitap- gr-yor musun? (ma*sa*nn / s*tn*de*ki / ki*ta*b / g*r*yor / mu*sun) Can you see the book on the table? Masa-nn stndeki kitap benim. (ma*sa*nn / s*tn*de*ki / ki*tap / be*nim) The book on the table is mine. As it is seen, when the underlined part of the above expression is used in the object position, the noun kitap is suffixed with the defining allomorph [], but when the same part is used in the subject position, it is used without the determining suffix [] although the noun book is determined. Some grammarians think that adjectives, adjective phrases and adjective clauses are optional elements. They are optional, but when they are aimed at determining nouns, they have to follow certain rules in Nominal Phrases. In the following example, you can see how determiners are used either preceding or following nouns: the book; the book on the table; the books that are on the table;
D D N N D N D D D N D D

the book that you have read The purpose of using a language is to convey thoughts or pieces of information to other people. A word or words that cannot convey them are only sounds. The order of the determiners, which define or describe nouns, are shaped by the Phrase Structure rules. The transformational and the phonological components of a specific language help them to transform thought into concrete language. For example, in Turkish sentences, the places of determiners are different from those of the English language. Consider the following example:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
kitap- masann stndeki kitap- okuduun kitap-
N D D D N D N D N D

okuduun kitap N represents nouns, which are words like, apple, boy, girl, dream, happiness, komak, okuma, okuyu, or pronouns like I, you, he, she, it, we, they. Besides these pronouns, there are some other pronouns called objective pronouns such as me, you, him, her, it, us and them. Furthermore, other than these pronouns, there are possessive adjectives such as my, your, his, her, its, our and their. All possessive adjectives are determiners, that is why they are named as possessive adjectives. Syntactically described, they are the possessor parts of the possessor + possessed noun compounds: my
possessor

happiness |
possessed

her
possessor

anxiety | the girls

possessed possessor

fright
possessed

The determiner the concept is embedded in the pronouns and the possessive adjectives of the English language. That is why, the, a, that, or the like, are not used with them. For instance, the I, the you, a me, the my are impossible in English. Some linguists consider determiners as optional elements in phrase structure rules. This is because pronouns are used without determiners in English. Subject pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we and they, and object pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us, them and possessive adjectives my, your, his, etc. are all used without determiners. On the contrary, when Turkish pronouns are used in the object position, such as, ben-i , sen-i, biz-i, etc., the defining suffix [] morpheme, which stands for the the of the English language, is placed after ben , sen, o, biz, siz, onlar. Literally, they are written and said as ben-i I the; sen-i you the; o-/n/u he the; jack-i Jack the. This the concept in English is fulfilled by changing I into me, you into you, he into him, she into her, etc. In English, people say I saw the girl. I saw her. In Turkish, people say Ben kz- grdm. Ben o-/n/u grdm. As it can be guessed, the pronoun her has a defining concept mentally embedded in it. In Turkish, however, the same concept is attached to the pronoun o as the determining morpheme []. Consequently, we can say that all pronouns and proper nouns may have determiners either mentally embedded in them, or attached to them as allomorphs. When Turkish people say "masa-nn stn-de-ki kitap", they mean

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
"the book on the table". In the Turkish sentence, "kitap" is without a defining suffix or a word. This is because, the adjective phrase "masann s-tn-deki" is enough to determine the noun "kitap". Consider the following sentences: Ben siz-i grdm. I saw you. Ben jack-i grdm. I saw Jack. As it is seen, the pronoun "you" and the proper noun "Jack" are used without determiners in English. However, in Turkish, both "siz-i" and "Jack-i" are used with the determining suffix [] when they are in the object position. The opposite process is followed with the Turkish nouns when they are in the subject position: When we want to say the book is on the table, we do not use a defining morpheme attached to the noun kitap. The absence of this defining morpheme, however, implies that the noun is defined, so the Turkish equivalent of the book is on the table is kitap- masann stnde. The zero morpheme stands for a zero mental determiner. When a noun represents all its kind, it is not used with definers or plural morphemes in Turkish as it is done in English. In Turkish, people say Ben kitap okumay severim. In English, in the equivalent of this sentence, the plural morpheme should be used: I like reading books. This example shows us that in the Turkish sentence the word "kitap" has a plural or an all concept mentally embedded in it.. To sum up the above, we can say that no nouns or pronouns can stand without determiners in sentences. These determiners may be either separate words like "the" or "a" in English, or [i, , , u] defining allomorphs in Turkish; or they may be embedded as determining concepts in common nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns. Furthermore, the nouns that are defined or described by adjective phrases do not need such defining suffxes or words in Turkish when they are in the subject position. When we consider the following sentences, we can see how it works: The symbol S represents a sentence as a whole, which has to include all language units in it without leaving any one of them outside its composition. S I saw her. S NP + VP In this sentence, I is a Nominal Phrase that includes the determiner the embedded in it; and so is her. Saw her is a Verbal Phrase. This sentence may be one of the shortest sentences in English. The following sentences, however, are longer, but they are also composed of a Nominal Phrase and a Verbal Phrase:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
S I saw a dog that was chasing a rabbit while I was driving to Ankara.
NP NP VP VP

S The dog that was chasing the rabbit was fierce.

Just as determiners are used together with nouns, so are adverbs used around verbs to amplify their meaning by adding some important information into their function. Finally, we can say that adverbs, adverb phrases and adverb clauses are the elements of the Verbal Phrases. One important fact to add to this definition is the instability of the position of an adverb in a sentence. It may be used in the beginning, in the middle, or in the end of a sentence such as: Sometimes I met her. I sometimes met her. I met her sometimes. However, such sentences as, I met sometimes her. are not grammatical in English because such adverbs can only be used outside verb + object; not between them. The prepositional phrases such as, on the table, or in the garden may either be used as a determiner like the books on the table, or as an adverb phrase like A girl is dancing on the table. V contains verb stems like go, clean, wash,sleep, discover, eat; and besides them, one or more auxiliary verbs are used before them such as has cleaned, has been cleaning, may be cleaned, must have been cleaned. Some suffixes are also attached to a verb stem such as cleaned, clean-ing. These are all the contents of the symbol V. So, the verb stems, together with the auxiliary verbs and suffixes, convey a full concept of verb. The VP initials may also cover adverbs, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses as well as Nominal Phrases. However, when adverbs are used as intensifiers, they may also be used before adjectives and adverbs. In short, a Verbal Phrase (VP) may be composed of "NP + V" or "NP + V + Adv. In phrase structures, the plus symbol (+) is used not to show the order of words, but to show the contents of a VP. For instance, when we write VP V + NP, we do not mean that First use a verb and after it use a nominal phrase, we mean, Use a verb together with a nominal phrase. This is necessary because in some languages, like Turkish and Japanese, verbs are used after nominal phrases. Furthermore, in mathematics 5=2+3 or 5= 3+2 shows that the plus sign may not show order. At last, the arrow means that we can rewrite the previous initials as the following ones. Now, we can show how phrase structure rules of a mental sentence chain is woven and produced in any language.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Thought and language are mental faculties that are independent of one another; but they act interdependently. Thought has multiple dimensions. One stores items of thought in his mind without organizing them in a certain chain following one another. When the time comes to produce a sentence, however, these irregularly scattered items of thought are put in certain linear language molds to be produced by the speech organs. The linking bridge that transforms thought into a language is the Phrase Structure rules of the Universal Grammar. As soon as thought is directed into Phrase Structures (which are thought to be innate), they are molded into a linear system and become ready to be produced by the help of the semantic, transformational and phonological components (which are all learned) of the language-producing system of the mind. Immediately after the following abstract items of thought are transformed into the words and rules of the target language, they are materialized to be used as surface structures: INNATE SYNTACTIC ABSTRACT LEVEL S NP + VP NP D + N VP V + NP V V LEARNED SURFACE STRUCTURE S NP VP V the boy + ate an apple the + boy V + an apple ate

If we apply this rule to Turkish, we get: S ocuk - + bir elma yedi NP VP

When a determined noun is used in the subject position, a zero defining morpheme is used in Turkish. The absence of this determiner implies that the noun is defined. In other words, it means the boy. NP ocuk VP NP + V NP bir elma V yedi The above surface sentence is ocuk bir elma yedi

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
One cannot use any noun in the subject or in the object position in a sentence as one wishes. For instance, when someone tries to build up sentences like The apple ate the boy. A cat chased a dream. A letter wrote a car. Happiness cleaned the house. the semantic component in the mind simultaneously interferes and eliminates these unreasonable sentence chains. Furthermore, the ungrammatical chains, such as apple an boy the ate are also eliminated because the semantic component allows only grammatically well formed sentences to be produced. In English, the determiners "a, the, some" are words, and therefore, they are not attached to noun stems. The only exception to this rule is the plural morpheme [S], which is attached to noun stems such as toys, umbrellas and books. This is completely different in Turkish. Some determiners are used before noun stems as separate words, as they are used in English, but some others are attached to stems: bir ocuk a boy, ocuk-lar boys, retmen-ler teachers, retmen-i the teacher, retmenler-i the teachers. In this book, hyphens (-) are inserted between stems and suffixes (allomorphs); they do not separate syllables. Syllables are separated by asterisks (*). For example, in kalem-i, the suffix [i] is separated from the noun stem kalem by a hyphen, but when syllables are separated, asterisks are used as they are used in (ka*le*mi). The syllables printed in bold types show the primarily stressed syllables in speech. In English grammars, the plural s suffix is not considered as a defining suffix because it is not a word like the or a, but when its function is considered, we can say that it defines whether a noun is either singular or plural. Furthermore, the existence or nonexistence of a plural morpheme attached to a noun or embedded in plural pronouns, such as we, you,they influence the verb form. So, we can write the boy as D + N and the boy-s as D + N + D. This is necessary because a plural morpheme effects the auxiliary verb forms, such as, are, have, and write-writes, etc. The plural forms of such verbs have to be used when a plural suffix is attached to nouns. There are some irregular plural noun forms in English: men, women, children, mice, etc. These plural nouns can be considered as plural concepts embedded in nouns. The concept D has to be extended to cover optional elements as well; such as the phrase in the garden, or the clauses, who are in the garden or who are playing in the garden. So, the phrases like the boys in the gar-

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
den or the boys who are playing in the garden, which are transformed sentences, can be formulated as: D+N+D+D: the =D, boy= N, s= D, who are playing in the garden = D. the boys who are playing in the garden (D+N+D+D) is a syntactic component that can occupy the places of nouns or pronouns in a sentence. Such constituents may be called syntactic nouns because they are shaped by the transformational component in order to be used in Nominal Phrases. The function of these units in sentences is nominal. How simple sentences are transformed into adverb clauses or syntactic adverbs will be explained in the adverb clauses section. Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses are the components of Verbal Phrases when they modify verbs. These adverbial components may be used in different parts of sentences. In Turkish, all the above auxiliary verbs and suffxes are morphemes attached to verb stems following one another. While this suffixation is being carried on, the morphemes are changed into their allomorphs as a result of the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish language, which will be described in detail in the following chapters. Some fundamental adverbial concepts such as time, place, cause, reason, wish, condition, contrast, manner or politeness, etc. are triggered by mental stimuli to be expressed in an ongoing sentence production. While this process is going on, simple sentences are transformed into dependent adverb clauses (syntactic adverbs) containing the above semantic concepts.

THE TURKISH GRAMMAR

After the above short survey of the universal Transformational Generative Grammar (with some interpretations of my own), we can begin with the sound system of The Turkish language. Turkish has 29 letters in its alphabet. Some of these letters / o, u, a, / and / , , e, i / are vowels, and the others / b, c, , d, f, g, , h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, , t, v, y, z / are consonants. All the above letters represent phonemes, that is why they are shown between / / signs. Phonemics is not interested in detailed phonetic differences. Some of the vowels / , , / do not exist in English. They are pronounced: // as in English again; // as in German schn; and // as in German htte respectively. Among the consonants, there are the / , , / phonemes, which are pronounced as ch as in church, sh as in fish; and to produce the //

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
phoneme, which does not exist in English, first produce /g/ phoneme and make it longer by letting your breath pass between your tongue and the hard palate of your mouth while vibrating your vocal cords.

THE TURKISH VOWEL AND CONSONANT HARMONY

Turkish is said to be an agglutinative language, which means suffixes are attached to stems one following the other in a row to arrange words. In order to understand how these suffix chains are formed, one should understand the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish language before one begins to attach suffixes to stems and to the suffixes following them. THE VOWEL HARMONY To produce a vowel harmony sequence, a Turkish speaker follows two certain harmony chains: 1. The hard vowel harmony chain. 2. The thin vowel harmony chain. 1. The hard vowel harmony chain is o u a

2. The thin vowel harmony chain is e i In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and // never repeat themselves. The other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow () points to the vowel that will follow the previous one. The arrows (), pointing to both directions, show that /i/ may follow /e/; or /e/ may follow /i/. In the hard vowel harmony chain, /a/ and // do the same. Furthermore, besides the arrows, the letters r are put under repeatable vowels to complete our formulas: 1.The hard vowel harmony chain: 2. The thin vowel harmony chain: o ur ar r r er ir

As one can see, the two formulas look exactly like one another. All the words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony chain. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these chains; but the suffixes attached to them follow the vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one can build up meaningless words made up of only vowels following the two vowel chains: o*u*u*a**a*, o*a**a, **e*e*i, *e*i*e For instance:

21

TURKISH GRAMMAR
kom*u*ya (o*u*a); kom*u*lar*dan (o*u*a*a); o*lu*tur*duk*la*r*mz*dan (o*u*u*u*a***a); o*ku*la (o*u*a); ten*ce*re*ye (e*e*e*e) One can make up Turkish meaningless vowel chains as many as possible using the above vowel chains. I advise those who are interested in learning Turkish to make up vowel chains like the chains above, and repeat them loudly again and again. In doing so, they can memorize the Turkish vowel harmony chains easily and soundly as they learn a piece of music. When they repeat them, they may even feel and sound as if they were speaking Turkish. As it has been mentioned before, borrowed words do not follow the vowel harmony chains, but the last syllables of these words are attached to suffixes in accordance with the vowel harmony rules: patates-ler-i (pa*ta*tes*le*ri) the potatoes; televizyon-u (te*le*viz*yo*nu) the television; mandalina-/y/ (man*da *li* na*/y/) the tangerine; sigara-/y/ (si*ga*ra*/y/) the cigarette. -

The /y/ phonemes used above are glides (phonemes) inserted between two vowels to help them to pass the voice from one vowel to the following one smoothly and harmoniously. One more thing to add to the explanation above is that the words that are formed of two separate words do not follow the above vowel harmony chains: kahverengi (kahve + rengi) brown; buzdolab (buz + dolab) refrigerator; bilgisayar (bilgi + sayar) computer; tavanaras (tavan + aras) attic. Besides the above vowel harmony rules, there are three more essential vowel rules to consider: 1.The verb stems ending with vowels drop these vowels when they are attached to the allomorphs of [YOR]. These vowels are double underlined: bekle-iyor bekliyor; bala-yor balyor; anla-yor anlyor; gizle-iyor gizliyor; oku-uyor okuyor; atla-yor atlyor ye-iyor yiyor; gzle-iyor gzlyor; gizle-iyor gizliyor 2. When the last syllables of the noun stems, the verb stems, and the inflectional morphemes end with vowels, the first vowels of the morphemes following them drop. For example, when the /i/ in the [im] allomorph drop, only the /m/ phoneme is attached to anne: "anne-im "annem. The dropped vowels are double underlined:

22

TURKISH GRAMMAR
anne-in annen; tarla-m tarlam; araba-nz arabanz; kafa-n kafan; git-ti-in gittin; bekle-di-ik bekledik; gl-d-k gldk; yakala-d-m yakaladm; git-me-im gitmem; al-ma-m al-mam; temiz-le-in-mek temizlenmek; dinle-ir misin? dinler misin?; ol-sa-m olsam. (All the double underlined vowels drop.) 3. Sometimes the second rule above becomes inapplicable to avoid the change of meaning in the suffixed word. For instance, when we attach the allomorph [z] to the word oku-ma without the /y/ glide, it becomes oku-maz. If we drop the // phoneme, the word becomes (o*ku*maz), which means He doesnt read. But if a /y/ glide is put between [ma] and [z], the word becomes o*ku*ma*/y/z, which means We dont read. Therefore, in the following suffixation the first vowels of the personal suffixes do not drop, but the /y/ glides are used instead: oku-ma-/y/z okumayz; gel-me-/y/iz gelmeyiz; bala-/y/m balaym THE CONSONANT HARMONY Consonants are grouped into two subdivisions: voiced consonants: / b, c, d, g, , j, y, l, m, n, r, v, z / unvoiced consonants: / , f, k, p, s, , t / The voiced consonants are the phonemes that are produced by vibrating the vocal cords while the breath is passing through the throat. To understand this voiced and unvoiced difference, first produce /v/ phoneme, which vibrates the vocal cords in your throat, and then, without changing the position of your teeth and lips, produce the same sound without vibrating the vocal cords to produce the unvoiced /f/. In doing this, you feel no vibration in your throat. The consonants that vibrate the vocal cords are named voiced consonants; the unvoiced consonants do not vibrate them. By the way, one should keep in mind that all vowels and voiced consonants vibrate the vocal cords. The vowels and the voiced consonants, which vibrate the vocal cords, are called vocals. Only the unvoiced consonants do not vibrate them. In Turkish, the voiced consonants are called "yumuak sessizler" and the unvoiced consonants are called "sert sessizler". Some "unvoiced consonants" turn into their "voiced counterparts" when the suffixes starting with vowels are attached to noun stems: /p/ changes into /b/: kitap (kitab, kitaba), sebep (sebebi, sebebe), kebap (kebab, kebaba), orap (orab, oraba), dolap (dolab, dolaba), arap (arab, araba), hesap (hesab, hesaba). // changes into /c/: aa (aac, aaca), saya (sayac, sayaca), ama (amac, amaca), ayra (ayrac, ayraca), deme (demeci, demece), kazan (kazanc, kazanca), tmle (tmleci, tmlece).

23

TURKISH GRAMMAR
/k/ changes into //: sokak (soka, sokaa), tabak (taba, tabaa), krek (k-rei, kree), bebek (bebei, bebee), kpek (kpei,kpee), ayak (aya, ayaa), bardak (barda, bardaa), kabak (kaba, kabaa), soluk (soluu, solu-a), yrek (yrei, yree). /t/ changes into /d/: adet (adedi, adede), kanat (kanad, kanada), st (sd, sde), umut (umu:du, umu:da), yourt (yourdu, yourda), armut (armudu, armuda). The allomorphs of [N][in, n, n, un] also undergo the same changes when they are attached to noun stems: kitap-n (kitabn), sebep-in (sebebin), kebap-n (kebabn), orap-n (orabn), aa-n (aacn), ama-n (amacn), sokak-n (sokan), krek-in (kre-in), bebek-in (bebein), ayak-n (ayan), kanat-n (kanadn), yourt-un (yourdun). However, some /t/ phonemes do not change: Hayat (ha*ya:*t), (ha*ya:*ta), (ha*ya:*tn); sanat (san*a*t), (san*a*ta), (san*a*tn); sfat (s*fa*t), (s*fa*ta), (s*fa*tn); saat (sa*a*ti), (sa*a*te), sa*a*tin); sepet (se*pe*ti), (se*pe*te), (se*pe*tin); glet (g*le*ti, g*le*te, g*le*tin); demet (de*me*ti), (de*me*te), (de*me*tin). The monosyllabic stems ending with unvoiced consonants do not change when they get the [], [E], [DE], [DEN] and [personal] morphemes. ek (eki, eke, ekte, ekten, ekin), sap (sap, sapa, sapta, saptan, sapn), ip (ipi, ipe, ipte, ipten, ipin), hap (hap, hapa, hapta, haptan, hapn), tp (tp, tpe, tpte, tpten, tpn), top (topu, topa, topta, toptan, topun), sa (sa, saa, sata, atan, san), i (ii, ie, ite, iten, iin), g (g, ge, gte, gten, gn), ma (ma, maa, mata, matan, man), kk (kk, kke, kkte, kkten, kkn), ok (oku, oka, okta, oktan, okun ), yk ( yk, yke, ykte, ykten, ykn), krk (krk, krke, krkte, krkn), Trk (Trk, Trke, Trkte, Trkten, Trkn), at (at, ata, atta, attan, atn), et (eti, ete, ette, etten, etin), st (st, ste, stte, stten, stn), ot (otu, ota, otta, ottan,otun), kart (kart, karta, kartta, karttan, kartn). However, the final phonemes of some monosyllabic nouns do change when they are attached only to [i, , , u], [e, a] and [in, n, n, un] allomorphs; they do not change when they are attached to the allomorphs of the phonemes of [DE] and [DEN]: but (budu, buda, budun, butta, buttan), dip (dibi, dibe, dibin, dipte, dipten), ok (ou, oa, oun, okta, oktan), gk (g, ge, gn, gkte, gkten), kap (kab, kaba, kabn, kapta, kaptan), u (ucu, uca, ucun, uta, utan), yurt (yurdu, yurda, yurdun, yurtta, yurttan), kurt (kurdu, kurda, kurdun, kurtta, kurttan), tat (tad, tada, tadn, tatta, tattan).

24

TURKISH GRAMMAR
When [] or [E] vowel morphemes come after the nouns ending with vowels, the /y/ linking phonemes (glides) are inserted between these two vowels to maintain the harmonious connection: testi (tes*ti*/y/i, tes*ti*/y/e); araba (araba/y/, araba/y/a); tarla (tarla/y/, tarla/y/a); salata (salata/y/, salata/y/a); mart (mart/y/, mart/y/a); tava (tava/y/, tava/y/a); teneke (teneke/y/I, teneke/y/e); makara (makara/y/, makara/y/a); kundura (kundura/y/, kundura/y/a); kafa (kafa/y/, kafa/y/a); su (su/y/u, su/y/a). When the nouns ending with vowels are attached to the allomorphs of [N], which are used in possessor + possessed noun compounds, the /n/ glides are inserted between the two vowels: araba (araba-/n/n) (a*ra*ba*nn), testi (testi-/n/in) (tes*ti*nin), tarla (tarla-/n/n) (tar*la*nn), salata (salata-/n/n) (sa*la*ta*nn), tava (tava-/n/n) (ta*va*nn), tavan (tavan-n) (ta*va*nn), kafa (kafa-/n/n) (ka*fa*nn), makara (makara-/n/n) (ma*ka*ra*nn), mart (mart-/n/n) (mar*t*nn), ekmece (ekmece-/n/in) (ek*me*ce*nin), bilmece (bilmece-/n/in) (bil*me* ce*nin), kayg (kayg-/n/n) (kay*g*nn) When pronouns are used in the possessor position, only the o pronoun is attached to un possessor suffix together with the /n/ glide as those of the nouns: ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un, biz-im, siz-in, onlar-n Exception: su (su/y/un). Example: araba-/n/n hz-, su-/y/un hz-.

MORPHEMES and ALLOMORPHS

In linguistics, morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful language units. For instance, the word um*brel*la has three syllables. None of these three syllables are significant units by themselves; they have sense only when they are used together. So, these three syllables form a single shortest meaningful unit together, and consequently, umbrella is both a morpheme and a word. Such words are called free morphemes. However, although the suffixes are also the smallest meaningful units, they do not convey any sense unless they are attached to stems. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.

25

TURKISH GRAMMAR
All the words have stems like open, clean, beauty, success, white, book, etc. To these stems some morphemes (suffixes or prefixes) are attached. For instance, open-ed, clean-ed, success-ful, beauti-ful, soft-en, teach-er , ir-respons-ible, un-count-able, un-necessari-ly, go-ing, etc. As one can see, there are two kinds of suffxes and prefixes in the given examples. Some of these morphemes change the meaning and the part of speech they belong with when they are attached to different stems; some others, only help to use these stems in different sections of sentences without changing their stem meanings. A morpheme that changes the meaning of a stem is called a derivational morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not change the meaning of a stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (ekim eki). Both the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. Some morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation variants that bear the same meaning. For example, in English, when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun book, it is pronounced as /s/; in boy-s as /z/, and in box-es as /iz/. As they are the different pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named as the allomorphs of the morpheme [S]. There are a lot more morphemes and their allomorphs in Turkish than there are in English. This is because bound morphemes undergo some vowel and consonant changes according to the vowel and consonant rules of the Turkish language when they are attached to stems and to one another, and this process causes different allomorphs to arise.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES and their ALLOMORPHS Yapm Ekleri

Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the meaning and the part of speech of a stem used in a sentence: MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUN STEMS TO PRODUCE NOUNS [C] allomorphs: [ci, c, c, cu, i, , , u] When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels and voiced consonants) are attached to the allomorphs of [C], they take [ci, c, c, cu] allomorphs; but when they are attached to nouns ending with unvoiced consonants (sert sessizler), they take [i, , , u] allomorphs: peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-c (postman), zm-c (grapes seller), turu-cu (pickles seller), sepet-i (basket maker), balk- (fisherman), st (milkman), ok-u (archer), a- (cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci

26

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(coffee seller), saat-i (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-c (furniture seller), kaak- (smuggler), musluk-u (plumber), yaban-c (foreigner), iek-i (florist), yol-cu (traveler), sanat- (artist), gz-c (watch, watchman), szc (spokesman), politika-c (politician), milliyet-i (nationalist), di-i (dentist), kira-c (tenant), ark-c (singer), brek-i (someone who sells pies), boya-c (painter), demir-ci (blacksmith). [LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk] meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept), kitap-lk (bookcase), gz-lk (eyeglasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), az-lk (cigarette holder), kulak-lk (headphones), aydan-lk (tea pot), mezar-lk (graveyard), eker-lik (a bowl in which candies are kept), okevli-lik (polygamy), tuz-luk (saltshaker), ocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lk (farce, foolery), soytar-lk (clowning), dost-luk (friendship), dman-lk (enmity). [C-LK] allomorphs: [cilik, clk, clk, culuk, ilik, lk, lk, uluk] av-clk (hunting), meyve-cilik (selling fruit), n-clk (leadership), yol-culuk (traveling), a-lk (cooking), fal-clk (fortune telling), tefe-cilik (usury), iek-ilik (selling flowers), if-ilik (farming), hava-clk (aviation), balk-lk (fishing). [CK] allomorphs: [cik, ck,ck,

cuk, ik, k, k, uk] (diminutive)

ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutucuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck (little woman). [CEIZ] allomorphs: [ceiz, caz, eiz, az] (innocence) kedi-ceiz (innocent cat), kz-caz (innocent girl), hayvan-caz (innocent animal), kpek-eiz (innocent dog), ku-az (innocent bird). [CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a] ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Russian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese), Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek) MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUN STEMS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES

[L] allomorphs: [li, l, l, lu]

ev-li (married), ocuk-lu (with children), emsiye-li (with an umbrella), bahe-li ev (house with a garden), iyah ceket-li adam (the man in a black

27

TURKISH GRAMMAR
coat), kr-mz-l kadn (the woman in red), grg-l (having good manners, polite), i-ek-li aa (a tree in blossom), yamur-lu (rainy), kar-l (snowy), sis-li (foggy, misty), gnes-li (sunny), bulut-lu (cloudy), tuz-lu (salty), at-l (man on horseback), istek-li (willing), becerik-li (skillful), amur-lu (muddy), hesap-l (economical), sayg-l (respectful), su-lu (criminal), hata:-l (faulty), tat-l (sweet), mayo-lu (in a bathing suit), st-l (with milk, milky), paha-l (expensive), ta kafa-l (stone headed), Adana-l (from Adana), srek-li (continuous), hiddet-li (outrageous), kl-l (hairy), bilin-li (intentional, conscious), zarar-l (harmful), tehlike-li (dangerous), phe-li (suspicious, suspect), yer-li (native), iki bacak-l (two legged), kanat-l (winged), kayg-l (anxious), mit-li (hopeful), gerek-li (necessary), yetenek-li (talented), bam-l (addicted, dependent), silah-l (armed), renkli (colored), kr-l (profitable), zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), nee-li (joyful), ku-sur-lu (faulty), grlt-l (noisy), deer-li (precious), gerek-li (necessary), dnce-li (thoughtful), yrek-li (brave), ayrnt-l (detailed), sorum-lu (responsible), mantk-l (rational), g-l (strong), rt-l (covered), his-li (sensitive), hrs-l (ambitious), hz-l (fast), tertip-li (tidy), tuz-lu (salty), buz-lu (icy), amur-lu (muddy), kir-li (dirty), pasak-l (untidy), korku-lu (frightening, scary), hak-l (right, fair), kast-l (intentional), hesap-l (economical), meme-li (mammal), tecrbe-li, deneyim-li (experienced), falso-lu (erroneous), kasvet-li (gloomy, doleful), kuku-lu (dubious, suspicious), onur-lu, gurur-lu (proud), dayank-l (durable).

[SZ] allomorphs: [siz, sz, sz, suz]

annes-siz (motherless), leke-siz (stainless), kayg-sz (without anxiety), korku-suz (fearless), istek-siz (unwilling), yamur-suz (rainless), aa-sz (treeless), defo-suz (flawless), uyku-suz (sleepless), bilin-siz (unconscious), karar-sz (hesitant), sorum-suz (irresponsible), dikkat-siz (careless), ama-sz (aimless), kalp-siz (heartless), yrek-siz (timid), nee-siz (ne*e*siz) (sad), mit-siz, umut-suz (desperate, hopeless), taban-sz (timid), sayg-sz (disrespectful), mantk-sz (irrational), temel-siz (unsound, baseless), renk-siz (colorless), gerek-siz (unnecessary), bam-sz (independent), perva:-sz (reckless), kafa-sz (stupid), sevgi-siz (loveless), terbiye-siz (impolite, rude), grg-sz (impolite), becerik-siz (incompetent), imkn-sz (impossible), karar-sz (hesitant), deer-siz (worthless), ses-siz (silent), eker-siz (without sugar), gerek-siz (unnecessary), dnce-siz (thoughtless), sorum-suz (irresponsible), mesnet-siz (baseless), tasa-sz (carefree), ahlk-sz (immoral), yz-sz (impudent), huy-suz (perverse), akl-sz (foolish), dayanak-sz (baseless), dayank-sz (not durable), duygu-suz (senseless), kusur-suz (faultless), ta:lih-siz (unfortunate), kymet-siz (worthless). [SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal] bilim-sel (scientific), evren-sel (universal), deney-sel (experimental, empirical), yzey-sel (superficial), duygu-sal (emotional, sensational), sanat-sal (artistic), yap-sal (structural), gelenek-sel (traditional), dn-sel (mental),

28

TURKISH GRAMMAR
tarih-sel (historical), tarih (historic), kavram-sal (conceptual), kimya-sal (chemical), fizik-sel (physical), ant-sal (monumental), yaam-sal (vital), din-sel (religious), ulus-sal (u*lu*sal) (national), evre-sel (environmental), kalt-sal (hereditary), onur-sal (honorary), bitki-sel (herbal), hayvan-sal (zoological), tarm-sal (agricultural), us-sal (us*sal) (mental, rational), tanrsal (divine, celestial), yrnge-sel (orbital), kurum-sal (institutional, corporate), kamu-sal (public), kre-sel (global, spherical), kr-sal (rural), rgtsel (organizational), toplum-sal (social, common), belge-sel (documental), kurgu-sal (fictional), ruh-sal (psychological), beden-sel (corporal). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVE STEMS TO PRODUCE NOUNS

[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk]

iyi-lik (favor), scak-lk (temperature), zgr-lk (freedom), uzun-luk (length), geni-lik (width), gzel-lik (beauty), irkin-lik (ugliness), drstlk (honesty), aptal-lk (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage), baya-lk (meanness), iyimser-lik (optimism), ktmser-lik (pessimism), uak-lk (servitude), yalnz-lk (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality), kahraman-lk (heroism), vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lk (rudeness), duygusal-lk (sensitivity), dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), retken-lik (productivity), kresel-lik (globalism), aalk kompleksi (inferiority complex), arsz-lk (impudence), geve-ze-lik (chattering), dncesiz-lik (inconsiderateness), mutsuz-luk (unhappiness), a-lk (hunger, starvation), g-lk (difficulty), saydam-lk (transparency), utanga-lk (shyness), uzak-lk (distance), yakn-lk (closeness, sympathy), kstah-lk (insolence), kurak-lk (drought), rkek-lik (shyness), ser-sem-lik (dizziness), hovarda-lk (debauchery), alkan-lk (addiction). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERB STEMS TO PRODUCE NOUNS

[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]
diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain), yaz- (ya*z) (script, text), l- (l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense), gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k) (jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t) (scales), art- (ar*t) (plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru) (question), rt- (r*t) (any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework), yet-i (ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l) (corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma, perfume), bl- (b*l) (slash mark), diz-i (di*zi) (serial, string, sequence).

[M] allomorphs: [im, m, m, um]

se-im (se*im) (election), al-m (a*lm) (purchase), l-m (*lm) (death), yk-m (y*km) (disaster, demolition), yut-um (yu*dum) (gulp), ek-im

29

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(e*kim) (October), ak-m (a*km) (current), ret-im (*re*tim) (production), yaa-m (ya*am) (life), geli-im (ge*li*im) (improvement), kar-m (ka*r*m) (mixture), dn-m (d*n*m) (transformation), ek-im (e*kim) (attraction), geril-im (ge*ri*lim) (tension), tasar-m (ta*sa*rm) (plan), kavra-m (kav*ram) (concept), denkle-im (denk*lem) (equation), ekle-im (ek*lem) (joint), tket-im (t*ke*tim) (consumption), yakla-m (yak*la*m) (approach), benze-im (ben*ze*im) (similarity, resemblance), ileti-im (i*le*ti*im) (communication), bili-im (bi*li*im) (informatics), de/y/im (de*yim) (expression, idiom), say-m (sa*ym) (census), giy-im (gi*yim) (clothing), z-m (*zm) (solution), ky-m (k*ym) (massacre), al-m (a**lm) (expansion), yatr-m (ya*t*rm) (investment), al-m satm (a*lm sa*tm) (buying and selling, trade, commerce), giy-im (gi*yim) (attire), salk-m (sal*km) (bunch), bir salkm zm (a bunch of grapes).

[K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk, ek, ak]

del-ik (de*lik) (hole), art-k (ar*tk) (left over), ksr-k (k*s*rk) (cough), tkr-k (t*k*rk) (spit, saliva), aksr-k (ak*s*rk) (sneeze), bula-k (bu*la*k) (dirty dishes), kayna-k (kay*nak) (source, spring, origin), belleik (bel*lek) (memory), yat-ak (ya*tak) (bed), ka-ak (ka*ak) (escaped), kes-ek (ke*sek) (a lump of earth), u-ak (u*ak) (airplane), dur-ak (du*rak) (stop, bus stop), tara-k (ta*rak) (comb), yama-k (ya*mak) (apprentice), sa-ak (sa*ak) (fringe), de-ik (d-ek) (mattress), kapa-k (ka*-pak) (lid), e-ik (e*ik) (threshold), l-ek (l*ek) (criterion, scale), dene-ik (de*nek) (experimental subject, object or animal), tekerle-ik (te*ker*lek) (wheel), dayan-ak (da*ya*nak) (support), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski). The double underlined vowels drop.

[G] allomorphs: [gi, g, g, gu, ki, k, k, ku]

sev-gi (love, affection), al-g (music instrument), sr-g (bolt), sor-gu (interrogation), bas-k (pressure), as-k (hanger), r-g (knitting), gr-g (good manners), dol-gu (filling), ver-gi (tax), et-ki (impression), sar-g (bandage), ser-gi (exhibition), ez-gi (melody), sez-gi (intuition), say-g (respect), yanl-g (mistake), vur-gu (accent, stress), kur-gu (abstract thoughts, speculation), yer-gi (satire), der-gi (periodical, magazine), yar-g (judgment), yaz-g (fate, destiny), ol-gu (fact), duy-gu (sensation), i-ki (alcoholic beverage, drink), at-k (scarf), et-ki (impression, stimulus), kat-k (aid, help, addi-tive), gr-g (experience, good manners), kork-ku (fright) (The double un-derlined "k" drops.), yet-ki (authority), co-ku (excitement), tep-ki (response, reaction), al-g (perception), sal-g (secretion), tut-ku (passion), keski (chisel), tut-ku (ambition, passion). All the last syllables of the above Turkish words are stressed

[C] allomorphs: [ici, c, c, ucu]

dinle-/y/ici (din*le*yi*ci) (listener), sat-c (sa*t*c) (seller), yz-c (y*z*c) (swimmer), ko-ucu (ko*u*cu) (runner), bl-c (b*l*c) (separa-

30

TURKISH GRAMMAR
tist), tara-/y/c (ta*ra*y*c) (scanner), al-c (a*l*c) (receiver), bak-c (ba*k*c) (companion), bebek bakcs (baby sitter), tut-ucu (tu*tu*cu) (conservative).

[ECEK] allomorphs: [ecek, acak]

sil-ecek (si*le*cek) (wiper), gel-ecek (ge*le*cek) (future), a-acak (a*a*cak) (opener), ek-ecek (e*ke*cek) (shoehorn), yak-acak (ya*ka*cak) (fuel).

[MEK] allomorphs: [mek, mak]

ye-mek (meal), ak-mak (lighter), ek-mek (bread), kay-mak (cream)

[ME] allomorphs: [me, ma]

dondur-ma (ice cream), dol-ma (green peppers, eggplants or marrows stuffed with mince, rice, etc.), kavur-ma (fried pieces of meat), hala-ma (boiled meat), dene-me (essay), dv-me (tattoo), as-ma (vine), kaz-ma (pickax). The last syllables of the above words are stressed. [K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk] kes-ik (ke*sik) (cut), k-k (*kk) (dislocated joint), yar-k (ya*rk) (slash), iz- ik (i*zik) (scratch), r-k (*rk) (decay), sar-k (sa*rk) (turban), kaz-k (ka*zk) (stake, unreasonably expensive), yrt-k (yr*tk) (tear), del-ik (de*lik) (hole).

[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca]

dn-ce (d*n*ce) (thought), elen-ce (e*len*ce) (entertainment), bilme-ce (bil*me*ce) (riddle, word puzzle), dzme-ce (dz*me*ce) (lie, fake), ekme-ce (ek*me*ce) (drawer), glme-ce (gl*me*ce) (comedy). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERB STEMS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES

[C] allomorphs: [ici, c, c, ucu]

del-ici (de*li*ci) (piercing), kal-c (ka*l*c) (lasting), sars-c (sar*s*c) (shocking), yarat-c (ya*ra*t*c) (creative), bula-c (bu*la**c) (contagious), art-c (a*r*t*c) (confusing), yak-c (ya*k*c) (burning), t-c (**t*c) (grinding), tazele-/y/ici (ta*ze*le*yi*ci) (refreshing), it-ici (i*ti*ci) (repulsive), aldat-c (al*da*t*c) (deceptive), z-c (*z*c) (saddening), doyur-ucu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfying), ge-ici (ge*i*ci) (temporary), ez-ici ounluk (overwhelming majority), sat-c (sa*t*c) (salesman), yk-c (y*k*c) (destructive, devastating), koru-/y/ucu (ko*ru*yu*cu) (protective), kr-c (k*r*c) (offensive).

31

TURKISH GRAMMAR [K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk]

a-k (a*k) (open), kr-k (k*rk) (broken), bat-k (ba*tk) (sunken), g-k (g*k) (collapsed), del-ik (de*lik) (pierced, hole), ez-ik (e*zik) (mashed), e-ik (e*ik) (bent), r-k (*rk) (decayed), art-k (ar*tk) (left over), ka-k (ka*k) (silly), atla-k (at*lak) (cracked), ka-ak (ka*ak) (escaped). ek-ik (e*kik) (slanting), k-k (*kk) (dislocated joint). Note:The double underlined vowels drop and the last syllables are stressed.

[KN] allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]
se-kin (se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn (astonished), ili-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), pi-kin (well done, impudent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce), dz-gn (smooth), ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin (discouraged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack (noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stagnant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original). All the last allomorphs of the above words are stressed.

[ER] allomorphs: [er, ar, ir, r, r, ur]

al-ar saat (alarm clock), ak-ar su (running water), gl-er yz (smiling face), ko-ar adm (running pace), uyu-ur gez-er (sleep walker).

[EN] allomorphs: [en, an]

ko-an (ko*an) (running), sol-an (so*lan) (fading), al-an (a*l*an) (working), yr-/y/en (y*r*/y/en) (walking), konu-an (ko*nu*an) (talking), dilimle-/y/en (di*lim*li*yen) (slicing), kes-en (ke*sen) (cutting), p-en (*p*en) (kissing), bekle-/y/en (bek*le*yen) (waiting), art-an (ar*tan) (increasing), geli-en (ge*li*en) (developing), dn-en (d*nen) (turning, circling), glmse-/y/en (g*lm*se*yen) (smiling), bala-/y/an) (ba*la*yan) (tying, connecting), bitme-/y/en (bit*me*yen) (unending). Note: The above morpheme and its allomorphs are also used in transforming simple sentences into determiner + noun compounds. Therefore, they are also inflectional suffixes.

[M] allomorphs: [mi, m, m, mu]

sol-mu (faded), dei-mi (changed), kar-m (mixed), beyazla-m (whitened), balan-m (tied, connected), ertelen-mi (postponed), kzartlm (fried), tasarlan-m (planned), ykan-m (washed), gelitiril-mi (improved), dm-len-mi (knotted), aydnlan-m (enlightened), zorlanm (forced), boan-m (divorced), unutul-mu (forgotten), rl-m (knitted), kzar-m (fried, reddened), retil-mi (produced), bayl-m,

32

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(fainted), unutulma-m (unforgotten), kayna-m (boiled), donmu (frozen). Note: The allomorphs of the morpheme [MI] are stressed. This morpheme is also used as an inflectional morpheme.

[SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal]

gr-sel (visual), uy-sal (complaisant), dn-sel (mental), iit-sel (audial). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUN STEMS TO PRODUCE VERBS

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]

el-le (el*le) (touch), ba-la (ba*la) (tie), teker-le (te*ker*le) (roll), gz-le (gz*le) (observe), kutu-la (ku*tu*la) (put in boxes), damga-la (damga-la) (stamp), tuz-la (tuz*la) (salt), leke-le (le*ke*le) (stain), tekme-le (tek*me*le) (kick), sr-g-le (sr*g*le) (bolt), ba-la (ba*la) (begin, start), dzen-le (d*-zen*le) (arrange), ya-la (ya*la) (lubricate, oil), ta-la (ta*la) (throw stones), yel-le (yel*le) (fan), denge-le (den*ge*le) (balance), sergi-le (ser*gi*le) (exhibit), ba-la (forgive), su-la (water), ka-k-la (spoon into greedily), kazk-la (cheat), yarg-la (judge), kalbur-la (sift), ila-la (apply pesticide), ak-la (acquit), kstek-le (hamper). All the [le, la] allomorphs are stressed. MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVE STEMS TO PRODUCE VERBS

[R] allomorphs: [ir, r, er,ar]

deli-ir (de*lir) (get mad), sar-ar (sa*rar) (turn yellow), kara-r (ka*rar) (blacken, darken, or get dark), mor-ar (mo*rar) (get, turn purple). Note: The double underlined vowels drop.

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]

gzel-le (get beautiful), sk-la (get oftener, get tighter), ar-la (get heavier), sar-la (get deaf), derin-le (deepen, get deeper), kaba-la (get ruder), yeil-le, yeil-len (turn green), Some adjectives like krmz may be either krmzla or kzar (get, turn red), ksa becomes ksal (get shorter), uzun becomes uza (get longer). Examples: Gnler ksalyor. Days are getting shorter. Gnler uzuyor. (*not uzayor) Days are getting longer. In Turkish, make something + adjective "Make it shorter." is expressed in an adjective + morpheme mixture which is too long to analyze in detail. Some examples may explain them easily:

33

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Uzun uzat (u*zat) Onu uzat. (Make it longer.); ksa ksalt (k*salt) Onu ksalt. (Make it shorter.); byk byt (b*yt) Onu byt. (Make it larger.); Kk klt (k*lt) Onu klt. (Make it smaller.); kara karart (ka*rart) Onu karart. (Make it darker.); derin derinletir (de*rin*le*tir) Onu derinletir. (Make it deeper.) I made him work, I had him work, I had the work done and I got him to do the work types of sentences will be explained in the following chapters. USING ADJECTIVES AS ADVERBS Nearly all adjectives in Turkish can be used as adverbs without changing their forms, for example: O iyi bir kzdr. (adjective) She is a good girl. (adjective) O iyi yzer. (adverb) She swims well. (adverb) Bu yava bir arabadr. (adjective) This is a slow car.(adjective) Bu araba yava gider. (adverb) This car goes slowly. (adverb) O gzel bir kzdr. (adjective) She is a beautiful girl. (adjective) O gzel ark syler. (adverb) She sings beautifully. (adverb) As it is seen in the examples above, no ly kind of suffix is attached to Turkish adjectives when they are used adverbially. However, when it is necessary to stress the adverb, it may be repeated: O yava yava yryor. He is walking slowly. Biz hzl hzl yrdk. We walked quickly. Onlar tenbel tembel oturuyorlar. They are sitting lazily. Arsz arsz glyordu. He was grinning impudently. Gzel gzel oynayn. Play like good children. Dont be mischievous. Onlar sk sk ziyaret ettim. I visited them frequently. Kara kara dnyordu. He was thinking hopelessly. Derin derin dnd. He thought deeply. Avaz avaz bard. She screamed. Likewise, some words produced out of imitated sounds are repeated and used in Turkish sentences as adverbs of manner, which do not exist in English. Some of these expressions and their meanings are given in the following sentences: akr akr yamur yayor. (a*kr / a*kr / ya*mur / ya**yor) It is raining cats and dogs.

34

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ml ml uyuyor. (m*l / m*l / u*yu*yor) She is sleeping soundly. Bebek tp tp yryor. (be*bek / t*p / t*p / y*r*yor) The baby is toddling. Kkr kkr glyor. (k*kr / k*kr / g*l*yor) She is giggling. Kara kara dnyor. (ka*ra / ka*ra / d**n*yor) He is thinking gloomily, Adamlar harl harl alyorlard. (a*dam*lar / ha*rl / ha*rl /a*l**yor*lar*d) The men were working like hell. Boaz Kprsnn klar geceleyin l l ldar. (bo*az / kp*r*s*nn / *k*la*r / ge*ce*le*yin / *l / *l / *l*dar ) The lights of the Bosphorus Bridge glitter at night. Beni apr upur pmesinden holanmyorum. (be*ni / a*pur / u*pur / p*me*sin*den / ho*lan*m*yo*rum ) I dont like her kissing me noisily. Televizyon seyrederken boyuna tr tr patates cipsi yiyor. (te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*der*ken / bo*yu*na / pa*ta*tes / cip*si / yi*yor) He is always crunching potato chips while watching television. Dn eve dnerken srl sklam oldum. (dn / e*ve / d*ner*ken / s*rl / sk*lam / ol*dum) I got wet through while I was coming back home yesterday. Bu sabah kalktmda lapa lapa kar yayordu. (dn / sa*bah / kalk*t*m*da / l*pa / l*pa / kar / ya**yor*du) When I woke up this morning it was snowing in large flakes. Hl horul horul uyuyor. (ha:*l: / ho*rul / ho*rul / u*yu*yor ) He is still sleeping like a top.. Kular cvl cvl tyordu. (ku*lar / c*vl / c*vl / *t*yor*du) The birds were twittering.

35

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Hapr hupur yiyordu. (ha*pr / hu*pur / yi*yor*du) He was eating greedily. Takr takr Trke konuuyor. (tak*kr / ta*kr / trk*e / ko*nu*u*yor) He speaks Turkish fluently. Hrsz sinsi sinsi odama girdi. (hr*sz / sin*si / sin*si / o*da*ma / gir*di) The thief sneaked into my room. MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUN STEMS TO PRODUCE ADVERBS le postposition (English preposition) is generally shortened and attached to nouns as [le, la] allomorphs to produce adverbs in Turkish. The equivalents of these adverbs are represented by some prepositions used before nouns or [ly] suffixes attached to adjectives in English. The examples are as follows:

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]

uak-la (u*ak*la) (by airplane), otobs-le (o*to*bs*le) (by bus), say-g/y/la (say*gy*la) (with respect), hiddet-le (hid*det*le) (in rage), sopa/y/-la (so*pay*la) (with a stick), at-la (at*la) (on horseback), acele/y/-le (a*ce*ley*le) (in a hurry), dikkat-le (dik*kat*le) (carefully, with care), (sa*br*la) (patiently, with patience), inat-la (obstinately), korku/y/-la (fearfully), itahla (greedily), hz-la (quickly), kayg-/y/la (with anxiety, anxiously), gurur-la (proudly), ac/y/-la (painfully, in pain), cesa:ret-le (bravely), nee/y/-le (cheerfully), sen(in)-le (with you), ben(im)-le (with me), onun-la (with him / her), biz(im)-le (with us), onlar-la (with them), Jack-le (with Jack), kl-la (with a sword), glk-le (with difficulty), kolaylk-la (easily), yanllk-la (by mistake), mrekkep-le (in ink), kurun ka-lem-le (in pencil), bir kurun kalem-le (with a pencil), genellik-le (generally), drstlk- le (honestly), kolaylk-la (easily, with ease), istek-le (willingly), hm-la (furiously, angrily), zen-le (carefully), zlem-le (longingly), tren-le (with ceremony). The stresses are on the syllables preceding the [le, la] allomorphs.

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES ekim Ekleri

The inflectional morphemes can also be defined as functional morphemes because they are used in weaving sentence structures as well as adding several fundamental concepts to verb stems such as time, duration, negation, possibility, certainty, inference, obligation, ability, inability, interrogation, nominalization, passivization, cooperation, etc.

36

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Besides the verb stems, nouns, pronouns, noun compounds and infinitives can take possessor + possessed and [], [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes to furnish these words with the concepts of the the definite article, and to, in, at, on, or from prepositions of the English language. THE INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS The Defining [] Morpheme and its Allomorphs [i, , , u] This morpheme functions in Turkish like the definite article the in English, but it is only used when the noun is in the object position in a sentence: Avc tavan- grd. The hunter saw the rabbit. As it is seen in the above English sentence, both hunter and rabbit have definite articles preceding them. Yet, in the Turkish sentence, only the word tavan has a defining morpheme attached to it. This example shows us that the defining [] morpheme can only be used when the definite nouns or pronouns are in the object position. When a noun is in the subject position, and it is defined, it does not need a defining morpheme [] attached to it. When the monosyllabic nouns ending with consonants are attached to the allomorphs of [], [i, , , u], their last phonemes do not change: ek-i (e*ki) (the suffix); yk- (y*k) (the load); at- (a*t) (the horse); ip-i (i*pi) (the rope); ek-i (e-ki) (the check); i-i (i*i) (the inside); ot-u (o*tu) (the grass); kk- (k*k) (the root); g- (g*) (the migration); st- (s*t) (the milk); ak- (a*k) (the love); ak- (a*k) (the white); st- (s*t) (the upper side); ad- (a*d) (the name); hap- (ha*p) (the pill); it-i (i*ti) (the dog); krk- (kr*k) (the fur); ay- (a*y) (the tea); sap- (sa*p); et-i (e*ti); sa- (sa*); ek-i (e*ki); yk- (y*k); a- (a*); tok-u (to*ku); Trk- (Tr*k) There are, however, some exceptions to the above rule: kap- (ka*b) (the cover); gk- (g*) (the sky); dert-i (der*di) (the trouble); denk-i (den*gi) (the equal); renk-i (ren*gi) (the color); tat- (ta*d) (the taste). If the nouns that have more than one syllable end with /p/, /k/, // morphemes, these unvoiced consonants change into their voiced forms /b/, //, and /c/ when they take the [i, , , u] allomorphs. These allomorphs are also used attached to the third person possessed nouns: orap- (o*ra*b) (the sock, his sock); arap- (a*ra*b) (the wine, his wine); dolap- (do*la*b) (the cupboard, her cupboard); tarak- (ta*ra*) (the comb, her comb); eek-i (e*e*i) (the donkey, his donkey); ekmek-i (ek*me*i) (the bread, his bread); yzk- (y*z*) (the ring, her ring); terlik-i (ter*li*i) (the slipper, her slipper); tfek-i (t*fe*i) (the gun, his

37

TURKISH GRAMMAR
gun); kpek-i (k*pe*i) (the dog, her dog); bebek-i (be*be*i) (the baby, her baby); yemek-i (ye*me*i) (the meal, his meal); kabak- (ka*ba*) (the marrow); gzlk- (gz*l*) (the eyeglasses); parmak- (par*ma*) (the finger); iek-i (i*e*i) (the flower); bcek-i (b*ce*i) (the insect); yasak- (ya*sa*) (the prohibition); tarak- (ta*ra*) (the comb); kllk- (kl*l*) (the ashtray); bacak- (ba*ca*) (the leg); bak- (b*a*) (the knife); bardak- (bar*da*) (the glass); delik-i (de*li*i) (the hole); akmak- (ak*ma*) (the lighter); aa- (a*a*c) (the tree); byte-i (b*y*te*ci) (the magnifier); dneme-i (d*ne*me*ci) (the corner). The polysyllabic nouns that end with the /t/ phonemes do not change them when they are suffixed with the allomorphs of the phoneme []: saat-i (sa*a*ti) (the watch or his watch); sepet-i (se*pe*ti) (the basket or his basket); demet-i (de*me*ti) (the bunch or his bunch); kasket-i (kas*ke*ti) (the cap or his cap); surat- (su*ra*t) (the face or his face). The polysyllabic nouns that end with consonants take the allomorphs of [] following the vowel harmony rules: Okul-u (o*ku*lu) (the school or his school), tavan- (ta*va*n) (the ceiling or its ceiling), orman- (or*ma*n) (the forest or his forest), kalem-i (ka*le*mi), defter-i (def*te*ri) (the notebook or his notebook), pantolon-u (pan*to*lo*nu) (the trousers or his trousers). The polysyllabic nouns that end with vowels take the /y/ glides together with the allomorphs of the morpheme []: araba-/y/ (a*ra*ba*y) (the car); pencere-/y/i (pen*ce*re*yi) (the window); kahve-/y/i (kah*ve*yi) (the coffee); testi-/y/i (tes*ti*yi) (the jug); fare-/y/i (fa:*re*yi) (the mouse); kedi/y/i (ke*di*yi) (the cat); torba-/y/ (tor*ba*y) (the sack); elma/y/ (el*ma*y) (the apple); kasaba-/y/ (ka*sa*ba*y) (the town); yk-/y/ (y*k*y) (the story); salata-/y/ (sa*la*ta*y) (the salad); mart-/y/ (mar*t*y) (the seagull); sprge-/y/i (s*pr*ge*yi) (the broom); su-/y/u (su*yu) (the water); sene-/y/i (se*ne*yi) (the year); hal-/y/ (ha*l*y) (the carpet); kamera-/y/ (ka*me*ra*y) (the camera); havlu-/y/u (hav*lu*yu) (the towel); duygu-/y/u (duy*gu*yu) (the feeling); duyu-/y/u (du*yu*yu) (the sense); poaa-/y/ (po*a*a*y) (a kind of pastry). Note: When the third person possessed allomorphs [i, , , u] are attached to the nouns ending with consonants, they take one of these allomorphs. But when they end with vowels, they take the same allomorphs together with the glide /s/: onun okul-u, onun masal-, onun ku-u, onun yk-; onun giysi-/s/i, onun hala-/s/, onun kale-/s/i, onun ke-/s/i, onun ene-/s/i. When the pronouns are considered, however, Turkish and English objective pronouns act differently from one another. In English, the pronouns me you, him, her, it, us, them; and proper nouns, Jack, Mary" and

38

TURKISH GRAMMAR
"Mehmet are never used with defining or non-defining articles, but in Turkish, contrary to English, both pronouns such as ben-i,sen-i,o-/n/u, biz-i, siz-i, onlar-, and proper nouns such as Jacki,Ahmeti, Mary-/y/i are all used with the allomorphs of [] attached to them when they are used in the object position. Common nouns, however, can be used with nondefining articles, such as; Ben dn bahede bir tavan grdm I saw a rabbit in the garden yesterday. Turkish pronouns ben, sen, o, biz, siz, onlar; proper nouns, such as Jack, George, Ahmet, Mehmet; and common nouns, avc, balk, avclar, balklar, ocuk, ocuklar are never used with defining [i, , , u] allomorphs when they are in the subject position. However, in English, common nouns such as the hunter, the hunters, the boy, the boys, etc. can all be used with definite articles when they are in the subject position. The indefinite articles like "bir" (a, an) and "baz" (some) are used as they are used in English. For instance, Bir avc ormanda bir tavan grd. A hunter saw a rabbit in the forest. Compare the following sentences: O ben-i grd. She saw me. Ben onlar- grdm. I saw them. Biz Jack-i grdk. We saw Jack. Avc tavan- grd. The hunter saw the rabbit. ocuklar geldi. The children have arrived. The indefinite articles, such as the ones in the following examples, bir avc, tm avclar, baz avclar are the equivalents of a hunter, all hunters, and some hunters respectively. Avclar-dan baz-lar-, baz-mz, baz-lar--mz, baz-lar--nz, baz-lar- are the equivalents of some of the hunters, some of us, some of you and some of them. As in all suffixes, one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs are attached to definite nouns or pronouns following the vowel harmony rules when they are in the object position: ev-i (e*vi) (the house); et-i (e*ti) (the meat); arslan- (ars*la*n) (the lion); okul-u (o*ku*lu) (the school); telefon-u (te*le*fo*nu) (the telephone); televizyon-u (te*le*viz*yo*nu) (the television); ben-i (be*ni) (me); sen-i (se*ni) (you); o-/n/u (o*nu) (him, her, it); biz-i (bi*zi) (us); siz-i (si*zi) (you); o/n/lar- (on*la*r) (them), tm avclar- (tm /av*c*la*r) (all the hunters), bazlarmz (ba*z*la*r*mz) (some of us), bazlarmz- (ba*z*la*r*m*z) (some of us), hepimiz (he*pi*miz) (all of us), hepimiz-i (he*pi*mi*zi) (all of us), hepiniz (he*pi*niz) (all of you), hepiniz-i (he*pi*ni*zi) (all of you), baz-lar- (ba:*z*la*r) (some of them), bazlar-/n/ (ba:*z*la*r*n) (some of them), kim-i (ki*mi) (who, whom). If noticed, some English expressions are the same when they are in the subject or in the object position: Some of us did not understand the lesson. Bazlarmz dersi anlamad.

39

TURKISH GRAMMAR
The teacher wanted to see some of us. retmen bazlarmz- grmek istedi. All of us were eager to go to the concert. Hepimiz konsere gitmeye istekliydik. The teacher punished all of us. retmen hepimiz-i cezalandrd. Consider and compare the Turkish sentences with the English ones: Baz renciler dn okula gelmedi. (ba: *z / *ren*ci*ler / dn / o*ku*la / gel*me*di) Some students didnt come to school yesterday. rencilerden bazlar dn okula gelmedi. (*ren*ci*ler*den / ba:*z*la*r / dn / o*ku*la / gel*me*di) Some of the students didnt come to school yesterday. retmen rencilerden bazlar-/n/ grmek istedi. (*ret*men ~/ *ren*ci*ler*den / ba:*z*la*r*n / gr*mek / is*te*di) The teacher wanted to see some of the students. retmen, bazlarmz- grmek istedi. (*ret*men~ / ba:*z*la*r*m*z / gr*mek / is*te*di) The teacher wanted to see some of us. . Note: The (~) sign shows a sustained juncture (duraklama aral) in a sentence. The syllables printed in bold type show the primarily stressed syllables, and the syllables printed in italics show the secondarily stressed ones. The primarily stressed syllables are far more important for the learners of Turkish. Therefore, they may ignore the secondarily stressed syllables until they reach an advanced level. If a noun stem or an infinitive ends with a vowel, the /y/ glide is inserted between the vowel and the allomorphs of the morpheme [] to maintain the harmonious link between the successive vowels: araba-/y/, anta-/y/, testi-/y/i, kaya-/y/, trk-/y/, konuma-/y/, bekleme-/y/i, uma-/y/, szleme-/y/i, sevilme-/y/i, tartma-/y/, alama-/y/ If a noun stem ends with /k/, it changes into its voiced counterpart // when it is attached to one of the allomorphs of the morpheme []: tfek-i (t*fe*i) (the gun); kpek-i (k*pe*i) (the dog); bebek-i (be*be*i) (the baby); eek-i (e*e*i) (the donkey); yemek-i (ye*me*i) (the meal); ka-bak- (ka*ba*) (the marrow); gzlk- (gz*l*) (the eyeglasses); parmak- (par*ma*) (the finger); iek-i (i*e*i) (the flower); bcek-i (b*ce*i) (the insect); yasak- (ya*sa*) (the prohibition); tarak- (ta*ra*) (the comb); ek-mek-i (ek*me*i) (the bread); kllk- (kl*l*) (the ashtray); bacak- (ba*ca*) (the leg); bak- (b*a*) (the knife); bardak- (bar*da*) (the glass); delik-i (de*li*i) (the hole); ak-mak- (ak*ma*)

40

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(the lighter); yzk- (y*z*) (the ring); kak- (ka**) (the spoon); ocuk-u (o*cu*u) (the child) The noun stems ending with /p, t, / phonemes also change into their voiced counterparts /b, d, c/ respectively: kebap- (ke*ba*b) (the kebap); kasap- (ka*sa*b) (the butcher); aa- (a* a*c) (the tree); t- (**d) (the advice); orap- (o*ra*b) (the sock); sebep-i (se*be*bi) (the reason) However, most nouns ending with /t/ phonemes do not change: saat-i (sa*a*ti) (the watch); sanat- (san*a*t) (the art); hayat- (ha*ya:*t) (the life); demet-i (de*me*ti) (the bunch); kabahat-i (ka*ba*ha*ti) (the fault); sepet-i (se*pe*ti) (the basket) Although some borrowed words do not follow the Turkish harmony rules, the allomorphs of morphemes are attached to their last syllables in accordance with the usual harmony rules: kanun-u (ka:*nu:*nu); ruhum-u (ru:*hu*mu); usul- (u*su:*l); vicdan- (vic*da:*n); ahbap- (ah*ba:*b); kitap- (ki*ta*b); kaza-/y/ (ka*za:*y)

[E], [DE], [DEN] MORPHEMES

The [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes are attached to noun stems, pronouns, infinitives and noun compounds. The English equivalents of these morphemes are different prepositions, but sometimes no prepositions are used as those in the following examples. When these morphemes are attached to nouns, pronouns, infinitives, noun compounds and nominalized sentences, they function as adverbs. These adverbs are the answers to the following questions, which are some of the fundamental language concepts of the universal grammar. Nere-/y/e? (where?), Nere/y/e gitti? (Where did he go?), Okul-a. (To school.) Nere-de? (Where?), O nere-de? (Where is he?) Okul-da. (In school.) Nere-den? (From where?), O nere-den geliyor? Okul-dan. (From where is he coming? (From school.) As it is seen in the examples above, the [E], [DE], and [DEN] morphemes follow nouns contrary to English prepositions, therefore, they can be called postpositional allomorphs as all the suffixes of the Turkish language. Okul-a gitti. noun - [a] (noun-morpheme)
Adverb

He went to school. to + noun (preposition + noun)

adverb

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
[E] allomorphs: [e, a] The English equivalents of this morpheme are generally "to" or "at", but they may differ according to different verbs of the English language. When Turkish nouns ending with vowels are attached to [e, a] allomorphs, they take /y/ glides, but when compounds ending with vowels are suffixed with them, they take /n/ glides to maintain the harmony of the vowel link. However, there is an important fact to keep in mind. While some English verbs are transitive, which take direct objects; the equivalents of the same verbs in Turkish are intransitive, which may take adverbs. Such verbs are explained in parentheses: Jack okul-a gitti. (jack / o*ku*la / git*ti) Jack went to school. Ahmet ev-e geldi. (ah*met / e*ve / gel*di) Ahmet came home. (No preposition is used in English.) Onu biz-e ver. (o*nu / bi*ze / ver) Give it to us. Onu bana ver. (o*nu / ba*na / ver) Give it to me. (As an exception, instead of *(ben-e), "bana" is used.) Onu bura-/y/a getir. (o*nu / bu*ra*ya / ge*tir) Bring it here. (No preposition is used in English.) Onu bahe-/y/e gtr. (o*nu / bah*e*ye / g*tr) Take it to the garden. Onu ora-/y/a gtr. (o*nu / o*ra*ya / g*tr) Take it there. (No preposition is used in English.) Onu bana getir. (o*nu / ba*na / ge*tir) Bring it to me.

42

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Onlar okul-a kotular. (on*lar / o*ku*la / ko*tu*lar) They ran to school. Ahmet vazoyu masa-/y/a koydu. (ah*met / va*zo*yu / ma*sa*ya / koy*du) Ahmet put the vase on the table. O-/n/u masa-/n/n st-/n/e koy. (o*nu~ / ma*sa*nn / s*t*ne / koy) Put it on the table. Jack'le George otobs dura-/n/a kotular. (A noun compound is used.) (jack*le / george~/ o*to*bs / du*ra**na / ko*tu*lar) Jack and George ran to the bus stop. retmen bana bakt. (*ret*men / ba*na / bak*t) The teacher looked at me. Jack topu bana att. (jack~ / to*pu / ba*na / at*t) Jack threw the ball to me. Jack kedi-/y/e bir ta att. (jack / ke*di*ye / bir / ta / at*t) Jack threw a stone at the cat. Jack, Mary/n/in kedi-/s/i/-/n/e bir ta att. (jack~ / mary*nin / ke*di*si*ne / bir / ta / at*t) Jack threw a stone at Marys cat. retmen biz-e kzd. (*ret*men / bi*ze / kz*d) The teacher got angry with us. O bana k. (bana is used instead of *ben-e (o / ba*na / a:*k) She is in love with me. Biz Allah'a inanrz. (biz / al*la:*ha / i*na*n*rz) We believe in God. Sana gveniyorum. (sa*na / g*ve*ni*yo*rum) I trust you. ("sana" is used instead of *"sen-e".)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
O bana akl verdi. (Ver is an intransitive verb in Turkish.) (o / ba*na / a*kl / ver*di) He advised me. (Advise is transitive, so it does not need a preposition.) O bana cevap vermedi. ( o / ba*na / ce*vap / ver*me*di) He didn't answer me. He didnt reply to me. Biz ehir-e yaklatk. (Yakla is intransitive in Turkish) (biz / eh*re / yak*la*tk) We approached the city. (Approach is transitive, so it does not need a preposition.) Dman biz-e saldrd. (Saldr is an intransitive verb.) (d*man / bi*ze / sal*dr*d) The enemy attacked us. (Attack is transitive, so no preposition is needed.) Onlar da-a trmandlar. (Trman is intransitive in Turkish.) (on*lar / da*a / tr*man*d*lar) They climbed the mountain. (Climb is transitive in English.) Bir avukat-a dan. (Dan is intransitive in Turkish.) (bir / a*vu*ka*ta / da*n) Consult a lawyer. (Consult is transitive in English.) i tamamlama-/y/a karar verdiler. (i*i / ta*mam*la*ma*ya / ka*rar / ver*di*ler) They decided to complete the work. Deniz-e dald. (de*ni*ze / dal*d) He dived into the sea. Onu bana akla. (o*nu / ba*na / a*k*la) Explain it to me. Onu bana tasvir et. (o*nu / ba*na / tas*vi:*ret) Describe it to me. Ben olum-a yzme rettim. (ret is intransitive in Turkish.) (ben / o*lu*ma / yz*me / *ret*tim) I taught my son to swim. (Teach is transitive in English.)

44

TURKISH GRAMMAR
O ben-i tekmeledi. (be*ni / tek*me*le*di) He kicked me. Kpek kk kz-a saldrd. (k*pek / k*k / k*za / sal*dr*d) The dog rushed at the little girl. Kpek, kk kz-n baca-/n/- srd. (k*pek~ / k*k / k*zn / ba*ca**n / *sr*d) The dog bit the little girls leg. Avc kaplan-a ate etti. (av*c / kap*la*na / a*te / et*ti) The hunter shot at the tiger. Avc kaplan- vurdu. (av*c / kap*la*n / vur*du) The hunter shot the tiger. Annem bana bard (beni azarlad). (an*nem / ba*na / ba*r*d) Mother shouted at me. Babam bana "Dikkatli ol!" diye bard. (ba*bam / ba*na / dik*kat*li / ol / di*ye / ba*r*d) "Be careful!" father shouted to me. Trafik Polisi srcler-e durmalar iin iaret etti. (Turkish intransitive) (tra*fik / po*li*si / s*r*c*le*re / dur*ma*la*r / i*in / i*a:*ret / et*ti) The traffic police officer signaled the drivers to stop. (English transitive) ocuklar koma-/y/a balad. (o*cuk*lar / ko*ma*ya / ba*la*d) The children started running (to run). O biz-e dn telefon etti. (Turkish intransitive) (o / bi*ze / dn / te*le*fon / et*ti) He telephoned us yesterday. (English transitive) Jack bana kzd. (jack / ba*na / kz*d) Jack got angry with me. O bana gld (Benimle alay etti.) (o / ba*na / gl*d) She laughed at me.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sana katlyorum. (sa*na / ka*t*l*yo*rum) I agree with you. Onlar dokuzda ev-e vardlar. (on*lar / sa*at / do*kuz*da / e*ve / var*d*lar) They arrived home at nine. (No preposition) Onlar, zamannda uak alan-/n/a vardlar. (on*lar ~/ za*ma:*nn*da / u*ak / a*la*n*na / var*d*lar) They arrived at the airport in time. Erken kalkma-/y/a alknm. (er*ken / kalk*ma*ya / a*l*k*nm) I am accustomed to getting up early ocuklar-/n/a dkndr. (o*cuk*la*r*na / d*kn*dr) She is fond of her children. (ocuklar- is the second part of a noun compound: kendi ocuklar-) Onlar-a yardm etme-/y/e karar verdik. (on*la*ra / yar*dm / et*me*ye / ka*rar / ver*dik) We decided to help them. Sigara imem-e itiraz eder misin? (si*ga*ra / i*me*me / i:*ti*ra:z / e*der / mi*sin) Do you object to my smoking? Paran gereksiz eyler-e harcama. (pa*ra*n / ge*rek*siz / ey*le*re / har*ca*ma) Don't spend your money on unnecessary things. Cumhuriyetiler-e oy verdi. (cum*hu:*ri*yet*i*le*re / oy / ver*di) He voted for the Republicans. Kazay yaya-/n/n st--/n/e att. (ka*za:*y~ / ya*ya*nn / s*t*ne / at*t) He blamed the accident on the pedestrian. Bu masa bana ait. (bu / ma*sa / ba*na / a:*it) This table belongs to me. Bir renci devi-/n/e odaklanmaldr. (bir / *ren*ci / *de*vi*ne / o*dak*lan*ma*l*dr) A student should concentrate on his homework.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tm parasn araba-/s/-/n/a harcar. (tm / pa*ra*s*n ~/ a*ra*ba*s*na / har*car) He spends all his money on his car. (In this sentence, arabas is the second part of a compound: kendi arabas. Tm srcler trafikte youn karbon diyoksit gaz--/n/a ma:ruz kalrlar. All drivers are exposed to dense carbon monoxide smoke in heavy traffic. The noun compounds in the above sentences are all written in italics. When the nouns, pronouns and infinitives above are attached to [e, a] allomorphs, they form adverbs that generally show or imply the direction of a verb. [DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta] The English equivalents of these allomorphs are "in", "at" or "on". However, different prepositions may be used in English in place of the [DE] morpheme of the Turkish language. This morpheme implies the place of a noun or an infinitive. Read the example sentences: Jack okul-da. (jack / o*kul*da) Jack is at (in) school. Kardeim ev-de. (kar*de*im / ev*de) My brother is at home. Mary masa-da oturuyor. (mary / ma*sa*da / o*tu*ru*yor) Mary is sitting at the table Mr. Brown hastane-de. (mis*tr / brown / has*ta:*ne*de) Mr. Brown is in hospital. (He is there to be cured.) Mrs. Brown kocasn grmek iin hastaneye gitti. (mi*sis / brawn / ko*ca*s*n / gr*mek / i*in / has*ta:*ne*ye / git*ti) Mrs. Brown went to the hospital to see her husband. Postac kap-da. (pos*ta*c / ka*p*da) The mail carrier is at the door. Onun ba dert-te. (o*nun / ba* / dert*te) He is in trouble.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Jack bura-da (burda). (jack / bur*da) Jack is here. (No preposition.) Onlar ora-da (orda) deiller. (on*lar / or*da / de*il*ler) They are not there. (No preposition.) Ben on yldr stanbul-da oturuyorum. (ben / on / yl*dr / is*tan*bul*da / o*tu*ru*yo*rum) I have been living in stanbul for ten years. Kitaplar masa-da. (ki*tap*lar / ma*sa*da) The books are on the table. Kalemler kutu-da. (ka*lem*ler / ku*tu*da) The pencils are in the box. Papaan kafes-te. (pa*pa*an / ka*fes*te) The parrot is in the cage. O hapis-te. (o / ha*pis*te) He is in jail. Fiyat-ta uzlatk (anlatk). (fi*yat*ta / uz*la*tk) We agreed on the price. Kzlar, yabanc dil renmek-te erkek ocuklardan daha yeteneklidirler. (kz*lar~ / ya*ban*c / dil / *ren*mek*te ~/ er*kek / o*cuk*lar*dan / da*ha / ye*te*nek*li*dir*ler) (infinitive-[DE]) Girls are more talented than boys at learning foreign languages, Hzl srmek-te srar etti. (hz*l / sr*mek*te / s*ra:r / et*ti) (infinitive-[DE]) He insisted on driving fast. Ev-den (saat) sekiz-de ayrldm. (ev*den / se*kiz*de / ay*rl*dm) I left home at eight oclock. Okul-un kap-/s/-/n/-da bulualm. (o*ku*lun / ka*p*sn*da / bu*lu*a*lm) (noun compound-[DE]) Lets meet at the door of the school.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
[DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan] These allomorphs generally show the starting point of a noun or an infinitive. They are expressed in various prepositions in English. The compounds ending with vowels take /n/ glides when they are attached to the allomorphs of the morpheme [DEN]: Jack okul-dan ev-e geldi. (jack / o*kul*dan / e*ve / gel*di) Jack came home from school. Dn ktphane-den birka kitap aldm. (dn / k*t*pa:*ne*den / bir*ka / ki*tap / al*dm) I borrowed several books from the library yesterday. Okul ktphane-/s/i-/n/den birka kitap aldm. (o*kul / k*t*pa:*ne*sin*den ~/ bir*ka / ki*tap / al*dm) I borrowed several books from the school library. (noun compound-[DEN]) Ge kaldm iin ondan zr diledim. (ge / kal*d*m /i*in ~/ on*dan / *zr / di*le*dim) I apologized to her for being late. ou kadnlar fare-den korkar. (o*u / ka*dn*lar / fa:*re*den / kor*kar) Most women are afraid of mice. Olum-un tembelli-i/n/-den rahatszm. (o*lu*mun / tem*bel*li*in*den / ra*hat*s*zm) I am annoyed at my son's laziness. (noun compound-[DEN) Bizim irketin sorunlar-/n/-dan haberin yok mu? (bi*zim / ir*ke*tin / so*run*la*rn*dan / ha*be*rin / yok / mu) Aren't you aware of the problems of our company? Bir retmen, rencilerinin sorular-/n/-dan bkmamaldr. (bir / *ret*men / *ren*ci*le*ri*nin / so*ru*la*rn*dan / bk*ma*ma*l*dr) A teacher shouldn't be tired of his students' questions. (noun comp-[DEN]) Onlar sabah-tan akam-a kadar altlar. (on*lar / sa*bah*tan / ak*a*ma / ka*dar / a*l*t*lar) They worked from morning until night. Su, hidrojenle oksijen-den olumutur. (su~ / hid*ro*jen*le / ok*si*jen*den / o*lu*mu*tur) Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bu heykel mermer-den yaplmtr. (bu / hey*kel / mer*mer*den / ya*pl*m*tr) This statue is made of marble. Yourt st-ten yaplr. (yo*urt / st*ten / ya*p*lr) Yogurt is made from milk. Hapishane-den iki mahkm kat. (ha*pi*sa:*ne*den / i*ki / mah*km / ka*t) Two prisoners escaped from prison. Yanllk yapmak-tan kanman gerek. (yan*l*lk / yap*mak*tan / ka*n*man / ge*rek) You should avoid making mistakes. (infinitive-[DEN]) Kendin-den utanmalsn. (ken*din*den / u*tan*ma*l*sn) You must be ashamed of yourself. O ben-den zr diledi. (o / ben*den / *zr / di*le*di) He apologized to me. Onlar-dan yardm istemek zorundayz. (on*lar*dan / yar*dm / is*te*mek / zo*run*da*yz) We have to ask them for help. Ekonomi-den anlamam. (Turkish is intransitive.) (e*ko*no*mi*den / an*la*mam) I dont understand economics. (English is transitive.) Yalan sylemek-ten utanmyor musun? (ya*lan / sy*le*mek*ten / u*tan*m*yor / mu*sun) Arent you ashamed of lying? (infinitive-[DEN]) Gramer kitaplar okumak-tan bktm. (gra*mer / ki*tap*la*r / o*ku*mak*tan / bk*tm) Im tired of reading grammar books. (infinitive-[DEN])

POSSESSOR + POSSESSED NOUN COMPOUNDS sim Tamlamalar

These compounds play a considerable role in transforming Turkish simple sentences to be used in Phrase Structures. Therefore, they have to be considered before going on with further explanations. Although these compounds are called noun compounds, they naturally cover pronouns and infinitives, as well. A noun compound is composed of two parts: the possessor part and the possessed part. When a pronoun is used in the pos-

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
sessor part of a compound, its possessor suffixes change according to the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish language as follows: DEFINITE NOUN COMPOUNDS Belirtili sim Tamlamalar Personal Suffixes Attached to the Possessor Parts of the Compounds: ben-im (be*nim) (my), sen-in (se*nin) (your), o-/n/un (o*nun) (his, her, its), biz-im (bi*zim) (our), siz-in (si*zin) (your), onlar-n (on*la*rn) (their), okulun (o*ku*lun), sandalye-/n/in (san*dal*ye*nin) As it is seen in these examples, the possessor morphemes following the personal pronouns are im, in, un, im, in, n. When these pronouns, common nouns or proper nouns end with consonants, they take these suffixes, but when they end with vowels, they need the /n/ glides to be attached to the same possessor morphemes to produce (possessive adjectives). The following words are all possessive adjectives: ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un, biz-im, siz-in, onlar-n, okul-un, araba-/n/n, ev-in, tencere-/n/in, kalem-in, silgi-/n/in, Ahmetin, Mustafa-/n/n, yl-n, sene/n/in, kz-n, dana-/n/n, karpuz-un, elma-/n/n, atal-n, orba-/n/n. All pronouns, common nouns, proper nouns, and infinitives can be used in the possessor parts of noun compounds:
ben-im okul-um; okul-un kap-/s/; Ali-/n/in anta-/s/; alma-/n/n sonucu
pronoun common N proper N infinitive

All common nouns, infinitives and transformed nominalized senten-ces can be used in the possessed part of a noun compound, such as:
ben-im okul-um
common N

Ahmet-in gelme-/s/i Aye-/n/in gl- Ben-im git-tik-im

infinitive infinitive infinitive

The transformed nominalized sentences are used as subjects and objects, but the last noun + infinitive compound (ben-im git-tik-im) can be used both as subjects, objects and as determiners in sentences: Onun al-tk--/n/ biliyorum.
nominalized sent (obj)

onun al-tk-
nominalized sent (det)

irket
noun

I know that he works.

nominalized sent (obj)

the company where he works

D noun nominalized sent (det)

(The /k/ phonemes in the Turkish sentences above change into the voiced //: alt.) Personal Suffixes Attached to the possessed Parts of the Compounds:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ben): [im, m, m, um]: (benim sepet-im), (ben-im baba-m) When the nouns end with consonants, they are attached to the allo-morphs above, but when they end with vowels, the first vowels of these allomorphs drop, which are showed by double underlines: (ben): ben-im sepet-im ben-im sepetim; ben-im okul-um ben-im okulum; ben-im araba-m ben-im arabam; ben-im baba-m ben-im babam; ben-im pencere-im ben-im pencerem; ben-im masa-mbenim masam; ben-im turu-umben-im turum; ben-im ene-imben-im enem. (sen): [in, n, n, un]: senin defter-in (def*te*rin), sen-in mesele-in (me*se*len), sen-in kutu-un (ku*tun), senin tarla-n (tar*lan), senin ev-in (e*vin), sen-in gz-ler-in (se*nin / gz*le*rin). When the third person possessed nouns end with vowels, the /s/ glides are inserted between the successive vowels to maintain a harmonious connection, but as an exception, the /y/ glide is inserted when the noun su is used: (deniz-in su-/y/u ) (su*yu): (o, a proper noun or a common noun): [i, , , u]: onun kalem-i (ka*le*mi); onun araba-/s/ (a*ra*ba*s); (onun sa-) (sa*); Jackin okul-u (o*ku*lu); (evin kedi-/s/i) (ke*di*si); Ahmetin papaan- (pa*pa*a*n); kyn deli-/s/i (de*li*si); bahenin kap-/s/ (ka*p*s); okulun ark-/s/ (ar*k*s); cmle/n/in son-u (cm*le*nin / so*nu); satc-/n/n lm- (sa*t*c*nn / *l*m). (biz): [imiz, mz, mz, umuz]: biz-im okul-umuz (o*ku*lu*muz); biz-im tencere-imiz (ten*ce*re*miz); biz-im baba-mz (ba*ba*mz); biz-im kymz (bi*zim / k*y*mz). The double underlined vowels drop. (siz): [iniz, nz, nz, unuz]: (sizin davul-unuz) (da*vu*lu*nuz); (sizin araba-nz) (a*ra*ba*nz); (sizin kz-nz) (k*z*nz); (sizin kafa-nz) (ka*fa*nz), (siz-in bahe-iniz) (siz-in / bah*e*niz) The double underlined vowels drop. (onlar): [i, , , u] or ([ler-i, lar-]): (onun okul-u), (onlarn okul-u), (onlarn iek-ler-i); (onlar-n anne-/s/i); (onlarn tarla-/s/); (onlarn ev-i); (onlarn kedi-/s/i); (onlarn sz-); (onlarn kap-/s/). (ben-im) defter-im (be*nim / def*te*rim) (my notebook), (ben-im) ba-m (ba*m) (my head) (ben-im) gz-m (g*zm) (my eye) (ben-im) sakal-m (sa*ka*lm) (my beard) (ben-im) sorun-um (so*ru*num) (my problem) (ben-im) ku-um (ku*um) (my bird) Jackin okul-u (jack*in / o*ku*lu) (Jacks school) Since a personal morpheme in the possessed part of a compound is enough to help someone understand the pronoun in the possessor part of

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
a compound, the parts in the brackets above may be ignored unless they are thought to be necessary. One can say (ki*tabm) in place of (be*nim / ki*ta*bm). If only the possessed part of the compound is used, the stress is on bm. If both parts are used the stress goes onto nim. If a possessed noun in a compound ends with a vowel, the first vowels of all the personal morphemes drop: ben-im araba-m (be*ni*ma*ra*bam); (a*ra*bam) (my car) ben-im mesele-im (be*nim / me*se*lem); (me*se*lem) (my problem) ben-im tarla-m (be*nim / tar*lam); (tar*lam) (my field) ben-im kafa-m (be*nim / ka*fam); (ka*fam) (my head) ben-im sandalye-im (be*nim / san*dal*yem); (san*dal*yem) (my chair) ben-im pipo-um (be*nim / pi*pom); (pi*pom) (my pipe) ben-im kar-m (be*nim / ka*rm); (ka*rm) (my wife) ben-im deri-im (be*nim / de*rim); (de*rim) (my skin) ben-im su-/y/um (be*nim / su*/y/um); (su*yum) (my water) ben-im anne-im (be*ni*man*nem); (an*nem) (my mother) All the double underlined vowels above drop. If the possessed noun of a compound ends with unvoiced /p/, /k/, // or /t/ consonants, they change into their counterpart voiced phonemes /b/, //, /c/ or /d/ respectively: bebek-im (be*be*im) (my baby) (The /k/ changes into //) kpek-im (k*pe*im) (my dog) (The /k/ changes into //) orap-m (o*ra*bm) (my sock) (The /p/ changes into /b/) ara-m (a*ra*cm) (my vehicle) (The // changes into /c/) dert-im (der*dim) (my trouble) (The /t/ changes into /d/) All the monosyllabic stems and most words ending with /t/ do not change their last consonants when they are suffixed: at-m (a*tm) (my horse); st-m (s*tm) (my milk); krk-m (kr*km) (my fur); ip-im (i*pim) (my rope); sa-m (sa*m) (my hair); hap-m (ha*pm) (my pill); sepet-im (se*pe*tim) (my basket); saat-im (sa*a*tim) (my watch); de-met-im (de*me*tim) (my bunch); krk-n (kr*kn) (your fur); at-lar-mz (at*la*r*mz) (our horses). When senin is used in the possessor position, the possessed nouns are suffixed with [in, n, n, un] personal allomorphs: defter-in (def*te*rin) (your notebook) ba-n (ba*n) (your head) gz-n (g*zn) (your eye) tuz-un (tu*zun) (your salt)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
baba-n (ba*ban) (your father) sandalye-in (san*dal*yen) (your chair) (The double underlined vowels drop.) If possessed nouns end with vowels or /p, t, k, / phonemes, they undergo the same changes as they do in the examples above: kpek-in (k*pe*in), orap-n (o*ra*bn), gmlek-in (gm*le*in), bakn (b*a*n); but st-n (s*tn), sepet-in (se*pe*tin) The third person possessed nouns are suffixed with [i, , , u] allo-morphs: ev-i (e*vi), okul-u (o*ku*lu), kalem-i (ka*le*mi), ceket-i (ce*ke*ti), dn- (d**n), gz- (g*z), ba- (ba*), ka- (ka*). When a third person possessed noun ends with a vowel, it takes an /s/ glide when it is attached to a personal suffix: araba-/s/ (a*ra*ba*s) (his car); bahe-/s/i (bah*e*/s/i) (his garden); tarla/s/ (tar*la*s) (his farm); hal-/s/ (ha*l*s) (his carpet); leke-/s/i (le*ke*si) (its stain); fke-/s/i (f*ke*si) (his rage); kap-/s/ (ka*p*s) (his door); gaga-/s/ (ga*ga*s) (its beak); anne-/s/i (an*ne*si); baba-/s/ (ba*ba*s); eme-/s/i (e*me*si) (its tap); yama-/s/ (ya*ma*s) (its patch) If the possessive adjectives are used together with the possessed parts of the compounds, the possessive adjectives become dominant and the stress goes onto the possessive adjectives: Onun arabas (o*nun / a*ra*ba*s); onun bahesi (o*nun / bah*e*si) The /p, t, k, / unvoiced phonemes change into their voiced counterparts /b, d, , c / respectively as in the examples below: onun corap- (o*nun / o*ra*b) (his sock); onun dolap- (o*nun / do*la*b) (his cupboard); o-nun ama- (o*nun / a*ma*c) (his goal); onun sokak- (o*nun / so*ka*) (his street); onun ka-pak-, (o*nun / ka* pa*) (its lid); onun bacak- (o*nun / ba*ca*) (his leg); onun ipi (o*nun / i*pi); onun st; onun su-/y/u A noun in a possessor position is used just like a third person possessor pronoun. When a noun in the possessor position ends with a vowel, it needs an /n/ glide to be attached to [in, n, n, un] allomorphs. As the third person singular pronoun is o, which has only one vowel, it also needs the same /n/ glide to be attached to [un] allomorph. Consider the following: o-/n/un kap-/s/ (its door); oda-/n/n kap-/s/ (the door of the room); o/n/un yakt- (its fuel); araba-/n/n yakt- (the fuel of the car); okul-un otobs- (the bus of the school ); bahe-/n/in kap-/s/ (the gate of the

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
garden); ifi-/n/in tarla-/s/ (the farm of the farmer); oda-/n/n hal-/s/ (the carpet of the room); Jackin kar-/s/ (Jacks wife); sokak-n kpek-i (so*ka*n / k*pe*i) (the dog of the street); arabn rengi (the color of the wine); bebein odas (The babys room); gmlein kollar (the sleeves of the shirt); iein gzellii (the beauty of the flower); armudun tad (the taste of the pear); ceketin rengi (the color of the coat ); saatin pili (the battery of the watch). When the compounds ending with vowels are suffixed with the allomorphs of the [], [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes, they take /n/ glides: Jack, Mary-/n/in kpek-i-/n/i srd. (jack ~/ mary*nin / k*pe*i*ni / *sr*d) Jack bit Marys dog. Jack, Mary/n/in kpek-i-/n/e bir ta att. (jack~ / mary*nin / k*pe*i*ne / bir / ta / at*t) Jack threw a stone at Marys dog. Kpek, Mary/n/in bahesi/n/-de. (k*pek~ / mary*nin / bah*e*sin*de) The dog is in Marys garden. Ben, Mary/n/in okulu/n/-dan geliyorum. (ben / mary*nin / o*ku*lun*dan / ge*li*yo*rum) Im coming from Marys school. The plural allomorphs [ler, lar] are attached to noun stems first, and then the other allomorphs follow: ocuk-lar-m, okul-lar-mz, iek-ler-i, araba-lar-nz, komu-lar-mz (neighbors), saat- ler-im, sepet-ler-iniz The personal allomorphs below are attached to the plural allomorphs above: (ben-im) kitap-lar-m (ki*tap*la*rm) (my books); (sen-in) iek-ler-in (i*ek*le*rin) (your flowers); (biz-im) oyuncak-lar-mz (o*yun*cak*la*r*mz) (our toys). As the possessor pronouns in the compounds are generally omitted, only the possessed parts of the compounds are used. When the possessor parts are used together with the possessed parts of a compound, the possessor parts are stressed. However, when only the possessed parts are used, the stress goes onto the possessed part: "ben-im kitaplar-m" (be*nim / ki*tap*la*rm); "kitaplar-m (ki*tap*la*rm) kitap-lar-m (ki*tap*la*rm) (my books); kedi-ler-imiz (ke*di*le*ri*miz) (our cats); kpek-ler-i (k*pek*le*ri) (his dogs); sepet-ler-imiz (se*pet*le*ri*miz)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(our baskets); dost-lar-m (dost*la*rm) (my friends); soru-lar-m (so*ru*la*rm) (my questions); sorun-lar-mz (so*run*la*r*mz) (our problems); kafa-m (ka*fam) (my head); pencere-im (pen*ce*rem) (my window); kafan (ka*fan) (your head); pencere-in (pen*ce*ren) (your window); kafa-/s/ (ka*fa*s) (his head); okul-u (o*ku*lu) (his school); elbise-/s/i (el*bi*se*-si) (her dress); ara-ba-nz (a*ra*ba*nz) (your car); kap-nz (ka*p*nz) (your door); yz-nz (y*z*nz) (your face). Contrary to the English intonation, in a Turkish adjective + noun compound, the stressed syllable is on the adjective, not on the noun: In Turkish, sar gl (sa*r / gl); in English, "yellow rose" (ye*low / rose) . When the first, the second and the third person plural possessor pronouns are used in the possessor part of a noun compound such as bizim, sizin and onlarn, both the singular and plural possessed nouns can be used in the possessed part of a noun compound: bizim arabamz, or bizim arabalarmz; sizin kediniz or sizin kedileriniz; onlar- n odas or onlarn odalar; bizim evimiz or bizim evlerimiz INDEFINITE NOUN COMPOUNDS Belirtisiz sim Tamlamalar The possessor + possessed compounds described above are all definite. When odann kaps is said, it means the door of the room. However, when we say kap zili instead of kapnn zili, we mean door bell, where door is indefinite. The indefinite Turkish noun compounds are structurally different from the English indefinite noun compounds. For instance, in Turkish compounds, the allomorphs of [] are attached to the second parts of the compounds, such as okul anta-/s/, but in English, only two nouns are used as school bag. When the possessed parts end with consonants, they take the allomorphs of [], but when they end with vowels they take /s/ glides together with the allomorphs of []: Here are some examples of the indefinite noun compounds: Okul anta-/s/ (o*kul / an*ta*s) (school bag); snav sorular- (s*nav/ so*ru*la*r) (examination questions); renci kavga-/s/ (*ren*ci / kav*ga*s) (student fight); otomobil yar- (o*to*mo*bil / ya*r*) (car race); insan haklar- (in*san / hak*la*r) (human rights); elma reel-i (el*ma / re*e*li) (apple jam); araba kaza-/s/ (a*ra*ba / ka*za:*s) (car accident); kalem kutu-/s/u (ka*lem / ku*tu*su) (pencil box); k bahe-/s/i (k / bah*e*si) (winter garden); isiz-lik sorun-u (i*siz*lik / so*ru*nu) (unemployment problem); yaz elence-/s/i (yaz / e*len*ce*si) (summer entertainment); gne gzlk-ler-i (g*ne / gz*lk*le*ri) (sunglasses); patates salata-/s/ (pa*ta*tes / sa*la*ta*s) (potato salad); hava kirlili-i (ha*va /

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
kir*li*li*i) (air pollution); at yar- (at / ya*r*) (horse race); ba ar-/s/ (ba*a*r*s) (headache); it dala- (it / da*la*) (dog fight); mrekkep leke-/s/i (m*rek*kep / le*ke*si) (ink stain); Eyfel Kule-/s/i (ey*fel / ku*le*si) (The Eiffel Tower).The stresses are on the last syllables of the possessor parts. NOUN COMPOUNDS WITHOUT SUFFIXES Taksz Tamlama There are some other noun compounds made of two noun stems: tahta kutu (tah*ta / ku*tu) (wooden box); altn bilezik (al*tn /bi*le*zik) (golden bracelet); porselen fincan (por*se*len / fin*can) (china cup); demir kap (de*mir / ka*p) (iron door); ta bina (ta / bi*na:) (stone building); plastik oyuncak (plas*tik / o*yun*cak) (plastic toy); bakr tel (ba*kr / tel) (copper wire); mermer heykel (mer*mer / hey*kel) (marble statue); kz arka (k*zar*ka*da) (girl friend); erkek arkada (er*ke*kar*ka*da) (boy friend); gm para (g*m / pa*ra) (silver coin); tahta kpr (tah*ta / kp*r) (wooden bridge); Beyaz Saray (be*yaz / sa*ray) (The White House) The pronouns used in the possessor position of the noun compounds are also used in place of mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and Jacks as in the following: Bu kitap benim. u ayakkablar onun. Bu araba Jackin. u gmlek senin. u eyler onlarn. Bu yanllar bizim. This book is mine. Those shoes are hers. This car is Jacks. That shirt is yours. Those things are theirs. These mistakes are ours.

This similarity could be seen in the following two sentences: Bu benim kitabm. This is my book. Bu kitap benim. This book is mine. Bu senin araban. This is your car. Bu araba senin. This car is yours. Sometimes the [K] morpheme, which does not follow the vowel harmony rules and consequently has no allomorphs, is attached to benim, senin, o-nun, Jackin possessor pronouns. This morpheme generally means this one among others: Bu anta benim-ki. (bu / an*ta / be*nim*ki) This bag is mine among others. u koltuk sizin-ki. (u / kol*tuk / si*zin*ki) This seat is yours among others.

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Bu masa Jackin-ki. This table is Jacks among others. Bu araba Ouzun-ki. This car is Ouzs among others. The first parts of the noun compounds are syntactically determiners. For instance, in the expressions, the car, this car, all cars, my car; the this, all and my have determining functions. Therefore, one cannot put a, an,the, or some before these words, such as *the this car, *the all cars, *a my car. The possessor parts of the definite noun compounds are words like the and some; therefore, in English, people say the gate of the garden, but in Turkish, people say bahe-/n/in kap-/s/, where bahe-/n/in is a determiner, so we can formulate bahce-/n/in kap-/s/ as D + N. NOUN + INFINITIVE COMPOUNDS sim + Mastar Tamlamalar The infinitives, as they are nouns, are also used in the possessor + possessed compounds: ben-im gitme-im (my going); o-(n)un bak- (her looking); siz-in gittik-iniz (git*ti*i*niz) (that you went); biz-im bulu-ma-mz (our meeting); biz-im al-ma-mz-n sonu-u (bi*zim / a*l*ma*m*zn / so*nu*cu) (the result of our working); isizlik-in art-ma-s (i*siz*li*in / art*ma*s) (the increase of the unemployment); okul-a ge kal-ma-/n/n sonucu (o*ku*la / ge / kal*ma*nn / so*nu*cu) (the result of coming to school late). In these compounds, the double underlined vowels drop as usual. The parallelism between the above compounds and those of the following are obvious: ben-im tencere-im, onun ba-, siz-in bilet-iniz, ben-im ev-im As it is seen, the infinitives are nouns that are produced from verb stems and verb frames by adding [me, ma], [i, , , u], [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] and [mek, mak] allomorphs. These infinitives, except the [mek, mak] infinitives, are used in noun compounds in sentences as Nominal Phrases such as: ben-im gl-me-im, sen-in gl--n, o-/n/un ala-dk-, biz-im bekle-memiz, Ahmetin al-ma-ma/s/, onlar-n gel-me-me-/s/i, ocuk-un bulun-ma-/s/, biz-im bul-u-ma-mz, araba-/n/n al-n-ma-/s/ It is possible in Turkish to lengthen the above noun compounds into chain noun compounds as far as the word that ends the chain because all natural languages are infinitely productive within the framework of the NP + VP innate sentence pattern:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
kasksz motorsiklet srme-/n/in tehlike-/s/i-/n/in anla-l-ma-/s/
chain possessors NP possessed final word

Genler-in spor yap-ma-/s/-/n/n nem-i-/n/n anla-sl-ma-/s/ gerek-ir.

chain possessors NP possessed final word VP

In Turkish, there is a saying that is used for describing a distant relative, which can summarize the productivity of the chain noun compounds: Ddmn ddsnn ddsnn ddsnn dds. A distant relative of mine.
chain possessors possessed final

(d*d*mn / d*d*s*nn / d*d*s*nn / d*d*s*nn / d*d*s) PREPOSITIONS (ENG) and POSTPOSITIONS (TURK) (Edatlar) The English prepositions on, in, under, near, behind, in front of are all nouns in Turkish: st (on), alt (under), yakn (near), i (in), arka (behind, back), n (in front of) As all the above words can be attached to the allomorphs of the morphemes [], [E], [DE] and [DEN], they are nouns, Besides these morphemes, the allomorphs of [], which are also the allomorphs of the possessed morpheme [], can be attached to the above nouns to form the possessed parts of noun compounds: masa-/n/n st- (ma*sa*n*ns*t) (the upper side, or the surface of the table) kutu-/n/un i-i (ku*tu*nu*ni*i) (the inside of the box) karyola-/n/n alt- (kar*yo*la*n*nal*t) (the underside of the bed) sandalye-/n/in arka-/s/ (san*dal*ye*ni*nar*ka*s) (the back of the chair) The two parts of the compounds above can also be separately said: (ma*sa*nn / s*t), (ku*tu*nun / i*i), (kar*yo*la*nn / al*t), (san*dal*ye* nin / ar*ka*s). When the above compounds are used as objects, they take the allomorphs of the defining [] suffix linked by the glides /n/: Masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizledim. (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*dim) I cleaned the surface of the table. In the above sentence, the first // is the possessed allomorph, the second // is the defining morpheme, and the /n/ phonemes are the glides linking the successive /a/, // and //, // vowels. In such compounds, either of the stressable syllables of the possessor or the possessed parts of a compound can

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
be stressed. The dominant (primary) word syllables are symbolized in bold type, and the secondarily stressed syllables are showed in italics. See how the meanings of the sentences change when the primarily stressed words change in the following sentences: (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*dim) I have cleaned the upper side of the table, not the upper side of any other furniture. (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*dim) I have cleaned the upper side of the table, not the underside, or the legs of it. (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*dim) I have cleaned the upper side of the table, so I have done my duty. PRIMARY STRESS, SECONDARY STRESS and INTONATION The syllables printed in bold type in the above sentences are primarily stressed syllables. The secondarily stressed syllables of the words are slightly heard in speech, which are printed in italics. The final syllables of all positive and negative sentences have junctures that have slightly rising and sharply falling syllable stresses showed by rising and falling arrows (). When the words of the Turkish language are considered independently, not in sentences, we can see that each word can have only one primarily stressed syllable. For instance: (o*to*mo*bil), (a*l**yor*lar*d), (ke*di), (do*ku*zun*cu), (*ret*men), (san*dal*ye), (ki*raz), (gel*mi*ye*cek*ler), (an*la *m*yo*rum), (ka*za*na*ca*z), (de*mok*ra*tik*le*ti*re*ce*iz), (kork*ma*ma*l*sn), (kah*ve*ren*gi) However, if a whole sentence is considered, we can hear that there may be one or more primarily stressed words in a sentence. The secondarily stressed syllables of the words are fixed and they are nearly always combined to the suffixes following them. The last syllables of the words in sentences, which are secondarily stressed, have slightly rising and falling intonations that imply the hearer the end of a word and the expectation of a following one. (ba*bam~ / ge*en / haf*ta~ / bur*sa*da / de*il*di) In the above sentence, the word (ba*bam) is the subject of the sentence. If we think none of the words are important or dominant in this sentence, we use only a secondary stress on the bam syllable with a rising intonation implying that another word will be following it, such as biii~r, ikiii~,

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
If we put a primary stress on the syllable (ba*bam), the sentence means especially my father was not in Bursa; someone else might have been there. As a rule, if the subject of a sentence is rather far from the verb, a colon is generally put after the subject in a text, but in speech a secondary stress with a rising sustained intonation (~) is applied to the same word. If the second syllable enof the word (ge*en) is primarily stressed, the sentence means only last week, not weeks ago. If the stressable syllable bur is primarily stressed in the word (bur*sa*da), the sentence means My father was not in Bursa last week, but perhaps he was in any other city. When the stressable syllable il of the word (de*il*di) is considered dominant, the sentence means You are mistaken; he was not there. In general, the last syllables of word stems are secondarily stressed when they are not thought to be dominant (1), but if they are thought to be so, these secondarily stressed syllables are turned into primarily stressed syllables (2): 1. (e*me); (tes*ti); (e*ker); (o*cuk); (te*pe); (ar*mut); (ka*sap); (y*rek) 2. (e*me); (tes*ti); (e*ker); (o*cuk); (te*pe); (ar*mut); (ka*sap); (y*rek) The second syllables in the above words are secondarily or primarily stressed and they are printed in italics. When the inflectional morphemes are suffixed to these words, these morphemes are also secondarily stressed together with the last syllables of the word stems (3). 3. (e*me*yi), (e*me*ye), (e*me*de), (e*me*den), (e*me*nin), (e*me*si), (e*me*si*nin), (e*me*sin*de), (e*me*sin*den), (e*me*le*rin*den) If the words in the above sentences are thought to be dominant, the last syllables of them are primarily stressed: 2. (e*me*yi); (e*me*ye); (e*me*de); (e*me*den); (e*me*si*nin); (e*me*sin*de); (e*me*sin*den); (e*me*le*rin*den) If a word is monosyllabic, this syllable is naturally the last syllable, so it is secondarily stressed if it is not thought to be dominant. Nevertheless, if it is thought to be dominant, it may be primarily stressed. 3. (ku),(ku*u), (ku*a), (ku*ta), (ku*tan); (ta), (ta*), (ta*a), (ta*ta), (ta*tan); (sen), (se*ni), (sa*na),(se*nin), (sen*de), (sen*den)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
If these words are thought dominant, the last syllables are primarily stressed: (ku), (ku*u), (ku*a), (ku*ta), (ku*un), (ku*tan); (ben), (be*ni), (ba*na), (ben*de), (ben*den). When some monosyllabic words are suffixed with [] or [E] morphemes, these words are divided into two syllables and they are both secondarily stressed if the second syllables are not thought to be dominant: biz-i (bi*zi), biz-e (bi*ze); ders-i (der*si), ders-e (der*se); k- (k*) (k*a); muz-u (mu*zu), (mu*za); kz- (k*z), (k*za); ben-i (be*ni), (ba*na); sen-i (se*ni), (sa*na); eker-i (e*ke*ri), (e*ke*re). Considering the above explanations, we have demonstrated nearly all the syllables in sentences between parentheses so that the learners may see the primarily and secondarily stressed syllables in sentences. By the way, a learner should keep in mind that these are only example sentences and the primarily stressed syllables may change according to a speakers choice: (ba*bam / ge*en / haf*ta / bur*sa*da / de*il* di) In the above sentence, there may be one or more secondarily stressed syllables in each word printed in italics. The last syllables of the above words can be primarily stressed in proportion to the main concern of a speaker. He can use a primary stress on one, two or more words in a sentence. If he wishes, he may leave all the words in a sentence without primarily stressed. In short, we can say that the primarily stressed syllables completely depend on the speakers choice. However, the secondarily stressable syllables of the words in a sentence do not depend on the speakers choice; they are nearly always fixed. The words that have several secondarily stressed syllables are the verb compositions. Only one of the syllables in a verb composition can be primarily stressed. To overcome this difficulty, nearly all the syllabication, stress and intonation of the example sentences are given in parentheses. In these example sentences, the words are separated by slashes (/). The internal open junctures implying very short pauses with a rising sustained intonation after subjects, objects or adverbs, etc. are showed by tildes (~). The junctures symbolizing slightly rising and sharply falling terminal stops of the indicative sentences are showed by rising and falling arrows () in this book. The interrogative sentences containing question words like nereye?, niin?, nasl?, etc. are illustrated by rising () arrows, but the interrogative sentences, whose answers are yes or no, also have falling terminal junctures in their last syllables. Therefore, they are also showed by rising and falling arrows (). However, if a speaker wants to express astonishment, these terminal junctures () may change into rising () arrows:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ba*z / kz*lar / ne*hir*de / y*z* yor) Some girls are swimming in the river. (None of the words in this sentence is primarily stressed.) (ba*z / kz*lar ~/ ne*hir*de / y*z*yor) They are swimming in the river, not in the sea or in a lake. (sa:*de*ce / kz*lar / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) Only the girls are swimming in the sea. (de*niz*de / kz*lar/ m / y*z*yor) Are the girls swimming in the sea? (Surprise!) (o*cuk*lar ~/ nerde / oy*nu*yor*lar) Where are the children playing? (The question word nerde (where) is used.) The stress and the intonation of some compounds are as follows: Dolap-n i-i-/n/i boyadk. (do*la*bn / i*i*ni / bo*ya*dk) We painted inside the cupboard. Sandalye-/n/in arka-s/-/n/ krd. (san*dal*ye*nin / ar*ka*s*n / kr*d) He broke the back of the chair. When the allomorphs of the [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes are at-tached to the above compounds, these compounds become adverbs: amurlu ayakkab-lar-n-la hal-/n/n st--/n/e basma. (a*mur*lu / a*yak*ka*b*la*rn*la~/ ha*l*n*ns*t*ne / bas*ma) Dont step on the carpet with your muddy shoes. Dn kk bir ocuk ukur-un i-i-/n/e dt. (dn / k*k / bir / o*cuk~ / u*ku*ru*ni*i*ne / d*t) Yesterday a little boy fell into the ditch. Top karyola-/n/n alt--/n/a gitti. (top / kar*yo*la*nn / al*t*na / git*ti) The ball went under the bed. Masa-/n/n st--/n/de dansetti. (ma*sa*nn / s*tn*de / dan*set*ti) She danced on the table.

63

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kedi, karyola-/n/n alt--/n/da uyuyor. (ke*di ~/ kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da / u*yu*yor) The cat is sleeping under the bed. ocuklar, aalar-n alt--/n/da oynuyorlar. (o*cuk*lar~/ a*a*la*rn / al*tn*da / oy*nu*yor*lar) The children are playing under the trees. Anahtar delik-i-/n/den bakma. (a*nah*tar / de*li*in*den / bak*ma) Dont look through the key hole. Bu masa-/n/n st--/n/den atlayabilir misin? (bu / ma*sa*nn / s*tn*den / at*la*ya*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you jump over this table? Koca-/s/-/n/n homurdanma-/s//n/-dan nefret eder. (ko*ca*s*nn / ho*mur*dan*ma*sn*dan / nef*ret / e*der) She hates her husbands grumbling. The allomorphs of [] are [i, , , u]; of [E] are [e, a]; of [DE] are [de, da, te,ta]; and of [DEN] are [den, dan, ten, tan]. The allomorphs of [] follow nouns, pronouns, noun compounds, adjective compounds and nominalized sentences when they are used in the object position. The other three morphemes [E], [DE] and [DEN], follow the same units to produce adverbs. Consider the following sentences: (Ben) masa-/n/n st-/n/-den atladm. Kedi masa/n/n alt-/n/-da uyuyor.
NP noun compound - /n/ den adverb V NP noun compound - /n/da adverb V

(Ben) masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizledim. I cleaned the upper side of the table.
NP NP noun compound (obj) NP noun comp (obj) NP V V

(Biz) kutu-/n/un i-i-/n/i boalttk. We emptied inside the box. (The [] and [i] are the allomorphs of the defining morpheme [].) When the possessor part of a compound ends with a consonant, it takes one of the [in, n, n, un] allomorphs according to the vowel harmony rules; but when it ends with a vowel, it takes one of the same allomorphs together with the glide /n/: Stems ending with consonants: eker-in (e*ke*rin), dil-in (di*lin), hamal-n (ha*ma*ln), sakal-n (sa*ka*ln), gl-n (g*ln), kz-n (*k*zn), okul-un (o*ku*lun), somun-un (so*mu*nun), armut -un (ar*mu*dun), kitap-n (ki*ta*bn), sokak-n (so*ka*n), et-in(e*tin), st-n (s*tn).

64

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Stems ending with vowels: tencere-/n/in (ten*ce*re*nin), gece-/n/in (ge*ce*nin), masa-/n/n (ma*sa*nn), kap-/n/n (ka*p*nn), sng-/n/n (sn*g*nn), grg-/n/n (gr*g*nn), kutu-/n/un (ku*tu*nun), soru-/n/un (so*ru*nun), fare-/n/in (fa*re*nin), testi-/n/in (tes*ti*nin), vazo-/n/un (va*zo*nun). When the possessed part of a compound ends with a consonant, it takes one of the allomorphs of [i, , , u] according to the vowel harmony rules; but if it ends with a vowel, it takes one of the same allomorphs together with the glide /s/: Stems ending with consonants: i-i, ip-i, sap-, alt-, st-, kz-, okul-u, torun-u, at-, kusur-u, eker-i, sepet-i, ay-, nefret-i, duman-, hayran-, kurban-, tavan-, tav-an-, rapor-u, teker-i, saman-, zaman-, kmes-i, motor-u, ot-u Stems ending with vowels: sevgi-/s/i, tencere-/s/i, atk-/s/, bask-/s/, sng-/s/, grg-/s/, kor-ku-/s/u, koku-/s/u, kuku-/s/u, iki-/s/i, fke-/s/i, tatl-/s/, yavru/s/u, kuzu-/s/u, denge-/s/i, uyku-/s/u, duygu-/s/u, oda-/s/, tapu-/s/u, boya-/s/, foya-/s/, dosya-/s/, alma-/s/, (but, su-/y/u) When the possessor and the possessed parts are used together, the compounds look like as follows: dil-in u-u (di*lin / u*cu) (the tip of the tongue); hamal-n aka-/s/ (the joke of the porter); sakal-n boy-u (the length of the beard); kap-/n/n srg/s/ (the bolt of the door); masa-/n/n alt- (the underside of the table); kz-n boynuz-lar- (the horns of the ox); gece-/n/in karanlk- (ka*ran*l*) (the darkness of the night); gl-n koku-/s/u (the smell of the rose); dolap-n (do*la*bn) i-i (inside the cupboard); sorun-un nem-i (the importance of the problem); tartma-/n/n sonu-u (so*nu*cu) (the result of the discussion); kedi-/n/in korku-/s/u (the fright of the cat). Generally, the last syllables of the compounds are stressed; however, when needed, the last syllables of the possessor parts of the compounds can also be stressed. As the above examples are all the third person singular, the possessive adjectives should also be included in the examples above: ben-im kedi-im (my cat); ben-im sa-m (my hair); ben-im okul-um (my

65

TURKISH GRAMMAR
school); ben-im kayg-m (my anxiety); ben-im deneyim-im (my experience); ben-im arzu-um (my wish); ben-im baba-m (my father); benim kusur-um (my fault). sen-in amca-n (your uncle); sen-in ev-in (your house); sen-in kz-n) (your daughter); ben-im rya-m (my dream); sen-in pantolon-un (your trousers); sen-in kararn (ka*ra:*rn) (your decision); sen-in yardm-n (your help); sen-in konuma-n (your talk); sen-in kulaklar-n (your ears); sen-in sabr-n (sab*rn) (your patience); sen-in cesaret-in (ce*sa:*re*tin) (your courage); sen-in gzellik-in (g*zel*li*in) (your beauty); sen-in anne-in (an*nen) (Your mother); sen-in para-n (pa*ran) (your money).. The double underlined vowels drop. o-/n/un renk-i (ren*gi) (its color); o-/n/un cesaret-i (ce*sa:*re*ti) (his courage); o-/n/un araba/s/ (his car); o-/n/un koku/s/u (its smell); o-/n/un yetenek-i (ye*te*ne*i) (his ability); o-/n/un gel-me-/s/i (his coming); o-/n/un gl- (her way of smiling); gl-- (g*l*) (her way of smiling). biz-im ev-imiz (our house); biz-im kitap-lar-mz (our books); biz-im lke-imiz (our country); biz-im hrriyet-imiz (our freedom); biz-im karlar-mz (our interests); biz-im mlk-mz (our property); biz-im ocuklar-mz (our children). siz-in arzu-unuz (your wish); siz-in okul-unuz (your school); siz-in baheiniz (your garden); siz-in kader-iniz (your destiny); siz-in gelme-iniz (your coming); siz-in kahkaha-nz (your laughter); siz-in proje-iniz (your project). onlar-n araba-/s/ (their car); onlar-n ev-i (their house); onlar-n o-cuklar- (their children); onlar-n oyuncak-lar- (their toys); onlar-n yiyecek-i (yi*ye*ce*i) (their food); onlar-n at-lar- (their horses); onlar-n yzme havuz-u (their swimming pool); siz-in ama-nz (a*ma*c*nz) (your aim); siz-in ticaret-iniz (your trade); onlar-n ev-i (their house); onlar-n g- (g*c) (their power); onlar-n aka-/s/ (their joke); onlar-n arzu-/s/u (their wish); onlar-n zara:r- (their harm); onlar-n savun-ma-/s/ (their defense); onlar-n istek-i (is*te*i) (their wish); onlar-n korku-/s/u (their fright). The sentences containing the examples above, and their English equivalents are in the examples below: Vazo masa-/n/n st--/n/de. (va*zo / ma*sa*nn / s*tn*de) The vase is on the table. Vazo-/y/u masa-/n/n st--/n/e koy. (va*zo*yu~ / ma*sa*nn / s*t*ne / koy) Put the vase on the table.

66

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Vazoyu masa-dan al. (va*zo*yu~ / ma*sa*dan / al) Take the vase from the table. Kedi masa-/n/n alt--/n/da. (ke*di ~ / ma*sa*nn / al*tn*da) (ke*di ~/ ma*sa*n*nal*tn*da) The cat is under the table. Top masann alt--/n/a gitti. (top / ma*sa*nn / al*t*na / git*ti) The ball went under the table. Vazoyu kutu-/n/un i-i-/n/e koydu. (va*zo*yu / ku*tu*nun / i*i*ne / koy*du) He put the vase into the box. Tren tnel-in i-i-/n/den geiyor. (tren / t*ne*lin / i*in*den / ge*i*yor) The train is going through the tunnel. Ahmet deniz-e atlad. (ah*met / de*ni*ze / at*la*d) Ahmet jumped into the sea. Ben mikroskop-la baktm. (ben ~ / mik*ros*kop*la / bak*tm) I looked through the microscope. Uak bulutlar-n st--/n/de. (u*ak~ / bu*lut*la*rn / s*tn*de) The plane is above the clouds. Masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizledi. (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*di) She cleaned the surface of the table. Jack, Mary ile Janein ara-/s/-/n/da oturuyor. (Jack ~/ ma:*ri / i*le / jayn*in / a*ra*sn*da / o*tu*ru*yor) Jack is sitting between Mary and Jane. Gzlklerim ayna-/n/n n--/n/de. (gz*lk*le*rim / ay*na*nn / *nn*de) My glasses are in front of the mirror. Hoparlrler perde-/n/in arka-/s/-/n/da. (ho*par*lr*ler / per*de*nin / ar*ka*sn*da) The loudspeakers are behind the curtain.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(The /n/, /s/ and /y/ glides above are showed between slashes, and the noun compounds are printed in italics.) The Turkish equivalents of the English adverbial particles are used as follows in Turkish: "The cat went out." "Kedi diar kt. (ke*di / d*a*r / k*t) "The children came in." "ocuklar ieri (ieri-/y/e) (i*e*ri) geldi (girdi)." "Look down." "Aa (aa-/y/a) bak." (a*a* / bak) "Look up." "Yukar (yukar/y/a) bak." (yu*ka*r / bak) As it is seen, the words "dar, ieri, aa, yukar", which are nouns, can also be used as "dar-/y/a, ieri-/y/e, aa-/y/a". In Turkish, when nouns are suffxed with [e, a] allomorphs, they become adverbs such as "ev-e, okul-a, ar-/y/a", ieri-ye, dar-ya All the above noun compounds are printed in italics. If they are considered together with the [E], [DE] or [DEN] morphemes, they become adverbs in sentences. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS and TURKISH POSTPOSITIONS As has been noted, most English prepositions are expressed in Turkish either in nouns as "st, alt, yan, i", or in [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes attached to nouns. These nouns and morphemes, together with other nouns, function as adverbs or determiners in sentences. These adverbs and determiners are made up of prepositional phrases in English. As a grammar term preposition means coming before nouns; in Turkish, this grammar term should be used as postposition because such words or morphemes are used after nouns:

adverbs:
Jack okul-da.
pred adverb adverb adverb adverb adverb noun compound -/n/[a] adverb noun comp - /n/[den] adverb

Jack is at school.
(prep phrs) pred adverb (prep phrs) adverb (prep phrs) adverb (prep phrs) adverb (prep phrs) adverb prep phrs adverb prep phrs adverb

Jack okul-a gitti. Jack went to school. jack deniz-e dt. Jack fell into the sea. Biz bulutlar-a baktk. We looked at the clouds. Jack okul-dan geldi. Jack came from school. Top masa-/n/n alt--/n/a gitti. The ball went under the table. Kpek it-in st--/n/-den atlad. The dog jumped over the fence.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tren tnel-den geiyor. The train is passing through the tunnel.
adverb (prep phrs) adverb

Jack anahtar deli-i/n/-den bakyor. Jack is looking through the key hole.
noun compound - /n/[den] adverb (prep phrs) adverb

Byk kamyon kpr-/n/n alt-/n/-dan geemedi.

noun compound - /n/[den] adverb

The huge lorry couldnt pass under the bridge.

(prep phrs) adverb

Dolap-n i-i-/n/e bak. Look into the cupboard.

noun compound - /n/[e] adverb (prep phrs) adverb

In the above examples, the underlined English parts of the sentences are structurally prepositional phrases, but they are syntactically adverbs as they are in the Turkish sentences.

determiners:
Masa-nn st-/n/-de-ki vazo ok gzel. The vase on the table is beautiful.
noun compound - /n/[de-ki] determiner (prep phrs) determiner

Vazo-da-ki iekler soldu. The flowers

determiner NP N VP D N

in the vase
(prep phrs) deter NP

have faded.
VP

Deniz-e den ocuk kurtarld. The boy that fell into the sea has been rescued.
determiner NP N VP D N NP determiner VP

Anahtar delii/n/-den bakan ocuk Jackti.

determiner NP N predicate VP

The boy looking through the key hole was Jack

D N (present participle) determiner NP VP

Some Turkish words are used both as postpositions and as adverbs in the following sentences. Compare and consider the following:

bile (adv):
Be yandaki bir ocuk bile iki dil konuabilir.
NP adv NP adv adv intens adv

Even a five year old child can speak two languages. Dondurma kn bile yenilebilir.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Icecream can be eaten even in the winter.
intens adv adv

ok al-sa-m bile baarl olamam.

synt adv of cond adv

I can't succeed even

if I study hard.

intens adv syntactic adv clause of cond

dair (postp):
Olum gezegenler-e dair bir kitap okuyor.
NP postp phrs (determiner) D NP VP N V

My son is reading a book about (on) planets.

prep N determiner

hakknda (postp):
(Ben) ekonomi hakknda birsey syleyemem.
NP N postp determiner NP N N VP

I can't say anything about economics.

[e, a]-dek, [e, a] kadar (postp):

Sabah-a dek (kadar) ders altm. I studied until morning.
postp phrase of time prep phrase of time

[den, dan, ten, tan] dolay (postp):

Pilot, kt hava artlar-/n/-dan dolay uuu ertelemek zorunda kald.
postpositional phrase of cause

The pilot had to postpone the flight because of the bad weather conditions.
prepositional phrase of cause

diye (postp):
Gelecek (gelir) diye bekledim. I waited hoping that he would come.
postp phrase of reason (present participle) adv of reason

Yamur yaar (yaacak) diye emsiyesini ald. He took his umbrella thinking that it might rain.

[e, a] doru (postp):

Otobs dura-/n/a dogru kotular. They ran towards the busstop.
noun compound - [E] + postp postp phrase of direction (prep phrs) adverb

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TURKISH GRAMMAR aa yukar

intens adv

(adv):
adv V intens adv adv

Aa yukar on kilometre yrdler. Threy walked about ten kilometers.

zere (zre) (postp):

Onlar gelmek zere(ler). They are about to arrive.
postp phrase (adverb) prep phrs (adverb)

imi bitirmek zereyim. I am about to finish my work.

gibi (postp):
Broya gidince bir centilmen gibi davranmalsn.
postp phrs of manner

You should behave like a gentleman when you go to the office.

prep phrs of manner

Karm, bir milyoner gibi para harcar.

postp phrs of manner

My wife spends money like a millionaire.

prep phrs of manner

Uak kocaman bir ku gibi uup gitti.

postp phrs of manner

The plane flew away like a huge bird.

prep phrs of manner

Doum gn partisine gidince bir hanmefendi gibi davran.

postp phrs of manner

When you go to the birthday party, behave like a lady.

prep phrs of manner

in (postp):
Jack kompozisyonunu tamamla-mak iin ge vakte kadar oturdu.
(noun + inf + postp) postp phrs of cause

Jack sat up late to complete his homework.

prep phrase of cause

Bu iekler sizin iin. These flowers are for you.

postp phrs (predicate) prep phrs (predicate)

[e, a] nazaran (postp):

Benim arabam senin araban-a nazaran daha ekonomiktir.
(noun comp - [E] + postp) postp phrs adv of comparison

My car is more economical compared to yours. (prep phrs of comparison) Sen teki kzlar-a nazaran daha gzelsin. You are more beautiful compared to other girls.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR THE INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS Fiillere Eklenen ekim Ekleri
Time and personal inflectional morphemes are attached to both nouns, adjectives, prepositional phrases and verbs. The grammar term noun includes proper nouns such as Jack, Mehmet, stanbul, Germany, English; common nouns such as book, table, school, television, and abstract nouns such as poverty, laughter, happiness, kindness, bravery, curiosity. Pronouns are also considered as nouns because they occupy the places of nouns and act as nouns in sentences. Adjectives are words like good, clever, hardworking, wealthy, attractive, etc. A prepositional phrase in English is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends either with a noun (a pronoun, or a gerund), or a clause: on the table", at the table, in the box, at ten oclock, at school, at the door, behind the curtain, in front of the mirror, next to the station, above the clouds, under the table, until morning, since Sunday are all prepositional phrases. In Turkish, however, the equivalents of these prepositions are the [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes, which follow nouns attached to them. When compared, English prepositions are prepositional (they are used before nouns) in the sentence order, but in Turkish, the [], [E], [DE] and [DEN] suffixes are postpositional because they follow nouns. The first category of time morphemes are used either with nouns, adjectives or prepositional phrases, to which [dir, dr,dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur] (present); [di, d, d, du ti, t, t, tu] (past), [mi, m, m, mu] (rumor, inference) morphemes are attached. The olacak word is separately used to convey the meaning of will be. The [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur] allomorphs are not normally used in Simple Present Tenses, but when they are used, they add different concepts to such sentences. These sentences will be explained in the following paragraphs. The equivalents of these morphemes in English are is, are, was, were, has been, have been, will be, will have been, had been and going to be auxiliary verb. THE SIMPLE PRESENT BE The personal allomorphs used with verb be are as follows:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ben): [im, m, m, um]; (sen): [sin, sn, sn, sun]; (o): []; (biz): [iz, z, z, uz]; (siz): [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]; (onlar): [ (ler, lar)] 1. Nouns: Ben bir retmen-im. I am a teacher. Sen bir doktor-sun. You are a doctor. O bir doktor. She is a doctor. Biz doktor-uz. We are doctors. Siz bir retmen-siniz. You are a doctor. Onlar asker. They are soldiers. 2. Adjective: Ben tembel-im. I am lazy. Sen alkan-sn. You are hardworking. O mutlu (dur). She is happy. Biz iyi-/y/iz. We are alright. Siz yorgun-sunuz. You are tired. Onlar istek-siz. They are unwilling. 3. Prepositional phrase: The allomorphs [de, da, te, ta] are expressed in English in the prepositions of in, at or on. For example:

ev-de (at home); okul-da (at school, in school); masa-da (on the table, at the table); kap-da (at the door); kutu-da (in the box); bahe-de (in the garden); hastane-de (in hospital, in the hospital); uak-ta (on the plane). The other [e, a] and [den, dan, ten, tan] allomorphs are not used with verb be; they are used attached to action verbs like go, come, wait, sleep, etc. When the [de, da, te, ta] allomorphs or adjectives are used, the first person singular and plural personal allomorphs are linked to them by the /y/ glides, but the second person singular and plural morphemes are linked to them by the /s/ glides: Postac kap-da. The postman is at the door. Onlar imdi uak-ta. They are on the plane now. Ben kap-da-/y/m. I am at the door. Sen akll-sn. You are clever. O mutfak-ta. She is in the kitchen. Biz hakl-/y/z. We are right. Siz gzel-siniz. You are beautiful. Onlar irkin. They are ugly. The same [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes are also used attached to n, arka, yan, st, kar, sol, sa, alt, bitiik nouns such as n-e, arka-/y/a, yan-a, st-e, kar-/y/a, yukar-/y/a, n-de, arka-da, yan-da, alt-ta, st-te, kar-da, sa-da, sol-da, bitiik-te, n-den, arka-dan, yan-dan, st-ten, kar-dan, sa-dan, yakn-dan. These words are all nouns when they are without suffixes; if they were not, the [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes would not be attached to them. When they are together with these suffixes, they function as adverbs in sentences. Consequently, as these words are all nouns, they are also used in noun compounds like the simple noun compounds such as oda-/n/n kap-/s/; perde-/n/in arka-/s/; ayna-/n/n n-; vazo-/n/un yan-; yata-n alt-; bakkal-n bitii-i; koltu-un sa-; bakkal-n kar-/s/; ev-in arka-/s/.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
When the above [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes are attached to the above noun compounds, they take the /n/ glides. Compare and consider the following sentences: Kedi perde-/n/in arka-/s//-/n/da
noun compound - /n/da predicate adverb

(ke*di / per*de*nin / ar*ka*sn*da). The cat is behind the curtain. Gzlklerim ayna-/n/n n--/n/de. (gz*lk*le*rim / ay*na*nn / *nn*de ) My glasses are in front of the mirror. Terliklerin karyola-/n/n alt--/n/da. (ter*lik*le*rin / kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da) Your slippers are under the bed. Benim ev-im bakkal-n bitiik-i/n/-de. (be*nim / e*vim / bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*in*de). My house is next to the grocer. Sen-in dkkn-n bakkal-n kar-/s/-/n/da. (se*nin / dk*k*nn / bak*ka*ln / kar**sn*da) Your shop is opposite (to) the grocer. stasyon sol-da. (is*tas*yon / sol*da) The station is on the left. stasyon, bakkal-n sol-u-/n/da. (is*tas*yon / bak*ka*ln / so*lun*da) The station is on the left of the grocer. Karm ev-de. (ka*rm / ev*de) My wife is at home. Ben, postane-/n/in n--/n/de-/y/im. (ben / pos*ta:*ne*nin / *nn*de*yim) I am in front of the post office. In the sentences above, there are no time morphemes attached to the words arkasnda, nnde, karsnda, evde, etc. The absence of these time morphemes in the above sentences implies that the time is present. The other [E] and [DEN] morphemes are attached to action verbs:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Herkes pencere-/y/e bakyor. (her*kes / pen*ce*re*ye / ba*k*yor) Everybody is looking at the window. Jane pencere-den bakyor. (jane / pen*ce*re*den / ba*k*yor) Jane is looking out of the window. Jack okul-dan geliyor. (Jack / o*kul*dan / ge*li*yor) Jack is coming from school. renciler okul-a kouyorlar. (*ren*ci*ler / o*ku*la / ko*u*yor*lar) The students are running to school. When one of the allomorphs of the [DR] morpheme is attached to the last words of one of the sentences above, the sentences mean either perhaps" or "I am sure". This difference of meaning can be heard in speech. When the syllable printed in bold type is stressed, the sentence means I am sure; when it is not, it means "perhaps". The allomorphs of this morpheme are [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur]: (ka*r*mev*de*dir) (perhaps); (ka*r*mev*de*dir) (I am sure) The personal morphemes used in this category are as follows: (Ben) ev-de-/y/im. I am at home; (Sen) ev-de-sin. You are at home; (O) ev-de-. She is at home; (Biz) ev-de-/y/iz. We are at home; (Siz) evdesiniz. You are at home; Onlar ev-de(ler). They are at home "Bura, "ura", "ora", bu, u, o can all be used as nouns. When these nouns are attached to [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes, they become adverbs; but if they are attached to the allomorphs of the phoneme [], they can be used in the object positions in sentences: O bura-da (burda). ( o / bur*da) or (o / bur*da) He is here. (noun + [DE] = predicate adverb) Ben bura-da-/y/m (ben / bur*da*ym) or (ben / bur*da*ym) I am here. Kedi ura-da (urda). (ke*di / ur*da) or (ke*di / ur*da) The cat is there.

75

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Onlar ora-da (or-da). (on*lar / or*da) or (on*lar / or*da) They are there. Onlar bura-dan (burdan) gittiler. (on*lar / bur*dan / git*ti*ler ) They left here. Bura-dan (burdan) ayrlma. (bur*dan / ay*rl*ma) Don't leave here. Onlar ora-dan ayrl-yor-lar. (on*lar / or*dan / ay*r*l*yor*lar) They are leaving there. Ben bura/y/ hi grmedim. (ben / bu*ra*y / hi / gr*me*dim) I have never seen here. . Ben bu-/n/u anlamadm. (ben / bu*nu / an*la*ma*dm) I didnt understand this. Ben bunlar- anlamadm. (ben / bun*la*r / an*la*ma*dm) I didnt understand these. The same [DEN] morpheme can be used after bu and o: bu/n/-dan byle (bun*dan / by*le) (from now on); bu/n/-dan sonra (bun*dan / son*ra) (after this) When the nouns or adjectives ending with vowels are attached to [de, da, te, ta] allomorphs, they take /y/ glides when they are attached to the first person singular and plural personal allomorphs: Ben iyi-/y/im. I am all right. Ben burda-/y/m. I am here. Biz iyi-/y/iz. We are all right. Biz evde-/y/iz. We are at home. However, the nouns and adjectives ending with consonants do not need the /y/ glides when they are suffixed with personal allomorphs: Ben retmen-im. (ben / *ret*me*nim) I am a teacher. Ben tem-bel-im. (ben / tem*be*lim) I am lazy. Biz alkan-z. (biz / a*l*ka*nz) We are hardworking.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The personal allomorphs used in this tense are as follows: ben sen o biz siz onlar [im, m, m, um,] [sin, sn, sn, sun] [] [iz, z, z, uz] [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz] [] ([ler, lar])

Ben (bir) retmen-im. (ben / bi*r*ret*me*nim ) I am a teacher. Sen (bir) doktor-sun. (sen / bir / dok*tor*sun) You are a doctor. O (bir) mi:mar. (o / bir / mi: *mar) She is an architect. The /i:/ in the last example shows that the /i:/ vowel is lengthened, and the hyphen (-) is used to separate morphemes, not syllables. The syllables are separated by asterisks (*); and the syllables printed in bold type signify that the syllable is primarily stressed in speech. Biz retmen-iz. (biz / *retme*niz) or (bi*z*ret*me*niz) We are teachers. Sizler retmen-siniz. (siz*ler ~/ *ret*men*si*niz) or (siz*le*r*ret*men*si*niz) You are teachers. Onlar retmen. (on*lar / *ret*men) or (on*la*r*ret*men) They are teachers. Ben iyi-/y/im. (ben / iyi*/y/im) or (be*ni*yi*/y/im) I am all right. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the two successive /i/ vowels.) Ben ev-de-/y/im. (ben / ev*de*yim) or (be*nev*de*yim) I am at home. (The /y/ is a glide inserted between /e/ and /i/ vowels.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Onlar tiyatro-da. (on*lar / ti*yat*ro*da) They are at the theater. Biz stanbul-da-/y/z. (biz / is*tan*bul*da*yz) or (bi*zis*tan*bul*da*yz ) We are in stanbul. Note: The liaisons (The linking of words by pronouncing the final of one word as though it were the initial consonant of a following word. Websters New World Dictionary) between syllables are sometimes used in the second syllable divisions to show how the sentences are pronounced in ordinary speech. The /y/ glides in the above sentences are used to link the successive vowels /i/ and /i/ in "iyi/y/im", /e/ and /i/ in "evde/y/im" and /a/ and // in "stanbulda/y/z" harmoniously. The above Present Tense verb composition of the Turkish language is also used to express The Present Perfect Tense time concept of the English language. In languages, tense and time are different notions. The tense is the physical composition of a verb; but time is an unsteady mental activity. In other words, one can use the same verb composition to express two different time concepts. For instance, English people say, "I have been here for an hour, but Turkish people say "*I am here for an hour." This shows us that Turkish people use The Simple Present verb form of the verb "be" both for the Simple Present and for the Present Perfect tenses of the English language. Compare and consider the following sentences: (Ben) imdi ev-de-/y/im. (ben / im*di / ev*de*yim) I am at home now. (Ben) iki saattir ev-de-/y/im. (ben / i*ki / sa*at*tir / ev*de*yim) I have been at home for two hours. (Ben) saat sekiz-den beri ev-de-/y/im. (ben / sa*at / se*kiz*den / be*ri / ev*de*yim) I have been at home since eight oclock. Aye on senedir retmen. (ay*e / on / se*ne*dir / *ret*men) Aye has been a teacher for ten years.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) iki saattir bur(a)da-/y/m. (ben / i*ki / sa*at*tir / bur*da*ym) I have been here for two hours. As it is seen in the above sentences, two different concepts of time of the English language are expressed in only one verb composition in Turkish. imdi, iki saattir and saat sekizden beri expressions are enough to convey the difference of time. The personal pronouns in the above sentences are optional elements because they can be understood from the personal morphemes attached to the verbs of the sentences. However, when the third person singular or plural pronouns are used in place of proper nouns, one cannot understand who those pronouns stand in for. For example, when I say, I went to Ankara you do not need to ask, Who went to Ankara?" However, when I say, She went to Ankara you immediately ask who she is. Therefore, in the sentence, Ankaraya gitti the zero morpheme [], which stands for O, does not clearly express who the real person is being talked about. However, if the name of the real person has already been mentioned, the personal pronoun O can naturally be used. To change the above sentences into the negative form, the word deil is used together with personal morphemes: deil-im, deil-sin, deil, deil-iz, deil-siniz, degil(ler) Ben doktor deil-im. (ben / dok*tor / de*i*lim) I am not a doctor. ocuklar evde deil. (o*cuk*la*rev*de / de*il) The children are not at home. Baz ocuklar bahede deil. (ba*z / o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / de*il) Some boys are not in the garden. ocuklar evde-dir. (o*cuk*lar / ev*de*dir) Im sure the children are at home. ocuklar evde deil-dir. (o*cuk*lar / ev*de / de*il* dir) The children may not (or "can't ) be at home.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
When one of the allomorphs of the morpheme [DR] is used, the sentence gains the concepts of either perhaps or Im sure: (o*cuk*lar / ev*de*dir) (perhaps); (o*cuk*lar / ev*de*dir) (Im sure) Btn kzlar gzel-dir. (b*tn / kz*lar / g*zel* dir) Im sure all girls are beautiful. (certainty) Btn kzlar gzel deil-dir. (b*tn / kz*lar/ g*zel / de*il*dir) In my opinion, all girls are not beautiful. (uncertainty) Btn kzlar gzel deildir. (b*tn / kz*lar / g*zel / de*il*dir) All girls are not beautiful. (certainty) O bir retmen. She is a teacher. (neutral) O (bir) retmen deil. (o / *ret*men / de*il) She is not a teacher. (certainty) O bir retmen degil-dir. (de*il*dir) Perhaps, she is not a teacher. (uncertainty) Kocam yorgun. My husband is tired. Kocam yorgun deil. (de*il) My husband is not tired. Kocam yorgun-dur. (Kocam yorgun olabilir.) (possibility) Perhaps my husband is tired, or he may be tired. Ahmet evde deil-dir. (ah*met / ev*de / de*il*dir) I guess Ahmet is not at home. Sanrm (o) o kadar aptal deil-dir. (sa*n*rm / o / ka*dar / ap*tal / de*il*dir) I guess he is not so stupid. THE PRESENT MODALS WITH VERB BE

must be (ol-mal)
When ol-mal is used after nouns, adjectives, or postpositional phrases it means must be: Kocam yorgun ol-mal. (ko*cam / yor*gun / ol*ma*l) My husband must be tired. (I am sure he is tired.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bu araba pahal ol-mal. (bu / a*ra*ba / pa*ha*l / ol*ma*l) This car must be expensive. (I am sure it is.) (Sen) yorgun ol-mal-sn. (yor*gun / ol*ma*l*sn) You must be tired. (I am sure you are tired.) (Biz) saat sekizde okulda ol-mal-/y/z. (sa*at / se*kiz*de / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l*yz) We must be at school at eight. (obligation) Zamannda hazr ol-mal-sn. (za*ma:*nn*da / ha*zr / ol*mal*sn) You must be ready in time. (obligation) Onlar cahil ol-mal. (on*lar / ca:*hil / ol*ma*l) They must be ignorant. (I am certain that they are ignorant.) Sen saat dokuzda okulda ol-mal-sn. (sen / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l*sn) You must be at school at nine. (obligation or certainty) Ben deli ol-mal-/y/m! (ben / de*li / ol*ma*l*ym) I must be crazy. I am certain that I am crazy. Bu araba pahal-dr. = Bu araba pahal ol-mal. This car must be expensive. Sen bir retmen ol-mal-sn. I guess you are a teacher. As one can see, both the concepts of obligation and certainty can be expressed by using the same modal sentence structure. This proves that the semantic component chooses the most suitable and available sentence pattern in its store to transfer one of these two different thoughts into a surface structure.

cant be ( ol-a-ma-z) (impossibility)

To change the ol-mal sentences into he negative form, ol-a-ma-z (cant be) is used: Kocam yorgun ol-a-ma-z. (ko*cam / yor*gun / o*la*maz) My husband cant be tired. (impossibility)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
ocuklar bahede ol-mal. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ol*ma*l) The children must be in the garden. (certainty) ocuklar bahede ol-a-ma-z. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / o*la*maz) The children cant be in the garden. (impossibility) Film ilin ol-mal. (film / il*gin / ol*ma*l) The film must be interesting. (certainty) O film ilgin ol-a-ma-z. (o / film / il*gin / o*la*maz) That film cant be interesting. (impossibility) Ben tembel ol-a-ma-m. (ben / tem*bel / o*la*mam) I cant be lazy. (impossibility) Biz o saatte okulda ol-a-ma-/y/z. (biz / o /sa*at*te / o*kul*da / o*la*ma*yz) We cant be at school at that hour. (impossibility) Onlar hakl ol-a-ma-z-lar. (on*lar / hak*l / o*la*maz*lar) They cant be right. (impossibility) (Sen) saat dokuzda broda ol-a-ma-z m-sn? (sen / sa*at / do*kuz*da / b*ro*da / o*la*maz / m*sn) Can't you be at the office at nine? (Isn't it possible?) O bir geri zekl ol-a-ma-z. ( o / bir / ge*ri / ze*k:*l / o*la*maz) She cant be a fool.

may be ( ol-a-bil-ir) (possibility)

When ol-a-bil-ir (o*la*bi*lir) is used after a noun, an adjective, or a noun[DE], it means may be. The [ir] allomorph conveys the present time, which has no allomorphs as a result of the [ebil, abil] allomorphs preceding it. ocuklar bahede ol-a-bil-ir. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / o*la*bi*lir) The children may be in the garden. (possibility)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bu iek demeti sizin iin ol-a-bil-ir. (bu / i*ek / de*me*ti~ / si*zi*ni*in / o*la*bi*lir) This bunch of flowers may be for you. (possibility) Konser ilgin ol-a-bil-ir. (kon*ser / il*gin / o*la*bi*lir) The concert may be interesting. (possibility) Kedi, kap-/n/n arka-/s//n/-da ol-a-bil-ir. (ke*di / ka*p*nn / ar*ka*sn*da / o*la*bi*lir) The cat may be behind the door. (possibility) Uak bulut-lar-n zeri/n/-de ol-a-bil-ir. (u*ak / bu*lut*la*rn / *ze*rin*de / o*la*bi*lir) The plane may be above the clouds. (possibility) (Ben) mutsuz ol-a-bil-ir-im. (mut*suz / o*la*bi*li*rim) I may be unhappy. (possibility) Sen inat ol-a-bil-ir-sin. (sen / i*nat* / o*la*bi*lir*sin) You may be obstinate. (possibility) Onlar yanl-m ol-a-bil-ir-ler. (on*lar / ya*nl*m / o*la*bi*lir*ler) They may be wrong. (possibility) Saat dokuzda broda ol-a-bil-ir mi-sin? (sa*at / do*kuz*da / b*ro*da / o*la*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you be at the office at 9? (Is it possible for you?) Saat onda bana telefon et-e-bil-ir mi-sin? (sa*at / on*da / ba*na / te*le*fon / e*de*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you ring me up at 10? Bu mektubu imdi daktilo et-e-bil-ir mi-sin? Can you type this letter now?

may not be (ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir) (ol*ma*ya*bi*lir) (negative possibility)

To put the above sentences into the negative possibility form, ol-ma/y/a-bilir-im, ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-sin, ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir, ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-iz, ol-ma/y/a-bil-ir-siniz, and ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-ler words are separately used: Sen hakl ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-sin. (sen / hak*l / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*sin) You may not be right. (negative possibility)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sen hakl ol-a-ma-z-sn. (sen / hak*l / o*la*maz*sn) You cant be right. (impossibility) Yarn hava iyi ol-a-bil-ir. (ya*rn / ha*va / i*yi / o*la*bi*lir) It may be fine tomorrow. (possibility) Yarn hava iyi ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir. (ya*rn / ha*va / i*yi / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir) It may not be fine tomorrow. (negative possibility) Biz yarn stanbulda ol-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-iz. (biz / ya*rn / is*tan*bul*da / ol*ma*ya*bi*li*riz) We may not be in stanbul tomorrow. (negative possibility) THE QUESTION FORMS OF VERB BE To put the above sentences into the question form, miyim?, misin?, mi?, miyiz?, misiniz?, ler mi? words or their allomorphs (mi/y/im, m-/y/m, m/y/m, mu-/y/um, etc.) are separately used. Although these question words are separately written, they follow the vowel harmony rules: ocuklar okulda m? (o*cuk*lar / o*kul*da / m) Are the children at school? Saat dokuzda evde misin? (sa*at / do*kuz*da / ev*de / mi*sin) Are you at home at nine? Deli misin? (de*li*mi*sin) Are you crazy? Cocuklar evde ol-a-bil-ir mi? (o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir*mi) Can the children be at home? (possibility) O hakl ol-a-bil-ir. (o / hak*l / o*la*bi*lir) He can be or may be right. O hakl ol-a-bil-ir mi? (o / hak*l / o*la*bi*lir* mi) Can he be right? (possibility)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ben hakl ol-a-ma-z mym? (ben / hak*l / o*la*maz / m*ym) Cant I be right? Zamannda evde ol-a-ma-z msn? (za*ma:*nn*da / ev*de / o*la*maz / m*sn) Cant you be home in time? Hava yarn iyi ol-a-bil-ir mi? (ha*va / ya*rn / i*yi / o*la*bi*lir mi) Is it likely to be fine tomorrow?

have to be, should be (ought to be), neednt be

Consider and compare the following examples: Yorgun ol-mal-sn. (yor*gun / ol*ma*l*sn) You must be tired. (I am sure you are tired.) Yarn saat dokuzda okulda ol-mal-sn. (ya*rn / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l*sn) You must be at school at nine. (I want you to be at school at 9.) (obligation) Sen saat dokuzda burda ol-ma-mal-sn. (sa*at / do*kuz*da / bur*da / ol*ma*ma*l*sn) You mustnt be here at nine. (I dont want you to be here at nine.) (obligation) Saat dokuzda okulda ol-mal-/y/m. (sa*at / do*kuz*da /o*kul*da / ol*ma*l*ym) I must be at school at nine. (internal obligation) (I myself want to be at school at nine.) Ben saat dokuzda okulda ol-a-ma-m. (sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / o*la*mam) I cant be at school at nine. (impossibility)

have to be (ol-mak + zorunda-[/y/m, -sn, -, -/y/z, -snz, -lar ])

Saat dokuzda okulda ol-mak zorunda-/y/m. I have to be at school at nine.
infinitive infinitive

(sa*at / do*kuz*da~ / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da*ym) (They want me to be at school at nine; this is the rule.) (external obligation) renciler, alkan ol-mak zorunda. (*ren*ci*ler ~/ a*l*kan / ol*mak / zo*run*da) Students have to be hardworking. (This is their duty.) (external obligation)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) saat dokuzda okulda ol-mak zorunda deil-im. (ben~ / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da / de*i*lim) I don't have to be (or neednt be) at school at nine tomorrow. (absence of external obligation) Saat dokuzda okulda ol-mak zorunda m/y/z? (sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da / m*yz) Do we have to be at school at nine? Bu yeni szckleri renmek zorunda/y/m. (bu / ye*ni / sz*ck*le*ri / *ren*mek / zo*run*da*ym) I have to learn these new words. (external obligation)

neednt be (possessed infinitive - [e, a] + gerek yok )

Ben okul-da olur-um. ben-im okul-da ol-ma-m
abstract sentence transformed nominalized sent.

(Ben-im) saat dokuzda okulda ol-ma-m-a gerek yok

noun + infinitive compound (synt noun)

(be*nim / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*ma*ma / ge*rek / yok) I neednt be at school at nine. I dont have to be at school at nine. (The double underlined // in m drops. The last [a] is one of the allomorphs of the morpheme [E].) (lack of external obligation) (Ben-im) yarn leden sonra broda ol-ma-m-a gerek yok. (be*nim ~/ ya*rn / *le*den / son*ra / b*ro*da / ol*ma*ma / ge*rek / yok) I neednt be at the office tomorrow afternoon. I dont have to be (Siz-in) hazr ol-ma-n-z gerek(iyor. (ha*zr / ol*ma*nz / ge*re*ki*yor) You have to be ready. You should be ready. You ought to be ready. (external obligation) (Sen-in) kayglan-ma-n-a gerek yok. (se*nin / kay*g*lan*ma*na / ge*rek / yok) You neednt be anxious. Yeni bir araba almamza gerek yok. (ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*ma*m*za / ge*rek / yok ) We neednt buy a new car. Kzmana gerek yok. (kz*ma*na / ge*rek / yok) You neednt be angry.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Barmana gerek yok; sar deilim. (ba*r*ma*na / ge*rek / yok) (sa*r / de*i*lim) You neednt shout; I am not deaf. THE SIMPLE PAST VERB BE The past morpheme of [DR] is [D], which has eight allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]. These allomorphs are naturally followed by personal allomorphs: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : [im, m, m, um] [in, n, n, un] [] [ik, k, k, uk] [iniz, nz, nz, unuz] [] (ler, lar)

Note: There are two kinds of first person plural personal morphemes, [Z] and [K] attached to time morphemes in Turkish. The time morphemes ending with consonants are attached to the [iz, z, z, uz] allomorphs such as gid-er-iz, kal-r-z, ksr-r-z, gel-iyor-uz, etc. The time allomorphs ending with vowels [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] and condition allomorphs [se, sa] are attached to [ik, k, k, uk] allomorphs such as gel-diik, gr-d-k, ald-k, gel-se-ik, oku-sa-k, ge-ti-ik, sat-tk. As a general rule, when the personal allomorphs whose first phonemes are all vowels, are attached to the allomorphs of the morphemes [D] and [SE], their first vowels drop. These vowels are double underlined in the examples: gel-ir-iz, gel-iyor-uz, gel-ecek-iz, gel-mi-iz, gel-meli-/y/iz, gel-ebil-ir-iz, al-ma-l-/y/z, dn-r-z gel-di-ik (gel*dik), gel-iyor-du-uk (ge*li*yor*duk), gel-meli/y/-di-ik (gel*me*liy*dik), gel-se/y/-di-ik (gel*sey*dik), gel-mi-se-ik (gel*mi*sek), a-l-sa-k (a*l*sak) Dn hasta/y/-d-m. (dn / has*tay*dm) I was ill yesterday. (The /y/ is a glide, and the double underlined // vowel drops.) Siz dn sinema-da/y/-d-nz. (siz / dn / si*ne*ma*day*d*nz) You were at the cinema yesterday. (The /y/ is a glide.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Oyun ilgin-ti. (o*yun / il*gin*ti) The play was interesting. Biz hazr-d-k. (biz / ha*zr*dk) We were ready. Onlar zengin-di-ler. (on*lar / zen*gin*di*ler) They were wealthy. To put the above sentences into the negative form deildim, deildin, deildi, deildik, deildiniz, deillerdi words are separately added to the sentences: Dn hasta deil-di-im. (dn / has*ta / de*il*dim) I wasnt ill yesterday. Siz dn okulda deil-di-iniz. (siz / dn / o*kul*da / de*il*di*niz) You werent at school yesterday. Dn hava gzel deil-di. (dn / ha*va / g*zel / de*il*di) It wasnt fine yesterday. Biz geen hafta Bursada deil-di-ik. (biz / ge*en / haf*ta ~ / bur*sa*da / de*il*dik) We werent in Bursa last week. Onlar birka yl nce varlkl deil-ler-di. (on*lar / bir*ka / yl / n*ce / var*lk*l / de*il*ler*di) They werent wealthy a few years ago. The following words are used to put t he above example sentences into the positive question form: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : mi/y/-di-im, m/y/-d-m, m/y/-d-m, mu/y/-du-um mi/y/-di-in, m/y/-d-n, m/y/-d-n, mu/y/-du-un mi/y/-di, m/y/-d, m/y/-d, mu/y/-du mi/y/-di-ik, m/y/-d-k, m/y/-d-k, mu/y/-du-uk mi/y/-di-iniz, m/y/-d-nz, m/y/-d-nz, mu/y/-du-unuz. mi/y/-di-ler, m/y/-d-lar, m/y/-d-ler, mu/y/-du-lar

All the double underlined vowels above drop.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Although these words follow the vowel harmony rule patterns when they are articulated and written, they are considered to be words and so they are separately written. The /y/ phonemes used above are all glides. Dn hasta m/y/-d-n? (dn / has*ta / my*dn) Were you ill yesterday? Ma skc m/y/-d? (ma / s*k*c / my*d) Was the match boring? ocuklar mutlu mu/y/-du-(lar)? (o*cuk*lar / mut*lu / muy*du*lar) Were the children happy? Sorular zor mu/y/-du? (so*ru*lar / zor / muy*du) Were the questions difficult? Onlar zengin mi/y/-di-(ler)? (on*lar / zen*gin / miy*di*ler) Were they wealthy? Mutlu mu/y/-du-un? (mut*lu / muy*dun) Were you happy? The [mi, m, m, mu] question allomorphs can also be used after the primarily stressed words: (dnm / has*tay*dn); (so*ru*larm / zor*du); (so*ru*lar / zor*muy*du) In order to form negative questions, deil and the above miydim, miydin, miydi, miydik, miydiniz, miydiler words are separately used: Dn okulda deil mi/y/-di-in? (dn / o*kul*da / de*il / miy*din) Werent you at school yesterday? Ma heyecanl deil mi/y/-di? Wasnt the match exciting? Manzara gzel deil mi/y/-di? Wasnt the scenery beautiful? Arkadalarn toplantda deiller mi/y/-di (deil mi/y/-di-ler)?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ar*ka*da*la*rn / top*lan*t*da / de*il*ler / miy*di) Werent your friends at the meeting? Konser pahal deil mi/y/-di? (kon*ser / pa*ha*l / de*il / miy*di) Wasnt the concert expensive? Sen evde deil mi/y/-di-in? (sen / ev*de / de*il / miy*din) Werent you at home? The Turkish Past form of be is also used in place of Past Perfect be had been. Compare the following: Babam ldnde ben yirmi be yldr retmendim. (ba*bam / l*d*n*de ~/ ben / yir*mi / be / yl*dr / *ret*men*dim) I had been a teacher for twenty- five years when my father died. kinci Dnya Sava sona erdiinde ben yedi yldr renciydim. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va* / so*na / er*di*in*de~ / ben / ye*di / yl*dr / *ren*ciy*dim) I had been a student for seven years when the second World War ended. INTERROGATIVE WORDS Kim? (who?) (noun, asks about the subject); ne? (what?) (noun, asks about the subject or the object); niin?, neden? (why?) (adverb, asks the cause of the action); nasl? (how?) (adverb, asks about in what way, by what means, in what condition or health the subject is); nere-de?, nere/y/e? (where?) (adverb of place); kim-i (who?, whom?) (noun, asks about the object); hangi-/s/i?, hangi-/s/i-/n/i (which?); kim iin? (for whom?); kime? (to whom?); kim-le? (with whom?); kim hakknda? (about whom?); kim-den? (from whom?); kim tarafndan? (by whom?); ne zaman-dan beri? (since when?); saat katan beri? (since what time?); Ne-/y/in st-/n/-de? (What is it on?); Neyin alt-/n/-da? (What is it under?); Ne-/y/in i-i/n/-de? (What is it in?). Sen kim-sin? (sen / kim sin) Who are you? Ben Jackim. (ben / Ja* kim) Im Jack. Sen-in meslek-in ne? (se*nin / mes*le*in / ne) What are you? What is your profession?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ben renci-/y/im. (ben / *ren*ci*yim) I am a student. (The /y/ is a glide.) Anneniz nasl? (an*ne*niz / na*sl) How is your mother? ok iyi, teekkr ederim. (o*ki*yi / te*ek*kr / e*de*rim) She is quite well, thank you. stanbulda hava nasl? (is*tan*bul*da / ha*va / na*sl) What is the weather like in stanbul? Yamurlu. (ya*mur*lu) Rainy. Kz kardeinin ad ne? (kz / kar*de*i*nin / a*d / ne) What is your sisters name? Onun ad Jane. (o*nu*na*d /Jane) Her name is Jane. Bu iekler kim iin? (bu / i*ek*ler / ki mi*in) Who are these flowers for? Onlar annem iin. (on*lar~ / an*nem / i*in) They are for my mother. Vazo ne-/y/in stnde? (va*zo / ne*yin / s*tn*de) What is the vase on? Kpek ne-/y/in arkasnda? (k*pek / ne*yin / ar*ka*sn*da) What is the dog behind? Dn sen kim-le/y/-di-in? (dn / sen / kimley*din) Who were you with yesterday?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ne zaman-dan beri burdasn? (ne / za*man*dan / be*ri / bur*da*sn) Since when have you been here? Ne kadar zaman-dr bur(a)dasn? ( ne / ka*dar / za*man*dr / bur*da*sn) How long have you been here? Hangi kitap senin? (hangi / ki*tap /se*nin) Which book is yours? Hangi-/s/i senin? (hangi*si / se*nin) Which is yours? Hangi-/s/i daha hesapl? (hangi*si / da*ha / he*sap*l) Which is more economical? Kedi ne-/y/in alt-/n/da? (ke*di / ne*yin / al*tn*da) What is the cat under? iekler ne-/y/in i-i-/n/de-/y/di ? (i*ek*ler / ne*yin / i*in*dey*di) What were the flowers in? Hangi-/s/i-/n/i tercih edersin? (hangi*si*ni / ter*cih / e*der*sin) Which do you prefer? Nerede-/s/in (nerdesin)? (nerde*sin) Where are you? Okulun nasl? (o*ku*lun / na*sl) What is your school like? Araban ne renk? (a*ra*ban / ne / renk) What color is your car? Hangi kitap daha iyi? (hangi / ki*tap / da*ha / i*yi) Which book is better?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kim-le beraber-sin? (kim le /be*ra:*ber*sin) Who are you with? Jack niin evde deil? (Jack / ni in / ev*de / de*il) Why isnt jack at home? stanbulda ne kadar kalmay plnlyorsun? (is*tan*bul*da / ne / ka*dar / kal*ma*y / pln*l*yor*sun ) How long do you plan to stay in stanbul? Hangimiz daha yakklyz? (hani*miz / da*ha / ya*k*k*l*yz) Which one of us is more handsome? [M] (RUMOR, INFERENCE) (SYLENTI, ANLAM IKARMA) This morpheme gives the predicates the meaning of rumor or inference. It has four allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], and the usual personal allomorphs follow them: O bir mimar-m. (o / bir / mi:*mar*m) They say that he is (was) an architect. O mahkm susuz-mu. (o / mah*km~ / su*suz*mu) They say that the prisoner is (was) innocent. O tembel-mi. (o / tem*bel*mi) People say that he is (was) lazy. Okul-da/y/-m. (o*kul*day*m) They say that he is (was) at school. O bir casus-mu. ( o / bir / ca:*sus*mu) They say that he is (was) a spy. Ben tembel-mi-im. (ben / tem*bel*mi*im) They say that I am (was) lazy. Ben eskiden tembel-mi-im. (ben / es*ki*den~ / tem*bel*mi*im) They say that I was lazy in the past.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Senin kzlarn yaramaz-m. (se*nin / kz*la*rn~ / ya*ra*maz*m) They say that your daughters are naughty. Siz okulda/y/-m-snz. (siz / o*kul*day*m*s*nz) They say that you were at school. In the above sentences, who says is either unknown or unimportant, or the speaker does not want to mention his or her name. If who says is unknown or unimportant, such sentences can also be used in indirect speech: Snavlarn gemi. They say that he has passed his examinations. Arabas satlm. They said that his car had been sold. Kim-mi?, nere-de/y/-mi?, nere-de/y/-mi-sin?, ne/y/-mi? and the like question words are naturally used in these sentences: O ne/y/mi? (o / neymi) What do they say he (is) was? Mimar-m. (mi:*mar*m) They say he (is) was an architect. Ben ne/y/-mi-im? (ben / ney mi*im) What do they say I am (was)? Tembel-mi-sin. (tem*bel*mi*sin) They say you are (were) lazy. Kim-in kz-lar- yaramaz-m? (ki*min / kz*la*r / ya*ra*maz*m) Whose daughters do they say are (were) naughty? Jack nerde/y/mi? (Jack / ner dey*mi) Where do they say Jack is (was)? Kim hakl/y/m? (kim / hak*ly*m ) Who do they say is (was) right?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
THE FUTURE FORM OF BE: WILL BE The future form of the verb be is ol-[acak]-pers in Turkish: Yarn hava gne-li ol-acak. (ya*rn / ha*va / g*ne*li / o*la*cak) It will be sunny tomorrow. It is going to be sunny tomorrow. Bir gn zengin ol-acak-sn. (bir / gn / zen*gin / o*la*cak*sn) You will be wealthy some day. Yarn okulda ol-ma-/y/acak-m. (ya*rn / o*kul*da / ol*ma*ya*ca*m) I wont be at school tomorrow. Saat sekizde hazr ol-acak m-sn (olur musun)? ( sa*at / se*kiz*de / ha*zr / o*lur / mu*sun) Will you be ready at eight oclock tomorrow? (request) Saat kata hazr ol-acak-snz? (sa*at / ka*ta / ha*zr / o*la*cak*s*nz) What time will you be ready? As the verb stem is always ol, only the [acak] allomorph is used. The other [ecek] allomorph is used with action verbs: gel-ecek, kal-acak. THERE IS, THERE ARE; HAVE, HAVE GOT Var & Yok The equivalents of the above expressions in Turkish are -de var, -da var, and ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un var. Consider the following sentences: Garaj-da bir araba var. (ga*raj*da / bir / a*ra*ba / var ) There is a car in the garage. (exist) Garajda (ben-im) sadece bir araba-m var.
noun compound

(ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*bam / var) I have (got) only one car in the garage. (possess) Uak-ta on yolcu var. (u*ak*ta / on / yol*cu / var) There are ten passengers on the plane. (exist) (Ben-im) iki kz-m var. (be*nim / i*ki / k*zm / var)
noun compound

Ive (got) two daughters. (possess)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Senin) ka erkek karde-in var? (se*nin~/ ka / er*kek / kar*de*in / var) How many brothers have you? (Senin) ka para-n var? (se* nin / ka / pa*ran / var) How much money have you got? (possess) The negative of var is yok: Garajda hi araba yok. (ga*raj*da / hi / ar*ra*ba / yok) There arent any cars in the garage. (not exist) (Ben-im) araba-m yok.
noun compound noun compound noun compound

(be*nim / a*ra*bam / yok) I havent got a car. The past form of the above expression is var-d; there was, had got: Garajda sadece bir araba var-d. (ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*ba / var*d) There was only one car in the garage. (exist) (Ben-im) ok para-m var-d. I had (got) a lot of money. (possess)
noun compound

Uakta on yolcu var-d. There were ten passengers on the plane. (exist) The negative form of var-d is yok-tu: there wasnt, didnt have Yirmi sene nce (ben-im) ok para-m yoktu.
noun compound

I didnt have much money twenty years ago. (not possess) Mutfakta bir masa yoktu. (mut*fak*ta / bir / ma*sa / yok*tu) There wasnt a table in the kitchen. (not exist) Duvarlarda hi resim yoktu. (du*var*lar*da / hi / re*sim / yok*tu) There werent any pictures on the walls. (not exist) Onun hi ocuu yoktu. (o*nun / hi / o*cu*u / yok*tu) He didnt have any children.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
THERE USED TO BE, USED TO HAVE The Turkish equivalent of there used to be is also var-d: Kede bir postane vard. (k*e*de / bir / pos*ta:*ne / var*d) There used to be a post office on the corner. (existed in the past, not now) Snflarda ok renci vard. (s*nf*lar*da / ok / *ren*ci / var*d) There used to be a lot of students in classes. (existed in the past, not now) (Ben-im) ok para-m vard. (be*nim~ / ok / pa*ram / var*d) I used to have a lot of money. (possessed in the past, not now) THERE MUST (MAY) (SHOULD) BE, THERE CANT BE, THERE IS GOING TO BE Ol-mal (there must be); ol-a-ma-z (there cant be); ol-acak (there is going to be, there will be); "ol-a-bil-ir" (there may be); ol-ma-/s/ gerekir (there should be) expressions must also be included in the above sentence types: lerde bir kaza ol-mal. (i*ler*de / bir / ka*za: / ol*ma*l) There must be an accident ahead. Bir yanl anlama ol-mal. (bir / yan*l / an*la*ma / ol*ma*l) There must be a misunderstanding. Bu mektupta bir yanllk ol-a-ma-z. (bu / mek*tup*ta / bir / yan*l*lk / o*la*maz) There cant be a mistake in this letter. Kavga kacak (olacak). (kav*ga / *ka*cak) There is going to be a fight. Bir hava saldrs olacak. (bir / ha*va / sal*d*r*s / o*la*cak) There is going to be an air raid. Bu mektupta baz yanllar ol-a-bil-ir. (bu / mek*tup*ta~ / ba:*z / yan*l*lk*lar / o*la*bi*lir) There may be some mistakes in this letter.
noun compound

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Burada bir trafik polisi olmas gerekir. (bur*da / bir / tra*fik / po*li*si / ol*ma*s / ge*re*kir) There should be a traffic police officer here. IMPERATIVES and WISHES Direct orders are given to a second person by using a verb stem without using any suffixes such as "Bura/y/a gel" (Come here); "Ku-lar-a bak" (Look at the birds); "St--/n/ i "(Drink your milk); "Pencere-den bak" (Look out of the window); "Bir fincan kahve buyur!" (Have a cup of coffee!); "Elenmene bak!" ( Have a nice time!) (Enjoy yourself!) One cannot usually give orders to himself or herself, so there is not a first person order form. Orders are given to the second person as a rule. However, an order may also be given to the third person indirectly. A speaker gives orders to the second person to be transferred to a third person. The last syllable of an imperative sentence is primarily stressed and dropped sharply, which is symbolized with a falling arrow (): Git-sin. (git*sin) Tell him to go; let him go. Arabam yka-sn. (a*ra*ba*m / y*ka*sn) Tell him to wash my car. Grlty kes-sin-ler! (g*rl*t*y / kes*sin*ler) Tell them to stop making a noise! The orders that are given with the verb "ol" and et (be) are widely used in both English and Turkish. In such sentences the primarily stressed syllables are the last syllables of the adjectives and adverbs: Sabrl ol! (sa*br*l / ol) Be patient! Dikkat et! (Dikkatli ol!) (dik*ka*tet) (dik*kat*li / ol) Be careful! Hemen hazr ol! (he*men / ha*zr / ol) Be ready soon! Hemen hazr ol-sun-lar! (he*men / ha*zr / ol*sun*lar) Tell them to be ready soon!

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Negative orders are given by attaching [me, ma] allomorphs to verb stems or frames: Pencereden sark-ma! (pen*ce*re*den / sark*ma) Don't lean out of the window! Caddeyi koarak ge-me! (cad*de*yi / ko*a*rak / ge*me) Don't run across the street! Ge kal-ma! (ge / kal*ma) Don't be late! Iklar kapat-ma-/y/ unut-ma! (*k*la*r / ka*pat*ma*y / u*nut*ma) Don't forget to turn off the lights! Sabr-sz ol-ma! (sa*br*s*zol*ma) Don't be impatient! anta-n al-n-ma*sn! (an*tan / a*ln*ma*sn) Be careful not to have your handbag stolen! The [me, ma] negation allomorphs are added to verb stems followed by the third person personal allomorphs [sin, sn] to change the verb into the negative form: Buraya gel-me-sin. (bu*ra*ya / gel*me*sin) Tell him not to come here. "Don't let him come here." For the third person plural [ler, lar] allomorphs are added to the negative verbs: "Gel-me-sin-ler" (gel*me*sin*ler). "Bala-ma-sn-lar" (ba*la*ma*sn*lar). WISH (stek) To turn a verb stem into the wish mood, [e, a] and the personal allomorphs are added: Al-a-/y/m. (a*la*ym) Let me take. Bak-a-/y/m! (ba*ka*ym) Let me see! (Let me have a look!) Git-e-/y/im. (gi*de*yim) Let me go.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
All the verb stems used above end with consonants, but when they end with vowels, the /y/ glides are inserted between their last vowels and the [e, a] allomorphs: Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*ye*yim) or (bek*li*ye*yim) Let me wait. However, in speech, the /y/e syllable attached to bekle is dropped, and the word becomes (bek*le*yim). Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*yim) Let me wait. Ertele-/y/e-/y/im. (er*te*le*yim) Let me postpone. For the first person plural, [li-im, l-m] personal allomorphs are used after the [e, a] allomorphs: Al-a-l-m. (a*la*lm) Let us take (buy). Se-e-li-im. (se*e*lim) Let us choose. Bala-/y/a-l-m. (ba*la*ya*lm) Let us begin. Oku-/y/a-l-m. (o*ku*ya*lm) Let us read. Bekle-/y/e-li-im (bek*le*ye*lim) Let us wait. The verb stems above ending with vowels, such as "bala", "oku" and "bekle" are attached to the [e, a] wish allomorphs with the /y/ glides. Sometimes "gidem", "olam", "gidesin", "olasn", "gide", "ola" words are heard in prayers and curses, such as "Cehenneme gidesin!" (Go to Hell!), "Tut-tuun altn ola!" (I wish what you hold be gold!) To make the verbs negative, [me, ma] allomorphs are added as usual: "Bekle-me-/y/e-lim" (bek*le*me*ye*lim) (Let us not wait.); "Git-me-/y/elim." (git*me*ye*lim) Let us not go. Bekle-me-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*mi*ye*/y/im) Let met not wait. When the question forms of the wish mood are used, the wish form changes into an offer: Televizyonu a-a-/y/m m? (te*le*viz*yo*nu / a*a*ym / m) Shall I turn the TV on? If the above sentence ends with a rising intonation (), (te*le*viz*yo*nu / a*a*ym*m), the sentence means I didnt understand you well; please repeat what you said. Bu szckleri tahtaya yaz-a-/y/m m? (bu / sz*ck*le*ri / tah*ta*ya / ya*za*ym / m) Shall I write these words on the blackboard?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bir restoranda akam yemei ye-/y/e-li-im mi? (bir / res*to*ran*da / ak*am / ye*me*i / yi*ye*lim / mi) Shall we have dinner at a restaurant? What about having dinner at a restaurant?" Sana bir fincan kahve yapaym m? (sa*na / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / ya*pa*ym / m) Shall I make you a cup of coffee? iekleri sulaym m? (i*ek*le*ri / su*la*ym / m) Shall I water the flowers? THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE Geni Zaman The Turkish Simple Present Tense is generally used like the English Simple Present Tense with only some exceptions. They will be dealt with after the general explanations. The time morpheme of this tense is [R], which has the allomorphs of [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar]. These allomorphs are followed by the personal allomorphs as usual: (Ben) (Sen) (O) (Biz) (Siz) (Onlar) : : : : : : [im, m, m, um] [sin, sn, sn, sun] [] morpheme. (No personal morphemes are attached.) [iz, z, z, uz] [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz] [ler, lar]

When the verb stems or frames ending with vowels are attached to the above simple present allomorphs, the simple present allomorphs drop their first vowels: bekle-ir-im (bek*le*rim); bala-r-m (ba*la*rm); yr-r-m (y*r*rm); koru-ur-um (ko*ru*rum); bekle-ir-sin (bek*ler*sin); bala-r (ba*lar); bek-le-ir-iz (bek*le*riz); bala-r-snz (ba*lar*s*nz); yr-rler (y*rr*ler) The double underlined vowels above drop. The verb stems ending with consonants and vowels are attached to the simple present tense allomorphs as follows: (Ben) yz-er-im. (y*ze*rim) I swim. (Ben) bekle-ir-im. (bek*le*rim) I wait. (Ben) anla-r-m. (an*la*rm) I understand. (Ben) al-r-m. (a*l*rm) I take or buy. (Ben) gtr-r-m. (g*t*r*rm) I take ... to. (Ben) otur-ur-um. (o*tu*ru*rum) I sit.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) se-er im. (se*e*rim) I choose. (Ben) ka-ar-m. (ka*a*rm) I run away. (Ben) se-il-ir-im (e*i*li*rim) I am elected, chosen. (passive) (Sen) yz-er-sin. (y*zer*sin) You swim. (Sen) al-r-sn. (a*lr*sn) You take, you buy. (Sen) gtr-r-sn (g*t*rr*sn) You take ... to (Sen) anla-r-sn. (an*lar*sn) You understand. (Sen) otur-ur-sun. (o*tu*rur*sun) You sit. (Sen) yakala-r-sn. (ya*ka*lar*sn) You catch. (Sen) sat-ar-sn. (sa*tar*sn) You sell. (Sen) se-il-ir-sin. (se*i*lir*sin) You are elected, chosen. (passive) (O) yz-er. (y*zer) He swims. (O) al-r. (a*lr ) He takes. He buys. (O) gtr-r. (g*t*rr) He takes ... to. (O) otur-ur. (o*tu*rur) He sits. (O) bak-ar. (ba*kar) He looks. (O) bekle-ir. (bek*ler) He (or she and it) waits. (O) gr-l-r. (g*r*lr) It is seen. (passive) (The "he", "she", and "it" pronouns are all expressed in "o" pronoun in TurkIsh.) (Biz) yz-er-iz. (y*ze*riz) We swim. (Biz) al-r-z. (a*l*rz) We take or buy. (Biz) gtr-r-z. (g*t*r*rz) We take ... to. (Biz) otur-ur-uz. (o-tu-ru-ruz) We sit. (Biz) bekle-ir-iz. (bek*le*riz) We wait. (Biz) bala-r-z. (ba*la*rz) We start. (Biz) yen-il-ir-iz. (ye*ni*li*riz) We are beaten, defeated. (passive) (Siz) yz-er-siniz. (y*zer*si*niz) You swim. (Siz) al-r-snz. (a*lr*s*nz) You take or buy. (Siz) gtr-r-snz. (g*t*rr*s*nz) You take ... to (Siz) otur-ur-sunuz. (o*tu*rur*su*nuz) You sit. (Siz) oku-ur-sunuz. (o*kur*su*nuz) You read. (Siz) u-ar-snz. (u*ar*s*nz) You fly. (Siz) anla--r-snz. (an*la*r*s*nz) You reach an agreement. (reciprocal) (Onlar) yz-er-ler. (y*zer*ler) They swim. (Onlar) al-r-lar. (a*lr*lar) They take or buy. (Onlar) sakla-r-lar. (sak*lar*lar) They hide. (Onlar) gtr-r-ler. (g*t*rr*ler) They take ... to (Onlar) otur-ur-lar. (o*tu*rur*lar) They sit. (onlar) yr-r-ler. (y*rr*ler) They walk. (onlar) ka-ar-lar. (ka*ar*lar) They run away.

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(Onlar) anla--r-lar. (an*la*r*lar) They reach an agreement. (reciprocal) The verbs that are used in this and the following tenses are of two kinds: Transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs need objects, which may be pronouns, nouns, or noun clauses. Intransitive verbs do not need them. They are preceded by adverbs or nouns attached to [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes, which also produce adverbs: Kzm saat dokuz-da okul-a git-er.
subj adverb adverb intr verb

(k*zm / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*ku*la / gi*der). My daughter goes to school at nine. (intransitive) Ben genellikle yedi-de kalkar-m.
subj adverb adverb intr verb

(ben / ge*nel*lik*le / ye*di*de / kal*ka*rm) I generally get up at 7. (intransitive) Kardeim her sabah oda-/s/-/n/ dzenle-ir.
subj adverb object transitive verb

(kar*de*im / her / sa*bah / o*da*s*n / d*zen*ler) My sister tidies her room every morning. (transitive) In Turkish, the order of a VP is different from that of an English VP. In English, its order is VP V + NP, but in Turkish the order is VP NP + V. For instance: Ben elma sev-er-im.
NP NP VP V

I
NP

like apples
V VP NP

(Ben) kitap oku-ur-um.

NP NP VP V

I read books.
NP V VP NP

As it is noticed, in the above Turkish sentences, the words elma and kitap are not in plural form as they are used in their English equivalents. This is because, if a common noun represents all its own kind and covers all books or apples, these nouns do not need plural allomorphs [ler] or [lar] attached to them when they are used in the object or subject position. For instance: Benim kzm kitap okumaz. My daughter doesnt read books. Halbuki, kitap faydaldr. Books are useful, however. Gmleklerim-i ben tlerim. I iron my shirts. In the last example above, the pronoun ben is not in the beginning of

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
the sentence, which is its normal position. It is used after the object to emphasize the subject, and it is also stressed in speech. In English, this is done with myself", which is possible in Turkish by putting kendim after ben. However, if someone does so; Gmleklerimi ben kendim tlerim you may think that he is boasting about his abilities. The subject + object + verb order of the same sentence Ben gmleklerim-i (gm*lek*le*ri*mi) tlerim can also change places in poetry and literature: Although, tlerim ben gmleklerimi , tlerim gmleklerimi ben and Gmleklerimi tlerim ben sentences are quite understandable and acceptable in Turkish, such sentences are generally used in poetry. THE VERBS ENDING WITH VOWELS When the verb stems ending with vowels are attached to [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] Simple Present Tense allomorphs, the first vowels of these allomorphs drop: tle-ir-im. (*t*le*rim) I iron. Ertele-ir-iz. (er*te*le*riz) We postpone. Yakala-r-lar. (ya*ka*lar*lar) They catch. Ara-r-z. (a*ra*rz) We search, look for Uyu-ur-uz. (u*yu*ruz) We sleep. All the double underlined vowels drop. Some frequently used verbs that end with vowels are as follows: sergile (ser*gi*le) (exhibit); glmse (g*lm*se) (smile); tuzla (tuz*la) (salt); oku (o*ku) (read); bala (ba*la) (begin); kovala (ko*va*la) (chase, run after); kekele (ke*ke*le) (stutter); atla (at*la) (jump); temizle (te*miz*le) (clean); den-gele (den*ge*le) (balance); yumurtla (yu*murt*la) (lay eggs); tara (ta*ra) (comb); eitle (e*it*le) (equalize); elle (el*le) (touch); kapla (kap*la) (cover); gzle (gz*le) (observe); besle (bes*le) (feed); ykle (yk*le) (load); yr (y*r) (walk); doku (do*ku) (weave); boya (bo*ya) (paint); gizle (giz*le) (hide); bombala (bom*ba*la) (bomb); alkala (al*ka*la) (stir); durula (du*ru*la) (rinse); bak-la (b*ak*la) (stab); tekmele (tek*me*le) (kick); imdikle (im*dik*le) (pinch); lekele (le*ke*le) (stain); yuvarla (yu*var*la) (roll). Note: The English words in brackets are all verbs. Some of them, however, can also be used as nouns.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
SOME NOUN STEMS USED TOGETHER WITH ET, YAP, LE, OL, AL TO PRODUCE VERBS In Turkish, some noun stems (which are generally borrowed words) are used together with the verbs et, ol, yap, al or ile to produce verbs.

et:
acele et (make haste, hurry), Ben acele et-er-im. (e*de*rim) (I hurry). alay et (a*la*yet) (make fun of), affet (af*fet) (forgive), armaan et (ar*ma*ga*net) (present as a gift), baet (ba*et) (manage, cope with), beraat et (be*ra*a*tet) (be acquitted), beyan et (be*ya:*net) (declare), buyur et (bu*yu*ret) (invite someone to), davet et (da:*ve*tet) (invite), dahil et (da:*hi*let) (include something in), daktilo et (dak*ti*lo / et) (type), dans et (dan*set) (dance), deli et (de*li / et) (make someone mad), dert et (der*det) (occupy oneself with problems), devam et (de*va:*met) (continue), dikkat et (dik*ka*tet) (pay attention to, be careful), dua et (du*a: / et) (pray, say ones prayers), elde et (el*de / et) (obtain), gayret et (gay*re*tet) (try hard, do ones best), g et (g*et) (migrate), haberdar et (ha*ber*da:*ret) (inform someone), hakaret et (ha*ka:*re*tet) (insult), hapset (hap*set) (put in prison, imprison), hareket et (ha*re*ke*tet) (act, behave, start), hata et (ha*ta: / et) (make a mistake), hayl et (ha*y:*let) (dream, imagine, picture in ones mind), hazmet (haz*met) (digest), hizmet et (hiz*me*tet) (serve, assist), idare et (i*da:*re* / et) (manage, control), iftira et (if*ti*ra: / et) (slander), ihanet et (i*ha:*ne*tet) (betray), ikram et (ik*ra:*met) (offer someone to eat or drink something), ihll et (ih*l:*let) (violate), ikna et (ik*na:/ et) (convince, persuade), ihra et (ih*ra:*cet) (export, expel), ikaz et (i:*ka:*zet) (warn), Imza et (im*za: / et) (sign), iml et (I:*m:*let) (manufacture), intihar et (in*ti*ha:*ret) (commit suicide), iptal et (ip*ta:*let) (cancel), isabet et (I*sa:*be*tet) (hit the mark), israf et (is*ra:*fet) (vaste), istifa et (is*ti*fa:/et) (resign), istifade et (is*ti*fa:*de / et) (benefit from), istirahat et (is*ti*ra*ha*tet) (have a rest), itaat et (i*ta:*a*tet) (obey), ithl et (it*h:*let) (import), itiraf et (i:*ti*ra:*fet) (confess), iyi et (I*yi / et) (cure, do the right thing), iyilik et (I*yi*li*ket) (do a favor), kabalk et (ka*ba*l*ket) (be rude), kabul et (ka*bu:*let) (accept), kr et (k:*ret) (profit from), kavga et (kav*ga / et) (fight, quarrel), kontrol et (kon*trol / et) (check), koordine et (ko*or*di*ne/et) (coordinate), kfr et (kf*ret) (swear), mecbur et (mec*bu:*ret) (oblige), megul et (me*gu:*let) (occupy someone), memnun et (mem*nu:*net) (make someone happy), muhafaza et (mu*ha:*fa*za / et) (keep, preserve), mutlu et (mut*lu / et) (make happy), nefret et (nef*re*tet) (hate), niyet et (ni*ye*tet) (intend), nderlik et (n*der*li*ket) (lead), raz et (ra:*z / et) (persuade), sabret (sab*ret) (be patient), sakat et (sa*ka*tet) (make physically disabled), seyret (sey*ret) (watch, observe), sohbet et (soh*be*tet) (chat, talk), sz et (s*zet) (talk about), tamir et (ta:*mi:*ret) (repair, mend, fix), tahsil et (tah*si:*let) (be educated), takip et (ta:*ki:*bet) (follow), taklit et (tak*li:*det) (imitate), taciz et (ta:*ci:*zet) (disturb), tasarruf et (ta*sar*ru*fet) (economize on), tasvir et (tas*vi:*ret) (de-

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
scribe), tavsiye et (tav*si*ye / et) (recommend), tedavi et (te*da:*vi: /et) (cure), teklif et (tek*li:*fet) (offer), telefon et (te*le*fo*net) (telephone, make a telephone call, ring up), tembellik et (tem*bel*li*ket) (act or behave lazily), tembih et (tem*bi:*het) (warn), tekraret (tek*ra:*ret) (repeat), tenkit et (ten*ki:*det) (criticize), tercih et (ter*ci:*het) (prefer), terk et (ter*ket) (abandon, leave, desert), tesadf et (te*sa:*d*fet) (meet by chance, come across), teslim et (tes*li:*met) (deliver, hand over), teebbs et (te*eb*b*set) (make an attempt), teekkr et (te*ek*k*ret) (thank), tevik et (te*vi:*ket) (encourage), tra et (tra*et) (shave), yardm et (yar*d*met) (help, assist). yemin et (ye*mi:*net) (swear to do something), yaramazlk et (ya*ra*maz*l*ket) (behave naughtily), ziyaret et (zi*ya:*re*tet) (visit) When the above "et" verbs are attached to the allomorphs of [ER], [YOR], [ECEK], which all begin with vowels, the /t/ phonemes change into the voiced /d/; but when they are attached to the allomorphs of [D] and [M], which begin with consonants, they do not change. For example: acele eder, acele ediyor, acele edecek, acele etti, acele etmi, teklif etti, teklif etmi, istifa etti, istifa etmi, tercme etti, tercme etmi. f the [me] negation allomorph is used, the stress goes onto the verb et. alay etme (a*lay / et*me) (a*la*yet*me), af etme (af*fet*me), armaan etme (ar*ma*a*net*me), yardm etme (yar*d*met*me), terk etme (ter*ket*me).

yap:
alveri yap (do shopping), arama yap (carry out a search), by yap (cast a spell on someone), ay yap, kahve yap (make tea or coffee), cmle yap (make a sentence), elinden geleni yap (do your best), ev ii yap (do housework), giri yap (enter), hazrlk yap (get ready), hesap yap (calculate), i yap (do work, do business with), ibirlii yap (work together), iyilik yap (do a favour), kaza: yap (have an accident), konuma yap (make a speech), makyaj yap (do ones make up), dev yap (do homework), rejim yap (go on a diet), aka yap (make a joke), tatil yap (have a holiday, vacation), tica:ret yap (trade), toplant yap (hold a meeting), yanllk yap (make a mistake), yatak yap (make the bed), yemek yap (cook, do the cooking), yorum yap (comment on something). The other verbs that are used together with nouns are ol, ile, and kaydet. Their examples are as follows:

ol:
abone ol (a*bo*ne / ol) (subscribe to), destek ol (des*te*kol) (support, back up), gerek ol (ger*e*kol) (come true) kayt ol (kay*dol) (enroll), raz ol

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ra:*z / ol) (be willing to, consent to), sahip ol (sa:*hi*bol) (possess), ahit ol (a:*hi*tol) (witness), ehit ol (e*hi:*dol) (die while fighting for Islam or his country), teslim ol (tes*li:*mol) (surrender to), ye ol (*ye / ol) (be a member).

ile, kaydet, sala:

baar sala (succeed), cinayet ile (commit murder) gnaha gir (g*na:*ha / gir) (commit a sin), ilerleme kaydet (make a progress), su ile (commit a crime), n kazan (be famous), yara gir (take part in a race) THE NEGATIVE FORM OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: The vowels and consonants used in the negative form of this tense undergo some changes. The composition of this tense is as follows: In the first person singular, the verb stem or the verb frame is used first, and then the negation allomorphs either [mez] or [maz] are attached to the verb stems, and they are followed by personal allomorphs: gel-mez-im. Although this verb configuration is acceptable in some dialects, in modern Turkish the /z/ and naturally the /i/ phonemes drop. When this happens, the verb chain becomes gel-mem: Gel-me-im. (gel*mem) I dont come. Oku-ma-m. (o*ku*mam) I dont read. al-ma-m. (a*l*mam) I dont work. Yr-me-im. (y*r*mem) I dont walk. Konu-ma-m. (ko*nu*mam) I dont speak. Tart- ma-m. (tar*t*mam) I dont discuss. tle-me-im. (*t*le*mem) I dont iron. Yaz-ma-m. (yaz*mam) I dont write. Yen-il-me-im. (ye*nil*mem) I am not defeated. (passive) In the second person singular, one of the [mez] or [maz] allomorphs is used after the verb first, which is followed by one of the personal allomorphs [sin, sn, sn, sun]: Gel-mez-sin. (gel*mez*sin) You dont come. al-maz-sn. (a*l*maz*sn) You dont work. Oku-maz-sn. (o*ku*maz*sn) You dont read. Ko-nu-maz-sn. (ko*nu*maz*sn) You dont speak. Atla-maz-sn. (at*la*maz*sn) You dont jump. Ala-maz-sn. (a*la*maz*sn) You dont cry. Ka-n-maz-sn. (ka*n*maz*sn) You dont avoid. (reflexive) As the third person singular takes a [] zero personal morpheme, only the negation allomorphs [mez, maz] are used:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
al-maz. (a*l*maz) He doesnt work. Oku-maz. (o*ku*maz) He doesnt read. Yaz-maz. (yaz*maz) He doesnt write. Gr-mez. (gr*mez) He doesnt see. Anla-maz. (an*la*maz) He doesnt understand. Gl-mez. (gl*mez) He doesnt laugh. Ye-mez. (ye*mez) He doesnt eat. -mez. (i*mez) He doesnt drink. Uyu-maz. (u*yu*maz) He doesnt sleep. Ka-n-maz. (ka*n*maz) He doesnt avoid. (reflexive) The negative form of the first person plural takes [me, ma] negation allomorphs followed by [/y/iz, /y/z] personal allomorphs: Ta-ma-/y/z. (ta**ma*yz) We dont carry. A-ma-/y/z. (a*ma*yz) We dont open. Ala-ma-/y/z. (a*la*ma*yz) We dont cry. Dzenle-me-/y/iz. (d*zen*le*me*yiz) We dont arrange. Ka-ma-/y/z. (ka*ma*yz) We dont escape. Ka-n-ma-/y/z. (ka*n*ma*yz) We dont avoid. (reflexive) Ertele-me-/y/iz. (er*te*le*me*yiz) We dont postpone. -me-/y/iz. (i*me*yiz) We dont drink. v-n-me-/y/iz. (*vn*me*yiz) We dont boast. (reflexive) The negative form of the second person plural takes [mez, maz] allomorphs according to the vowel harmony rules, and they are followed by [siniz, snz] personal allomorphs: Gel-mez-siniz. (gel*mez*si*niz) You dont come. Oku-maz-snz. (o*ku*maz*s*nz) You dont read. al-maz-snz. (a*l*maz*s*nz) You dont work. Ta-maz-snz. (ta**maz*s*nz) You dont carry. Seyret-mez-siniz. (sey*ret*mez*si*niz) You dont watch. Ara-maz-snz (a*ra*maz*s*nz) You dont search. Se-il-mez-siniz. (se*il*mez*si*niz) You are not elected. (passive) The third person plural form takes [mez, maz] negation allomorphs followed by [ler, lar] personal allomorphs: Gel-mez-ler. (gel*mez*ler) They dont come. Kal-maz-lar. (kal*maz*lar) They dont stay. Dinle-mez-ler. (din*le*mez*ler) They dont listen. Konu-maz-lar. (ko*nu*maz*lar) They dont speak. Bak-maz-lar. (bak*maz*lar) They dont look. Yr-mez-ler. (y*r*mez*ler) They dont walk. Ala-maz-lar. (a*la*maz*lar) They dont cry. Ertele-mez-ler (er*te*le*mez*ler) They dont postpone.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kz-maz-lar. (kz*maz*lar) They dont get angry. ek-in-mez-ler. (e*kin*mez*ler) They dont avoid. (Turkish is reflexive.) THE SIMPLE PRESENT POSITIVE QUESTION In the positive question forms of this tense [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] simple present allomorphs are used after verb stems and verb frames. Then, the interrogative allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu] and the personal allomorphs follow: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : mi/y/im?, m/y/m?, m/y/m?, mu/y/um? misin?, msn?, msn?, musun? mi?, m?, m?, mu? mi/y/iz?, m/y/z?, m/y/z?, mu/y/uz? misiniz?, msnz?, msnz?, musunuz? ler mi?, lar m?

The /y/ and /s/ phonemes above are all glides; and although these words follow the vowel harmony rules, they are considered words, and therefore, they are separately written: Bekle-ir mi/y/im? (bek*ler / mi*yim) Do I wait? ksr-r m/y/m? (k*s*rr / m*ym) Do I cough? Bekle-ir misin? (bek*ler / mi*sin) Do you wait? Gel-ir mi? (ge*lir / mi) Does he come? Git-er mi/y/iz? (gi*der / mi*yiz) Do we go? Yz-er misiniz? (y*zer / mi*si*niz) Do you swim? Anla-r-lar m? (an*lar*lar / m) Do they understand? Ta-r-lar m? (ta*r*lar*/ m) Do they carry? The double underlined vowels drop. THE SIMPLE PRESENT NEGATIVE QUESTION To form a Simple Present negative question verb composition, [mez, maz] negation allomorphs are used after verb stems; then miyim?, misin?, mi?, miyiz?, misiniz?, ler mi? words are separately written: Sana yardm et-mez mi/y/im? (sa*na / yar*dm / et*mez / mi*yim) Dont I help you? Gn boyunca al-maz msn? (gn / bo*yun*ca / a*l*maz / m*sn) Dont you work all day long? Although the above sentences are grammatically acceptable, Turkish people generally prefer using imdiki Zaman The Present Continuous English Tense verb composition in place of the Turkish sentences above:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sana yardm et-me-iyor muyum? (sa*na / yar*dm / et*mi*yor / mu*yum) Dont I help you? Gn boyunca al-ma-yor musun? (gn / bo*yun*ca~ / a*l*m*yor / mu*sun) Dont you work all day long? Klasik mzik sev-me-iyor musun? (kl*sik / m*zik~/sev*mi*yor / mu*sun) Dont you like classical music? Kardein seninle oyna-ma-yor mu? (kar*de*in / se*nin*le~/ oy*na*m*yor / mu) Doesnt your sister play with you? As it is seen, The Turkish Present Continuous verb formation is used more frequently than the usual Simple Present Tense. Compare the following sentences: Her gn rmakta yzyorum or yzerim. I swim in the river everyday. Eim ngilizce retiyor. My wife teaches English. Patates presi sevmiyorum or sevmem. I dont like mashed potatoes. retmenler yaramaz ocuklardan holanmaz(lar). Teachers dont like naughty children. Bazen bir lokantada akam yemei yiyoruz or yeriz. Sometimes we have dinner at a restaurant. Pop mzik seviyor musun? Do you like pop-music? Okula yryerek mi gidiyorsun? Do you walk to school? The position of the question word mi can be changed and put after an important and stressed word in a sentence: Okula otobsle mi gidiyorsun? (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / mi / gi*di*yor*sun) Do you go to school by bus? Otobsle okula m gidiyorsun)? (o*to*bs*le / o*ku*la / m / gi*di*yor*sun) Do you go to school by bus?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Okula otobsle gidiyor musun? (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / gi*di*yor / mu*sun) Do you go to school by bus? However, when the (Geni Zaman) The Simple Present Tense question form is used, the sentence changes into an offer: Okula otobsle gider misin? (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / gi*der / mi*sin) How about going to school by bus? (offer) Benimle sinemaya gider misin? (be*nim*le / si*ne*ma*ya /gi*der / mi*sin) How about going to the cinema with me? (offer) THE QUESTION WORDS USED IN THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE The question words kim? (who?); kim-i? (whom?, who?); nasl? (how?); nere-de, nere-/y/e? (where?); kim-in? (whose?); ne sklkta?" (how often?); ne zaman? (when?); saat ka-ta? (what time?); niin?, ne-den? (why?); ne eit? (what kind of?) can be used in this tense as they are used in the other tenses. The morphemes attached to these words are the defining allomorph [i] in kim-i, the allomorphs of the phoneme [DE] in nere-de, ne sklk-ta, ka-ta, the possessor allomorph [in] in kim-in and the [den] allomorph in kim-den and ne-den. When these questions words are used in a sentence, the rest of the sentence remains unchanged in Turkish because the rest of the sentence does not need to be in question form as it does in English. Literally written, the Turkish sentences containing question words are like *How you go to your office? Brona nasl gidiyorsun? (b*ro*na / na sl / gi*di*yor*sun) (not *nasl gidiyor musun) How do you go to your office? Otobsle. By bus. Nerde ngilizce retiyorsun? (ner de / n*gi*liz*ce / *re*ti*yor*sun) Where do you teach English? Nerde ngilizce retirsin? is an offer. It means Where do you want to teach English? Bu soruya kim cevap vermek istiyor? (bu / so*ru*ya~ / kim / ce*vap / ver*mek / is*ti*yor) Who wants to answer this question?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tiyatroya ne sklkta gidersin (gidiyorsun)? How often do you go the theatre? Her sabah saat kata kalkarsn (kalkyorsun)? ( her / sa*bah / sa*at / ka*ta / kal*kar*sn) What time do you get up every morning? In traditional Turkish grammars, some consonants represent personal allomorphs like /m/, /n/, /k/, /z/, which are inconsistent with the rest of the bound morphemes and syllables of the Turkish language. The Turkish bound morphemes and their allomorphs are all made up of at least one vowel such as[]; consonant + vowel such as [D]; vowel + consonant such as [L]; vowel + consonant + consonant such as art, rt consonant + vowel + consonant such as [M], or consonant + vowel + consonant + consonant like tirt, drt, dirt, trt, or they are made of two syllables such as [*YOR], [ME*L], [E*CEK]. To shorten these syllable structures, the first letters of them can be used as; v, c+v, v+c, v+c+c, c+v+c or c+v+c+c. The only exception to this rule is the [T] morpheme used in the causative verb frames as in "getirt", "aldrt. In this sort of suffxation, the last syllables of the verbs are combined with the [T] morphemes to form c+v+c+c syllables like drt, tirt, dirt, irt, trt. All Turkish syllables are formed of one of these six syllable types. One important rule to add to the explanations above is that the morphemes and syllables in Turkish do not follow a parallel pattern. While the words are divided into syllables, the morphemes comply with the syllable rules of the Turkish language. For instance: ku-u (ku*u), ben-i (be*ni), oda-m-a (o*da*ma), defter-im (def*te*rim), tarla-m (tar*lam), gr-l-mek (g*rl*mek), kes-i-mek (ke*si*mek), etc. Furthermore, The Simple Present Tense allomorphs are [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] such as in gel-ir, al-r, gr-r, otur-ur, ge-er, a-ar, beklein-ir. The Simple Present Tense allomorphs above are all attached to the verb stems and verb frames ending with consonants. However, when they end with vowels, the first vowels of the Simple Present Tense allomorphs, which follow the vowels of the last syllables of the verb stems drop. Such as: bekle-ir (bek*ler), incele-ir (in*ce*ler), hazrla-r (ha*zr*lar), yakala-r (ya*ka*lar), yr-r (y*rr), u*yu-ur (u*yur), yakala-r-m (ya*ka*la*rm) Likewise, the personal allomorphs such as [im, m, m, um], [in, n, n, un], [ik, k, k, uk] drop their first vowels when they are attached to the Simple Past Tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu], whose second phonemes are vowels. For instance: Gel-di-im (gel*dim), al-d-m (al*dm), gr-d-m (gr*dm), otur-du-um (o*tur*dum), bekle-di-in (bek*le*din), konu-tu-un (ko*nu*tun), p-tn (*p*tn), bekle-di-ik (bek*le*dik), otur-du-uk (o*tur*duk), konu-tu-

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unuz (konu*tu*nuz), ka-t-nz (ka*t*nz). All the double underlined vowels above drop. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS and THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS The Present Continuous (imdiki Zaman) time morpheme is [YOR], which has four allomorphs [iyor, yor, yor, uyor]. When these allomorphs are attached to verb stems or frames ending with consonants, they are attached to them following the vowel harmony rules. However, when they are attached to the verb stems or frames ending with vowels, the end vowels of them drop, so the allomorphs of the [YOR] morpheme follow the vowels that precede the dropped vowels: The verb stems or frames ending with consonants: gel-iyor (ei), bak-yor (a), otur-uyor (uu), ksr-yor (), yana-yor (a), bekle-iyor (ei), bekle-in-iyor-lar (ei), art-yor (a), it-iyor (ii) The verb stems ending with vowels: bekle-iyor (ei), ertele-iyor (ei), yr-yor (), atla-yor (a), alkala-yor (a), akla-yor (a), dengele-iyor (ei), oku-uyor (ou), tayor (a), oku-uyor (ou) The last vowels of the above verbs are double underlined. When these last vowels drop, the first vowels of the [YOR] phoneme follow the vowels preceding the dropped vowels according to the vowel harmony rules: bekliyor, erteliyor, yryor, atlyor, alkalyor, aklyor, dengeliyor, bakyor, oturuyor, okuyor, besleniyor, etc. When one of the allomorphs of the phoneme [YOR] is attached to the negation allomorphs [me, ma], these negation allomorphs also drop their last vowels, and the [YOR} morphemes follow the vowels preceding the dropped vowels according to the vowel harmony of the language: gel-me-iyor (ei) gelmiyor, oku-ma-uyor (uu) okumuyor, bekle-meiyor (ei) beklemiyor, al-ma-yor () almyor, gl-me-yor () gl-myor, ertele-me-iyor (ei) ertelemiyor The [YOR] morpheme is composed of two syllables: i*yor. The second syllable of this morpheme yor never follows the vowel harmony rules, and consequently, the personal morphemes that follow them have no allomorphs:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
gel-iyor-um, bala-yor-/s/un, ko-uyor, gez-iyor-uz, al-yorsunuz, gl-yor-lar, bekle-iyor, anla-yor, kovala-yor, besle-iyor, terle-iyor The Present Continuous and The Present Perfect Continuous tenses of the English language are both expressed in imdiki zaman (The Present Continuous Tense) in Turkish. Compare the following sentences: O gel-iyor. (ge*li*yor) He is coming. (now or later) O bir mektup yaz-yor. (o / bir / mek*tup / ya*z*yor) He is writing a letter. (now) O bir saattir mektup yaz-yor. (o / bir / sa*at*tir / mek*tup / ya*z*yor) He has been writing letters for an hour. Jack bahede oyna-uyor. (Jack / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yor) Jack is playing in the garden. (The /a/ drops.) Jack sabahtan beri bahede oyna-uyor. (Jack / sa*bah*tan / be*ri / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yor) Jack has been playing in the garden since morning. Mehmet bahede ko-uyor. (meh*met / bah*e*de / ko*u*yor) Mehmet is running in the garden. (now) Mary nehirde yz-yor. (ma*ri / ne*hir*de / y*z*yor) Mary is swimming in the river. (now) Okulun nnde bekle-i-iyor-uz. (o*ku*lun / *nn*de / bek*le*i*yo*ruz) We are waiting together in front of the school. (reciprocal) Jack boyuna televizyon seyrediyor. (Jack ~/ bo*yu*na / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor) Jack is always watching television. (complaint) (Ben) televizyon seyret-iyor-um. (ben / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yo*rum) I am watching television. (The /t/ phoneme is replaced by its voiced counterpart /d/.)

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(Biz) bahede oyna-uyor-uz. (biz / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yo*ruz) We are playing in the garden. (Biz) Trke ren-iyor-uz. (biz / Trk*e / *re*ni*yo*ruz) We are learning Turkish. (now) (Biz) aydr Trke ren-iyor-uz. (biz / *ay*dr / trk*e / *re*ni*yo*ruz) We have been learning Turkish for three months. Martlar gkyznde u-uyor-lar. (mar*t*lar / gk*y*zn*de / u*u*yor*lar) The seagulls are flying in the sky. (now) Onlar seni bekle-iyor-lar. (on*lar / se*ni / bek*li*yor*lar) They are waiting for you. (now) (Biz) le yemei ye-iyor-uz. (biz / *le / ye* me*i / yi*yo*ruz) We are having lunch. (now) renciler saat sekizden beri retmenlerini bekle-iyor-lar. The students have been waiting for their teacher since eight. Nekadar zamandr televizyon seyrediyorsun? (ne / ka*dar / za*man*dr / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor*sun) How long have you been watching television? Gnler uza-uyor. (gn*le*ru*zu*yor) Days are getting longer. Olum ev devini yap-yor. (o*lum / e*v*de*vi*ni / ya*p*yor) My son is doing his homework. saattir alyorum. ( / sa*at*tir / a*l**yo*rum) I have been studying for three hours. Bir saattir seni bekliyorum. (bir / sa*at*tir / se*ni / bek*li*yo*rum) I have been waiting for you for an hour.

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Sabahtan beri ne yapyorsun? (sa*bah*tan / be*ri / ne / ya*p*yor*sun) What have you been doing since morning? imdi ne yap-yor-sun? (im di / ne / ya*p*yor*sun) What are you doing now? The allomorph [dir] can also be used after The Present Continuous Tense (imdiki Zaman) in Turkish to express estimation: Jack ne yapyor? (jack / ne / ya*p*yor) What is Jack doing? Ders al-yor-dur. (ders / a*l**yor*dur ) I think (guess) he is studying. The near future concept can also be expressed in the Present Continuous Tense (imdiki Zaman) in Turkish as it is used in English: Uak birazdan havalan-yor. (u*ak / bi*raz*dan / ha*va*la*n*yor) The plane is taking off soon. Misafirler yarn gel-iyor-lar. (mi*sa:*fir*ler / ya*rn / ge*li*yor*lar) The visitors are coming tomorrow. Misafirler birazdan gel-iyor. (mi*sa:*fir*ler / bi*raz*dan / ge*li*yor) The visitors are coming soon. Yarn Londra/y/a gidiyoruz. (ya*rn / Lon*dra*ya / gi*di*yo*ruz) We are going to London tomorrow. Birazdan kyoruz. (bi*raz*dan / *k*yo*ruz) We are leaving soon. Yarn yeni bir araba satn alyorum. (ya*rn / ye*ni / bi*ra*ra*ba / sa*t*na*l*yo*rum) Im going to buy a new car tomorrow.

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Yarn tanyoruz. (ya*rn / ta**n*yo*ruz) We are moving tomorrow. THE VERBS THAT ARE NOT USED IN THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IN TURKISH Some verbs that are not normally used in continuous tenses in English are especially used in The Present Continuous Tenses in Turkish. And strange to say, these verbs are not generally used in The Simple Present Tense. These verbs are as follows: adore, appreciate, believe, care, desire, forgive, hate, hear, know, like, love, mean, mind, miss, recall, refuse, remember, see, smell, seem, trust, understand, want, wish. Consider and compare the following sentences: Seni affet-iyor-um. (se*ni / af*fe*di*yo*rum) I forgive you. (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Seni sev-iyor-um. (se*ni / se*vi*yo*rum) I love you. Sana tap-yor-um. (sa*na / ta*p*yo*rum) I adore you. Hepinizi hatrla-yor-um. (he*pi*ni*zi / ha*tr*l*yo*rum) I remember all of you. Hepinize gven-iyor-um. (he*pi*ni*ze / g*ve*ni*yo*rum) I trust all of you. Sizi anla-yor-um. (si*zi / an*l*yo*rum) I understand you. Sizi anla-ma-yor-um. (si*zi / an*la*m*yo*rum) I dont understand you. Bir fincan kahve iste-iyor-um. (bir / fin*can / kah*ve / is*ti*yo*rum) I want a cup of coffee.

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Gramer kitaplar okunaktan nefret ediyorum. (gra*mer / ki*tap*la*r / o*ku*mak*tan / nef*re*te*di*yo*rum) I hate reading grammar books. Beni zle-yor musun? (be*ni / z*l*yor / mu*sun) Do you miss me? Senin hakl olduuna inan-ma-yor-um. (se*nin / hak*l / ol*du*u*na / i*nan*m*yo*rum ) I dont believe that you are right. Hibir ey iit-me-iyor-um. (hi*bir / ey / i*it*mi*yo*rum) I dont hear anything. Umursa-ma-yor-um. (u*mur*sa*m*yo*rum) I dont care. Bu proje uygulanabilir grnyor. (bu / pro*je / uy*gu*la*na*bi*lir / g*r*n*yor) This project seems feasible. Sizi takdir ediyorum. (si*zi / tak*di:r / e*di*yo*rum) I appreciate you. The verb stems that are given above can be used with The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) in conditional sentences: Tekrar ge kalmamaya sz verirsen seni affederim. (tek*rar / ge / kal*ma*ma*ya / sz / ve*rir*sen / se*ni / af*fe*de*rim) If you promise not to be late again, I will forgive you. Bana yeni bir araba alrsan seni daha ok severim. (ba*na / ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / a*lr*san / se*ni / da*ha / ok / se*ve*rim) If you buy me a new car, I will love you more. TURKISH VERB FRAMES The suffixes that form Turkish verb frames make them indivisible units and they are used as if they were verb stems. The other suffixes, such as negation, time and personal allomorphs follow them. There are five kinds of verb frames: Transitive verbs (geili fiiller), intransitive verbs (geisiz fiiller), passive verbs (edilgen fiiller), reflexive verbs (dnl fiiller) and reciprocal verbs (ite fiiller).

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TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS Transitive verbs are the verbs that take direct objects: Annem her hafta ev-i temizler. Mother cleans the house every week.
subj subj subj adv adv obj obj obj tran verb tran.verb tran verb subj subj tran verb tran verb tran verb obj obj obj adv adv

Ahmet bir hikye kitab- okuyor. Ahmet is reading a story book. Ben her sabah odam- tertiplerim. I tidy my room every morning. Intransitive verbs do not take objects: Ben bazan nehir-de yzerim. I sometimes
subj adv of time adv of place subj subj subj adv adv intr verb adv adv adv intr verb intr verb adv adv adv of time

swim
intr verb

in the river.
adv of place adv

Olum gnde sekiz saat uyur. My son sleeps eight hours a day.
intr verb intr verb adv

Olum okul-a her sabah otobs-le gider. My son goes to school by bus every morning. REFLEXIVE VERBS (DNL FIILLER) A reflexive verb is a verb whose action in a sentence has its effect on a person or thing that does the action. One of the morphemes of this inflectional suffix is [N], which is followed by the verb stems ending with vocals (vowels and voiced consonants). It has four allomorphs [in, n, n, un]. The other one is [L], which is followed by the verbs ending with unvoiced consonants. It has also four allomorphs [il, l, l, ul]. When the verb stems ending with vowels are attached to these allomorphs, which all begin with vowels, the first vowels of them drop. Olum yka-n-yor. (o*lum / y*ka*n*yor) My son is having a bath. (He is washing himself.) (The double underlined // drops.) Aye tara-n-yor. (ay*e / ta*ra*n*yor) The meaning is Aye is combing herself. Bam ka-n-yor. (ba*m / ka**n*yor) My head is itching. Kedi masa-/n/n alt-/n/da ka-n-yor. (ke*di / ma*sa*nn / al*tn*da / ka**n*yor) The cat is scratching under the table. (The first two /n/ phonemes are glides.) (It is scratching itself.)

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v-n-yor. (*v*n*yor) He is boasting, or praising himself. Aye san tara-yor. (ay*e ~/ sa**n / ta*r*yor) Aye is combing her hair. (The double underlined /a/ drops.) (transitive) Dkknlar saat yedide kapa-n-r. (dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*nr) Shops close at seven oclock. (They close themselves.) Aye kap/n/n arka-/s//n/a sakla-n-yor. (ay*e / ka*p*nn / ar*ka*s*na / sak*la*n*yor) Aye is hiding behind the door. (She is hiding herself.) Yer sars-l-yor. (yer / sar*s*l*yor ) The ground is shaking. (It is shaking itself.) z-l-ecek-sin. (*z*le*cek*sin) You will be sorry. The allomorphs that are used in forming reflexive verbs are also used with verbs when they are transformed into the passive voice. As these allomorphs sometimes cause confusion, one should be careful when one defines them: Kara gr-n-d. (ka*ra / g*rn*d) (reflexive) The land has showed itself. Kara gr-l-d. (ka*ra / g*rl*d) (passive) It has been seen by someone. THE PASSIVE TRANSFORMATION OF THE INTRANSITIVE VERBS Some Turkish intransitive verbs can also be transformed into the passive forms without being put into the passive voice. While these verbs are being shaped, passive transformation allomorphs are attached to these verb stems. In doing this, the verb stems ending with vowels and /L/ phonames names are attached to [in, n, n, un] allomorphs; the others, ending with consonants, are attached to [il, l, l, ul] allomorphs. This form does not exist in English. Consider the following:

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Deniz-de yz-l-r. (de*niz*de / y*z*lr) It is possible (natural) to swim in the sea, or "The sea is a place where naturally one can swim." (passive shaped intransitive) e saat sekizde bala-n-r. (i*e / sa*at / se*kiz*de / ba*la*nr) It is a rule to start working at eight. (passive shaped intransitive) Pazar gnleri dinlen-il-ir. (pa*zar / gn*le*ri / din*le*ni*lir) It is customary to have a rest on Sundays. (passive shaped intransitive) Byle gneli bir gnde piknie git-il-ir. (by*le / g*ne*li / bir / gn*de~/ pik*ni*e / gi*di*lir) It is advisable (natural) to go for a picnic on such a sunny day. (passive shaped intransitive) Gzel-e bak-l-r. (g*ze*le / ba*k*lr) It is natural to look at the beautiful. (passive shaped intransitive) Pazartesi gnleri erken kalk-l-r. (pa*zar*te*si / gn*le*ri / er*ken / kal*k*lr) It is a custom to get up early on Mondays. (passive shaped intransitive) To use the negative forms of the above sentences, [mez, maz] allomorphs are used after the verb frames: Byle bir grlt-de uyu-un-maz. (by*le / bir / g*rl*t*de ~/ u*yun*maz) It is impossible to sleep in such a noise. (passive shaped intransitive) Bu sokak-ta yr-n-mez. (bu / so*kak*ta~ / y*rn*mez) It is impossible to walk in this street. (passive shaped intransitive) Onun lafna bak-l-maz. (o*nun / l*f*na / ba*kl*maz) It is natural (advisable) not to mind what he says. (passive shaped intr.) Bu otel-de kal-n-maz. (bu / o*tel*de / ka*ln*maz) It is impossible to stay in this hotel. (passive shaped intransitive) Onun aklna uy-ul-maz. (o*nun /ak*l*na /u*yul*maz) It is inadvisable to follow his advice. (passive shaped intransitive)

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Bu glde yz-l-r m? (bu / gl*de / y*z*lr/ m) Is it possible to swim in this lake? (passive shaped intransitive) ngiltereye trenle gidilmez mi? (in*gil*te*re*ye / tren*le / gi*dil*mez / mi) Isnt it possible to go to England by train? RECIPROCAL VERBS (TE FLLER) 1. A reciprocal verb expresses an action which is exchanged between two or more people. The reciprocal morpheme is [], which has [i, , , u] allomorphs. When the verbs that end with vowels are attached to these allomorphs, the first vowels of these allomorphs drop: Onlar bak--yor-lar. (on*lar / ba*k**yor*lar) They are looking at each other. Kucakla--yor-lar. (ku*cak*la**yor*lar) They are hugging each other. Tokala--yor-lar. (to*ka*la**yor*lar) They are shaking hands. Dv--yor-lar. (d*v**yor*lar) They are fighting. p--yor-lar. (*p**yor*lar) They are kissing. Onlar Pazar gnleri gr--r-ler. (on*lar / pa*zar / gn*le*ri / g*r*r*ler) They meet and talk on Sundays. 2. Some verbs that are attached to reciprocal allomorphs convey the concept of (all) together: Haberi duyunca bar--t-lar. (ha*be*ri / du*yun*ca~ / ba*r*t*lar) They shouted all together when they heard the news. (bartlar or bartlar are both acceptable.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Polisi grnce ka--t-lar. (po*li*si / g*rn*ce / ka**t*lar) They ran away all together when they saw the police-officer. ocuklar futbol takmlar hakknda tart--yor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / fut*bol / ta*km*la*r / hak*kn*da / tar*t**yor*lar) The boys are discussing about their football teams. Baz ocuklar kapda bekle-i-iyor-lar. (ba*z / o*cuk*lar / ka*p*da / bek*le*i*yor*lar) Some children are waiting together at the door. 3. Some other verbs that are attached to the above allomorphs convey the idea of about: Kular gkyznde u-u-uyor-du. (ku*lar / gk*y*zn*de / u*u*u*yor*du) The birds were flying about in the sky. ocuklar bahede ko-u-uyor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*u*u*yor*lar) The children are running about in the garden. rdekler havuzda yz--yor-lar. (r*dek*ler / ha*vuz*da / y*z**yor*lar) The ducks are swimming about in the pool. BOTH TRANSITIVELY AND INTRANSITIVELY USED ENGLISH VERBS Some English verbs are both transitive and intransitive. There are few verbs used in this fashion in Turkish. Therefore, those who are studying English or Turkish as a second language face some difficulties in learning them. In the following list, you can find frequently used English verbs that are used both transitively and intransitively. The Turkish equivalents of them and how their suffixes are changed are given in the examples below: As it has already been said, the double underlined vowels drop: Yumurtalar kayna-yor. (yu*mur*ta*lar / kay*n*yor) The eggs are boiling. (The Turkish and English verbs are intransitive.) Fatma yumurta kaynat-yor. (fat*ma / yu*mur*ta / kay*na*t*yor) Fatma is boiling eggs. (transitive)

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In the first sentence, the intransitive verb kayna has changed into kaynat transitive verb frame to be able to take the object yumurta. However, the English verb boil has not changed. This shows us that the English verb boil can be used both transitively and intransitively. In the following sentences, the explanations in parentheses are about the Turkish sentences. However, when necessary, both Turkish and English verbs are explained: Ate yan-yor. (a*te / ya*n*yor) The fire is burning. (intr.) Ate parmaklarn yak-ar. (a*te / par*mak*la*r*n / ya*kar) Fire burns your fingers. (tran.) Dkknlar saat yedide kapa-n-r. (dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*nr ) Shops close at seven. (reflexive) (They close themselves.) Onlar dkknlar yedide kapat-r-lar. (on*lar / dk*kn*la*r / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*tr*lar) They close the shops at seven. (tran.) Dkknlar saat yedide kapat-l-r. (dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*t*lr) The shops are closed at seven. (passive) Renkler sonbaharda dei-ir. (renk*ler / son*ba*har*da / de*i*ir) The colors change in the autumn. (intr) O elbiselerini dei-tir-iyor. (o ~/ el*bi*se*le*ri*ni / de*i*ti*ri*yor) He is changing his clothes. (tran.) imdi mutfakta yemek pi-ir-iyor. (im*di / mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*ri*yor) She is cooking in the kitchen now. (Turkish tran.) (English intr.) O, balk pi-ir-iyor. (o / ba*lk / pi*i*ri*yor) She is cooking fish. (tran.) Yemek pi-ti. (ye*mek / pi*ti) The meal has cooked. (intr)

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Meyveler olgunlanca aalardan d-er. (mey*ve*ler / ol*gun*la*n*ca / a*a*lar*dan / d*er ) Fruits drop from trees when they ripen. (intr.) Kalemini d-r-d. (ka*le*mi*ni / d*r*d) She dropped her pencil. (tran.) Baz nehirler yazn kuru-ur. (ba*z / ne*hir*ler / ya*zn / ku*rur ) Some rivers dry up in the summer. (intr.) Ellerini benim havlumda kuru-la-ma. (el*le*ri*ni / be*nim / hav*lum*da / ku*ru*la*ma) Dont dry your hands on my towel. (tran.) Sava sona er-di. (sa*va / so*na / er*di) The war ended. (intr.) Sava sona er-dir-di-ler. (sa*va* / so*na / er*dir*di*ler) They ended the war. (tran.) Bir bomba patla-d. (bir / bom*ba / pat*la*d) (intr.) A bomb exploded. Onlar bir bomba patla-t-t-lar. (on*lar / bir / bom*ba / pat*lat*t*lar) They exploded a bomb. (tran.) nekler tarlada besle-in-iyor-lar. (i*nek*ler / tar*la*da / bes*le*ni*yor*lar) The cows are feeding (grazing) in the field. (reflexive) Kpeimi her sabah besle-ir-im. (k*pe*i*mi / her / sa*bah / bes*le*rim) I feed my dog every morning. (tran.) Sokaklar kn amurla dol-ar. (so*kak*lar / k*n / a*mur*la / do*lar) The streets fill up with mud in winter. (intr.) Kalemimi siyah mrekkeple dol-dur. (ka*le*mi*mi / si*yah / m*rek*kep*le / dol*dur) Fill my pen with black ink. (tran.)

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henz bit-me-di. (i / he*nz / bit*me*di) The work hasnt finished yet. (intr.) imi henz bit-ir-me-di-im. (i*i*mi / he*nz / bi*tir*me*dim) I havent finished my work yet. (tran.) Kular havada u-ar. (ku*lar / ha*va*da / u*ar) Birds fly in the sky. (intr.) ocuklar uurtma u-ur-uyor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / u*urt*ma / u*u*ru*yor*lar) The boys are flying kites. (tran.) Patatesler kzar-yor. (pa*ta*tes*ler / k*za*r*yor) The potatoes are frying. (intr.) O, balk kzart-yor. (o~ / ba*lk / k*zar*t*yor) She is frying fish. (tran.) Pamuk Adanada yeti-ir. (pa*muk / a*da*na*da / ye*ti*ir) Cotton grows in Adana. (intr.) Adanada pamuk yeti-tir-ir-ler. (a*da*na*da / pa*muk / ye*ti*ti*rir*ler) They grow cotton in Adana. (tran.) Kap-/n/n arka-/s/-/n/a sakla-n-yor. (ka*p*nn / ar*ka*s*na / sak*la*n*yor) He is hiding behind the door. (reflexive) (He is hiding himself.) Mektup-lar--/n/ sakla-r. (mek*tup*la*r*n / sak*lar) She hides her letters. (tran.) Zorluk-lar-mz art-yor. (zor*luk*la*r*mz / ar*t*yor) Our difficulties are increasing. (intr.) Hz-/n/ art-r-ma. (h*z*n / ar*tr*ma) Dont increase your speed. (tran.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
iekler sabahleyin a-ar. (i*ek*ler / sa*bah*le*yin / a*ar) Flowers open in the morning. (intr.) Sabahleyin pencereleri a-ar-z. (sa*bah*le*yin / pen*ce*re*le*ri / a*a*rz) We open the windows in the morning. (tran.) ( The verb "a" is used both transitively and intransitively in Turkish as it is in English.) Atlar yar-yor. (at*lar / ya*r**yor) The horses are racing. (intr.) Atlar yar-tr-yor-lar. (at*la*r / ya*r*t*r*yor*lar) They are racing the horses. (tran.) Elmalar scak havada olgunla-r. (el*ma*lar / s*cak / ha*va*da / ol*gun*la*r) Apples ripen in warm weather. (intr.) Scak hava elmalar olgunla-tr-r. (s*cak / ha*va / el*ma*la*r / ol*gun*la*t*rr) Warm weather ripens the apples. (tran.) Zil al-yor. (zil / a*l*yor) The bell is ringing. (intr.) Zili al. (zi*li / al) Ring the bell. (tran.) (Both "al " and "ring" verbs are used both transitively and intransitively in Turkish and English.) Bazan kayalar tepelerden aa yuvarla-n-r. (ba:*zan / ka*ya*lar ~/ te*pe*ler*den / a*a* / yu*var*la*nr) Sometimes rocks roll down the hills.) (reflexive) Baz kimseler tepeden aa kayalar yuvarla-yor-lar. (ba:*z / kim*se*ler~ / te*pe*den / a*a* / ka*ya*la*r / yu*var*l*yor*lar) Some people are rolling rocks down the hill. (tran.) Baz kzlar nehirde yz-yor-lar. (ba:*z / kz*lar / ne*hir*de / y*z*yor*lar) Some girls are swimming in the river. (intr.) ocuklar model kayklarn yz-dr-yor-lar (o*cuk*lar / mo*del / ka*yk*la*r*n / yz*d*r*yor*lar) The children are sailing their modal boats. (tran.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yer sars-l-yor. (yer / sar*s*l*yor) The ground is shaking. (reflexive) lac imeden nce ieyi alkala (sars). (i*la*c / i*me*den / n*ce / i*e*yi / al*ka*la) Shake the bottle before taking the medicine. (tran.) kinci Dnya Savanda birok gemi bat-t. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / bat*t) A lot of ships sank during The Second World War. (intr.) kinci Dnya Savanda birok gemi bat-r-d-lar. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*tr*d*lar) They sank a lot of ships during The Second World War. (tran.) Gmleime ay dk-l-d. (gm*le*i*me~ / ay / d*kl*d) Tea spilled on my shirt. (reflexive) (In this sentence the word ay is the subject.) Seyhan Nehri Akdeniz'e dkl-r. (sey*han / neh*ri / ak*de*ni*ze / d*k*lr) The Seyhan River pours into the Mediterranean Sea. (reflexive) Limonatay yere dk-t-m. (li*mo*na*ta*y / ye*re / dk*tm) I have spilled (spilt) the lemonade on the floor. (tran.) Arabalar dur-du. (a*ra*ba*lar / dur*du) The cars stopped. (intr.) Polis arabalar dur-dur-du (po*lis / a*ra*ba*la*r / dur*dur*du) The police officer stopped the cars. (tran.) Tekerlekler dn-yor. (te*ker*lek*ler / d*n*yor) The wheels are turning. (intr.) Motor tekerlekleri dn-dr-r. (mo*tor / te*ker*lek*le*ri / dn*d*rr) The engine turns the wheels. (tran.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Parmana bir ine bat-t. (par*ma**na / bir / i*ne / bat*t) A needle stuck in her hand. (intr.) Parmana bir ine bat-r-d. (par*ma**na / bir / i*ne / ba*tr*d) She stuck a needle into her finger. (tran.) Bu pul iyi yap-ma-yor. (bu / pul / i*yi / ya*p*m*yor) This stamp doesnt stick well. (intr.) Mektubun stne bir pul yap-tr. (mek*tu:*bun / s*t*ne / bir / pul / ya*p*tr) Stick a stamp on the letter. (tran.) THE SIMPLE PAST and THE PRESENT PERFECT Dli Gemi Zaman The Simple Past and The Present Perfect tenses are both expressed in Dili Gemi Zaman in Turkish. In other words, the Turkish Dili Gemi Zaman covers these two English tenses. The time morpheme of this tense is [D], which has eight allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]. One of these allomorphs is used to follow verb stems or verb frames in accordance with the Turkish vowel and consonant harmony rules.The verbs ending with vowels and voiced consonants are followed by the allomorphs written in bold type; the verbs followed by unvoiced consonants are written in regular type. The personal allomorphs attached to the allomorphs of the [D] morpheme are as follows: ben sen o biz siz onlar [im, m, m, um] [in, n, n, un] [] [ik, k, k, uk] [iniz, nz, nz, unuz] [ler, lar]

Naturally, as all the allomorphs of the [D] morpheme [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] end with vowels, and the personal allomorphs [im, m, m, um; in, n, n, un; ik, k, k, uk; iniz, nz, nz, unuz] start with vowels, the first vowels of the personal allomorphs drop; such as in di-im (dim), d-m (dm), d-m (dm), du-um (dum), ti-im (tim), t-n (tn), ti-ik (tik), t-k (tk), t-nz (tnz), etc.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) iki saat nce iimi bitir-di-im. (ben / i*ki / sa*at / n*ce / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim) I finished my work two hours ago. (Ben) iimi bitir-di-im. (ben / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim) I have finished my work. (My work is ready now.) Onlar geen hafta sinemaya git-ti. (on*lar / ge*en / haf*ta / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti) They went to the cinema last week. Onlar sinemaya git-ti. (on*lar / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti) They have gone to the cinema. (They are at the cinema or on the way to the cinema.) O kitab geen sene oku-du-um. (o / ki*ta*b / ge*en / se*ne / o*ku*dum) I read that book last year. Kitab okudu-um. (ki*ta*b / o*ku*dum) I have read the book. (I have finished reading it.) Bulaklar sabahleyin yka-d-m. (bu*la*k*la*r / sa*bah*le*yin / y*ka*dm) I washed the dishes in the morning. Bulaklar yka-n-d bile. (bu*la*k*lar / y*kan*d / bi*le) The dishes have already been washed. (The dishes are clean now.) (passive) negative: The negation allomorphs [me, ma] are put after verb stems or verb frames, and these allomorphs are followed by [di, d] time allomorphs and personal allomorphs respectively. The other time allomorphs that are used in positive forms [d, du, ti, t, t, tu] are not used here as a result of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs: Fatmay pazardan beri gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / pa*zar*dan / be*ri / gr*me*dim) I havent seen Fatma since Sunday. Fatmay bir haftadr gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / bir / haf*ta*dr / gr*me*dim) I havent seen Fatma for a week.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Fatmay geen hafta gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / ge*e*naf*ta / gr*me*dim) I didnt see Fatma last week. Daha ev devimi yap-ma-d-m. (da*ha / e*v*de*vi*mi / yap*ma*dm) I havent done my homework yet. Dn bu oday temizle-me-di-ler. (dn / bu / o*da*y / te*miz*le*me*di*ler) They didnt clean this room yesterday. Bu oday gndr temizle-me-di-ler. (bu / o*da*y / / gn*dr / te*miz*le*me*di*ler) They havent cleaned this room for three days. Geen hafta futbol oyna-ma-d-k. (ge*en / haf*ta / fut*bol / oy*na*ma*dk) We didn't play football last week. Kayp ocuk daha bul-un-ma-d. (ka*yp / o*cuk / da*ha / bu*lun*ma*d) The lost child hasnt been found yet. positive question: The question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], which are separately written, are used after either the verbs, or they may be used after the stressed words in sentences: Ahmet mi okula otobsle gitti? (ah*met / mi / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*ti) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okula otobsle mi gitti? (ah*met / o*ku*la~ / o*to*bsle / mi / git*ti) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet otobsle okula m gitti? (ah*met / o*to*bs*le /o*ku*la / m / git*ti) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okula gitti mi? (ah*met / o*ku*la / gi*ti / mi) Has Ahmet gone to school? (All are yes, no questions.) If the last syllable in a sentence is used with a rising intonation (), the sentence means I am surprised to hear it, or I could not hear you well. If it is used with a falling intonation (), the question is a yes, no question.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Mektuplar at-t-n m? (mek*tup*la*r / at*tn / m) Have you posted the letters? Pazar gn futbol mana git-ti-in mi? (pa*zar / g*n / fut*bol / ma**na / git*tin / mi) Did you go to the football match on Sunday? Pazar gn futbol mana m git-ti-in? (pa*zar / g*n / fut*bol /ma**na /m / git*tin) (I am surprised.) Did you go to the football match on Sunday? Kpei yka-d-nz m? (k*pe*i / y*ka*d*nz / m) Have you washed the do? Arabay m yka-d-nz? (a*ra*ba*y / m / y*ka*d*nz) ( I am surprised.) Have you washed the car? (I didnt want you to wash the car; you should have washed the dog instead.) iekleri sula-d-n m? (i*ek*le*ri / su*la*dn / m) Have you watered the flowers? Patatesleri soy-du-un mu? (pa*ta*tes*le*ri / soy*dun / mu) Have you peeled the potatoes? In the negative question form, the [me, ma] allomorphs are attached to verbs first; then the [di, d] time allomorphs (the others are not used as a result of the [me, ma] allomorphs) are used, and finally, the above mentioned personal allomorphs follow them. The [mi, m] question words (or allomorphs) are separately written. They are words because they are separately written; they are allomorphs because they follow the vowel harmony rules: Pazar gn futbol oyna-ma-d-nz m? (pa*zar / g*n / fut*bol / oy*na*ma*d*nz / m) Didnt you play football on Sunday? (negative question) Ahmet daha eve gel-me-di mi? (ah*met / da*ha / e*ve / gel*me*di / mi) Hasnt Ahmet come home yet? Ayn yanll tekrar yap-ma-d-n m? (ay*n / yan*l*l* / tek*rar / yap*ma*dn / m) Havent you made the same mistake again?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The verb git and the same dili past tense is also used in place of have (has) been to: Ben birka kez Londraya git-ti-im. (ben / bir*ka / kez / lon*dra*ya / git*tim) I have been to London several times. Ben hi Tokyoya git-me-di-im. (ben / hi / tok*yo*ya / git*me*dim) I have never been to Tokyo. Sen hi Parise git-ti-in mi? (sen / hi / pa*ri*se / git*tin / mi) Have you ever been to Paris? Bugn nereye git-ti-in? (bu / gn / nere*ye / git*tin) Where have you been today? In Turkish, the simple present is used in place of have (has) had: (Ben) be yldr bu arabaya sahibim. (be / yl*dr / bu / a*ra*ba*ya / sa:*hi*bim) I have had this car for five years. Bu arabaya ne kadar zamandr sahipsin? (bu / a*ra*ba*ya ~/ ne / ka*dar / za*man*dr / sa:*hip*sin) How long have you had this car? All the question words can be used in the dili past tenses as they are used in others, but in doing this, the sentence order should be considered. In English, after the question words, the question order of a sentence is kept in question form, but in Turkish, when question words are used, the rest of the sentence is not in question form: Ne zaman Ankaraya gittin? In this sentence, the underlined part of the sentence is not a question. However, in the English sentence, When did you go to Ankara?, the underlined part of the sentence is a question. This rule is applied to all interrogative sentences containing question words in Turkish. Onu dn grdn. Onu ne zaman grdn? As it is seen in the above sentences, the verbs grdn do not change although the second sentence is a question. This shows us that the question words used in Turkish sentences are enough to put them into question concepts.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Onu ne zaman gr-d-n? (o*nu / ne / za*man / gr*dn ) When did you see her? Seni kim gr-d? (se*ni / kim / gr*d ) Who saw you? When the question word who asking for the subject is used, the sentence order in English is the same as it is in Turkish. Sen kim-i gr-d-n? (sen / ki*mi / gr*dn ) Whom (who) did you see? (The [i] in "kim-i" is the defining allomorph, so kim-i asks for the object.) Onlar toplanty niin ertele-di-ler? (on*lar / top*lan*t*y / niin /er*te*le*di*ler ) Why did they postpone the meeting? Bu kahveyi kim yapt? ( bu / kah*ve*yi / kim / yap*t ) Who has made this coffee? Niin patatesleri soy-ma-d-n? (niin / pa*ta*tes*le*ri / soy*ma*dn) Why havent you peeled the potatoes? Kim-in araba-/s/-/n/ dn al-d-n? (ki*min / a*ra*ba*s*n / *dn / al*dn) Whose car did you borrow? Onlar nerde bulu-tu-lar? (on*lar / ner de / bu*lu*tu*lar ) Where did they meet? Amerikada ne kadar kal-d-n? (a*me*ri*ka*da / ne / ka*dar / kal*dn ) How long did you stay in The U.S.A.? Annenle baban ne sklkta ziyaret et-ti-in? (an*nen*le / ba*ba*n / ne / sk*lk*ta / zi*ya:*ret / et*tin ) How often did you visit your parents? Ne de-di-in? (ne / de*din) What did you say?

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If noticed, when the question words are taken out of all the Turkish interrogative sentences, the remaining parts are good grammatical positive or negative sentences. For instance: Onu nezaman grdn? Onu grdn. Onlar toplanty niin ertelediler? Onlar toplanty ertelediler. Likewise, one can also produce interrogative sentences by inserting question words in all Turkish positive or negative sentences: Onlar toplanty niin ertelediler? Onlar toplanty ertelediler. Sen stanbula nasl gideceksin? Sen stanbula gideceksin. Onu nerde grdn? Onu grdn. Bu kitab ne zaman satn alacaksn? Bu kitab satn alacaksn. Londraya ka kez gittin? Londraya gittin. Bizi niin ziyaret etmedin? Bizi ziyaret etmedin. The places of the interrogative words are changeable in Turkish, but this characteristic of the Turkish language does not exist in English: Niin onlar toplanty ertelediler? Onlar niin toplanty ertelediler? Onlar toplanty niin ertelediler? Onlar toplanty ertelediler. Niin? There is only one English equivalent of the above three Turkish interrogative sentences: Why did they postpone the meeting? The mi, m, m, mu question words can also be put into the positive or negative sentences without changing the sentence order as the other question words: Onlar toplanty ertele-di-ler. Onlar m toplanty ertelediler? Onlar toplanty m ertelediler? Onlar toplanty ertelediler mi? Onlar toplanty ertele-me-di-ler. Onlar m toplanty ertelemediler? Onlar toplanty m ertelemediler? Onlar toplanty ertelemediler mi? The [M] morpheme can also be used accordingly in all other Turkish sentences.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
ML PAST TENSE (Mili Gemi) (rumor, inference) This tense does not exist in English. The concept of this tense is inferred from the context in which it is used. The inference allomorphs of this tense are [mi, m, m, mu], which are followed by the personal morphemes: (ben) [im, m, m, um]; (sen) [sin, sn, sn, sun]; (o) []; (biz) [iz, z, z, uz]; (siz) [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]; (onlar) ([ler, lar]). Compare the Turkish with the English sentences to understand the difference: O git-mi. They say (that) he has gone or I am surprised to see (hear) that he has gone. They say (that) he went. I think (that) he has gone. He says (that) he has gone. Somebody says (that) he has gone. He is said to have gone. All these English sentences are accumulated in the Turkish sentence O gitmi. In such sentences the origin and the time of the rumor is unknown, but inferred: Sen snav ge-mi-sin. People say that you have passed the examination. inden kov-mu-lar. People say (that) they (have) fired him. inden kov-ul-mu. (ko*vul*mu) They say he has been fired or was fired. (He himself says (that) he has been fired, or was fired.) When one of the [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur] allomorphs is attached to one of the allomorphs of [M], the verb composition gains the meaning of possibility or certainty . Consider the following: Bu filmi gr-m-sn-dr. (bu / fil*mi / gr*m*sn*dr ) You are likely to have seen this film. (possibility) You must have seen this film. (certainty) Zil al-m-tr. (zil / al*m*tr) The bell must (may) have rung. (possibility or certainty) Annem evden k-m-tir bile. (an*nem / ev*den / k*m*tr / bi*le) Mother must have already left home. (certainty) Yeni dersi ren-mi-siniz-dir. (ye*ni / der*si / *ren*mi*si*niz*dir) You may or must have learned the new lesson. Beni anla-m-sn-dr. (be*ni / an*la*m*sn*dr) You must (may) have understood me.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Beni anla-m ol-mal-sn. (be*ni / an*la*m / ol*ma*l*sn) You must have understood me. Otobs ge kal-m olmal. (o*to*bs / ge / kal*m / ol*ma*l) The bus must have been late. Program iptal et-mi-ler-dir. (prog*ra*m / ip*ta:l / et*mi*ler*dir) They must (may) have canceled the program.. Onu yanl anla-m-m-dr. (yan*l / an*la*m*m*dr) I must (may) have misunderstood it. Onu gr-me-mi-sin-dir. (o*nu / gr*me*mi*sin*dir) You may not have seen him. Onu grm olamazsn. (o*nu / gr*m / o*la*maz*sn) You cant have seen her. Ylan ldr-m-ler-dir. (y*la*n / l*dr*m*ler*dir) They must have killed the snake. negative: After the verb stems or frames, one of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs are used; then only the [mi, m] allomorphs follow them according to the vowel harmony rules, and finally the personal allomorphs are added: O, almaya bala-ma-m bile. (o~/ a*l*ma*ya / ba*la*ma*m/ bi*le) They say he hasnt started working yet. (astonishment and complaint) Sen snav ge-me-mi-sin. (sen / s*na*v / ge*me*mi*sin) They say you didnt pass, or havent passed the examination. Olun dn okula git-me-mi. (o*lun / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi) They say, or Ive heard that your son didnt go to school yesterday. Mektubu at-ma-m. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*m) I heard that he didnt post the letter.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Teklifi kabul et-me-mi-ler. (tek*li:*fi / ka*b:I / et*me*mi*ler ) I heard that they hadnt accepted the proposal. Benim olum dn okula git-me-mi. (be*nim / o*lum / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi) I heard that my son didnt go to school yesterday. This type of verb structure is also used in expressing surprise: Kedi papaan-m- yemi! (ke*di / pa*pa*a*n*m / ye*mi~) The cat has eaten my parrot! (astonishment) Kek yanm! (kek / yan*m~) The cake has been burned (burnt)! (astonishment) positive question: In positive questions, [miyim, mym, mym, muyum]; [misin, msn, msn, musun]; [mi, m, m, mu]; [miyiz, myz, myz, muyuz]; [misiniz, msnz, msnz, musunuz] and [ler mi, lar m] words are separately used in accordance with the harmony rules: Olun dn maa git-mi mi? (o*lun / dn / ma*a / git*mi / mi) Does your son, or does someone else say that your son went to the football match yesterday? Kapy kilitle-mi mi-/y/im? (ka*p*y / ki*lit*le*mi / mi*yim) Tell me whether I have locked the door. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /i/ vowels.) Yen-il-mi-ler mi! (ye*nil*mi*ler / mi ) Have they been beaten! (astonishment) Arabam tamir ed-il-mi mi? (a*ra*bam / ta:*mir / e*dil*mi / mi) Do they say (have you heard) that my car has been repaired? (passive)

negative question:
In negative questions, [me, ma] negation allomorphs are attached to verb stems or frames:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kapy kilitle-me-mi-ler mi?! (ka*p*y / ki*lit*le*me*mi*ler / mi) Havent they locked the door?! (Im shocked to hear that.) Beni gr-me-mi mi? (be*ni / gr*me*mi / mi) Does he say that he didn't see me? (I dont believe.) Ev devini yap-ma-m m? (ev / *de*vi*ni~ / yap*ma*m / m) Does he say that he hasn't done his homework? Daha kalk-ma-m-m? (da*ha / kalk*ma*m / m) (surprise) Do you say that he hasnt got up yet? (How lazy he is!) Olun Trke bil-mi-yor mu/y/-mu? (o*lun / trk*e / bil*mi*yor / muy*mu) Do you say that your son doesnt know Turkish? (I am surprised.) Beni tan-ma-yor mu/y/-mu? Hayret bir ey! (be*ni / ta*n*m*yor / muy*mu) (hay*ret / bi*ey~) Does he say that he doesnt know me? Unbelievable! THE SIMPLE FUTURE and BE GOING TO Gelecek Zaman The above two different English time concepts are expressed in [ecek, acak] time allomorphs in Turkish. The personal allomorphs follow these two time allomorphs as usual, such as: (ben) [im, m]; (sen) [sin, sn]; (o) []; (biz) [iz, z]; (siz) [siniz, s-nz]; (onlar) [ler, lar] in Turkish. The same concepts can also be expressed in The Present Continuous Tense (imdiki Zaman), as well. Consider the following: Yeni bir araba satn al-acak-z. (ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / sa*tn / a*la*ca*z) We are going to buy a new car. We will by a new car. We are buying a new car. Bir gn beni anla-/y/acak-sn. (bir / gn / be*ni / an*la*ya*cak*sn) You will understand me some day. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Param olunca sana yardm et-er-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*rim) I will help you when I have enough money. (The /t/ phoneme changes into the voiced /d/.) (promise) Param olunca sana yardm et-ecek-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*ce*im) I will certainly help you when I have enough money. (strong promise) (The underlined /t/ and /k/ phonemes change into the /d/ and // respectively.) Baz hayvanlar bir gn yok ol-acak. (ba:*z / hay*van*lar / bir / gn / yo*ko*la*cak) Some animals will be extinct some day. (Kapy) ben a-ar-m. (ka*p*y / be*na*a*rm) Ill open (the door). (This form is used as soon as one hears the doorbell.) (Telefona) ben cevap veririm. (te*le*fo*na / ben / ce*vap / ve*ri*rim) Ill answer (the phone). (This expression is used as soon a one hears the telephone ring.) Mr. Brown yarn niversitede bir konferans ver-ecek. Mr. Brown is going to give a lecture at the university tomorrow. negative: The negation allomorphs of this tense are [me] and [ma], which are followed by [ecek, acak] and personal allomorphs. When "me-ecek" and "ma-acak" allomorphs follow one another, the successive /e/ and /a/ vowels are linked by the /y/ glides to maintain the harmonious link between these vowels: Toplantya git-me-/y/ecek-im. (top*lan*t*ya / git*me*ye*ce*im) or (git*mi*ye*ce*im), or informally (git*miy*cem). I wont go to the meeting. (refusal) (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /e/ vowels, and the unvoiced phoneme /k/ changes into the voiced form //.) Onlar-n teklif-i-/n/i kabul et-me-/y/ecek-iz. (on*la*rn / tek*li:*fi*ni / ka*bl / et*me*ye*ce*iz) We wont accept their proposal. (The /n/ and /y/ are glides inserted between the successive /i/ and /e/ vowels. The /k/ phoneme in ecek changes into the voiced (/.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yamur ya-ma-/y/acak. (ya*mur / ya*m*ya*cak) It is not going to rain. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.) In positive questions, mi/y/im, misin, mi, mi/y/iz, misiniz, (ler)mi or their allomorphs are separately used: Bu mektuplar daktilo edecek misin? (bu / mek*tup*la*r / dak*ti*lo / e*de*cek / mi*sin) Are you going to type these letters? Yarn git-ecek misin? or Yarn gidiyor musun? (ya*rn / gi*de*cek / mi*sin) Are you leaving tomorrow? (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Onlar bizi ziyaret et-ecek-ler mi? (on*lar / bi*zi / zi*ya:*ret / e*de*cek*ler / mi) Are they going to visit us? In polite requests geni zaman (The Simple Present Tense) is used in Tukish in place of The Simple Future Tense (will) of the English language: Bu mektuplar benim iin ltfen daktilo eder misin? (bu / mek*tup*la*r / be*nim / i*in / lt*fen / dak*ti*lo / e*der / mi*sin) Will you please type these letters for me? (polite request) Lutfen benim iin bir fincan kahve yapar msn? (lt*fen / be*nim / i*in / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / ya*par / m*sn) Will you please make a cup of coffee for me? (polite request) negative question: In the negative question form, [me, ma] negation allomorphs follow the verb stems or verb frames: Bizimle gel-me-/y/ecek misin? (bi*zim*le / gel*mi *ye*cek / mi*sin) Wont you come with us? (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /e/ vowels.) When the question words are involved, miyim, misin, etc. are not used: Saat kata eve dn-ecek-sin? (sa*at / ka*ta / e*ve / d*ne*cek*sin ) What time will you come back home?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yarn nereye git-iyor-sun? (ya*rn / ne re*ye / gi*di*yor*sun ) Where are you going tomorrow? (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Yarn hava nasl ol-acak? (ya*rn / ha*va / na sl / o*la*cak ) What is the weather going to be like tomorrow? Soruma kim cevap ver-ecek? (so*ru*ma / kim / ce*vap / ve*re*cek ) Who is going to answer my question? Soruma sen mi cevap ver-ecek-sin? (so*ru*ma / sen / mi / ce*vap / ve*re*cek*sin) Are you going to answer my question? (If this question is asked with a rising () intonation, it becomes scornful.) Toplant/y/ nerde yapacaklar? (top*lan*t*y / ner de / ya*pa*cak*lar ) Where are they going to hold the meeting? Bu kimin kitab? (bu / ki*min / ki*ta*b) Whose book is this? Size nasl yardm edebilirim? ( si*ze / nasl / yar*dm / e*de*bi*li*rim ) How can I help you? THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE imdiki Zaman n Hikyesi This tense is used like The Past Continuous Tense of the English Language. The time morpheme of this tense is a combination of [YOR] morpheme followed by the [D] morpheme, which are followed by the usual personal morphemes. The allomorphs of these three morphemes are simultaneously chosen by the phonological component in accordance with the Turkish harmony rules as usual. The allomorphs of [YOR] are [iyor, yor, yor, uyor] as they are in The Present Continuous Tense. As all the allomorphs of [YOR] morpheme end with yor syllables, only the [du] allomorph of the morpheme [D] is used after the allomorphs of [YOR] . For example: iyor-du, yor-du, yor-du, uyor-du. Although the personal allomorphs of the morpheme [M] are [im, m, m, um], only one of them [um] allomorph is used for the first person singular

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
because of the [du] past allomorph. All the other personal allomorphs are as follows: (ben) [du-um]; (sen) [du-un]; (o) [du-]; (biz) [du-uk]; (siz) [du-unuz]; (onlar) [lar-d]. As all these allomorphs are attached to [iyor-du] allomorphs, they be-come iyor-du-um, iyor-du-un, iyor-du, iyor-du-uk, iyor-du-unuz, iyor-lar-d. As usual, all the first vowels of the personal mor-phemes drop: Ankaraya git-iyor-du-um. (an*ka*ra*ya / gi*di*yor*dum) I was going to Ankara. (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Onlar bize yardm et-iyor-lar-d. (on*lar / bi*ze / yar*dm / e*di*yor*lar*d) They were helping us. (The underlined /t/ changes into /d/.) Sen televizyon seyret-iyor-du-un. (sen / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor*dun) You were watching television. Arkadalarmz ara-yor-du-uk. (ar*ka*da*la*r*m*z / a*r*yor*duk) We were looking for our friends. (The double underlined /a/and /u/ drop.) Ben bir problem z-yor-du-um. (ben / bir / prob*lem / *z*yor*dum) I was solving a problem. Biz onlar bekle-iyor-du-uk. (biz / on*la*r / bek*li*yor*duk) We were waiting for them. (The double underlined /e/ and /u/ drop.) O beni sev-iyor-du. (o / be*ni /se*vi*yor*du ) She was in love with me. renciler retmenlerini dikkatle dinle-iyor-lar-d. (*ren*ci*ler / *ret*men*le*ri*ni / dik*kat*le / din*li*yor*lar*d) The students were listening to their teacher carefully. (The double underlined /e/ drops.) Uyu-uyor-du-uk. (u*yu*yor*duk) We were sleeping.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR negative:

Although the negation allomorphs of this tense are [me] and [ma], their last vowels drop when they are attached to the allomorphs of [iyor]: Gel-me-iyor-lar-d. (gel*mi*yor*lar*d) They were not coming. (The double underlined /e/ drops.) Onlar bekle-me-iyor-du-uk. (on*la*r / bek*le*mi*yor*duk) We were not waiting for them. (The double underlined /e/ and /u/ drop.) O beni sev-me-iyor-du. (o / be*ni / sev*mi*yor*du) She wasnt in love with me. O beni anla-ma-yor-du. (O beni anlamad.) (o / be*ni / an*la*m*yor*du) She didnt understand me. Ben uyu-ma-uyor-du-um. (ben / u*yu*mu*yor*dum) I wasn't sleeping.

positive question:
The question allomorphs of this tense are [mi, m, m, mu]. Each one of these allomorphs are separately used after any stressed word in a sentence: Ahmet okula otobsle mi git-iyor-du? (ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bsle*mi / gi*di*yor*du) Was Ahmet going to school by bus? Ahmet otobsle okula m git-iyordu? (ah*met / o*to*bs*le / o*ku*la m / gi*di*yor*du) Was Ahmet going to school by bus? Telefon aldnda kahvalt m et-iyor-du-nuz? (te*le*fon / al*d*n*da / kah*val*t / m / e*di*yor*du*nuz) Were you having breakfast when the telephone rang? Telefon aldnda m kahvalt et-iyor-du-nuz (te*le*fon / al*d*n*da / m / kah*val*t / e*di*yor*du*nuz) Were you having breakfast when the telephone rang?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Telefon aldnda kahvalt et-iyor mu/y/-du-nuz? (te*le*fon / al*d*n*da / kah*val*t / e*diyor / muy*du*nuz) Were you having breakfast when the telephone rang? When the verb is stressed, the question allomorph [mu] is attached to [du] allomorph: "Gidiyor mu/y/-du-nuz?" "Bakyor mu/y/-du-nuz?" "Gryor mu/y/-du-nuz?" "Uyuyor mu/y/-du-nuz?" "alyor mu/y/-du-uk?" "Glyor mu/y/-du-um?"

negative question :
As usual, the [me, ma] negation allomorphs are used in negative questions: Onlar otobsle git-me-iyor mu/y/-du-lar? (on*lar / o*to*bs*le / git*mi*yor / muy*du*lar) Werent they going by bus? The double underlined /e/ drops, and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mu] and [du]. Instead of gitmiyor muydu-lar?, gitmiyor-lar myd? are often heard. When the question words are involved, the [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs are not used, and the verbs are in positive form: Ne yapyor-du-un? (ne / ya*p*yor*dun ) What were you doing? Sana kim yardm et-iyor-du? (sa*na / kim / yar*dm / e*di*yor*du ) Who was helping you? (The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/.) Nereye git-iyor-du-un? (nere*ye / gi*di*yor*dun ) Where were you going? (The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/, and the double underlined /u/ vowel drops.) Caddede bir kadn niin kos-uyor-du? (cad*de*de / bir / ka*dn / niin / ko*u*yor*du) Why was a woman running along the street? The intonation patterns of the Turkish and English interrogative sentences are different when the question words are used. In the Turkish sentences, the stress is on the question words; but in English, the stress is on the verb.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE imdiki Zamann Hikyesi The past continuous verb structure of the Turkish language is also used in place of the Past Perfect Continuous Tense of the English language. Consider and compare the following sentences: Ahmet geldiinde ben onu bir saattir otobs duranda bekle-iyor-dum. (ah*met / gel*di*in*de~ / ben / o*nu / i*ki / sa*at*tir / o*to*bs / du*ra*n*da / bek*li*yor*dum) I had been waiting for Ahmet at the bus stop for an hour when he arrived. (The double underlined /e/ and /u/ vowels drop.) Snav sona erdiinde iki saattir sorulara cevap vermeye al-yor-dum. I had been trying to answer the questions for two hours when the exam ended. Iklar sndnde iki saattir ev devimi yap-yor-du-um. When the lights went off, I had been doing my homework for two hours. Otobs duranda bekliyordum. I was waiting at the bus stop. (Past Continuous) Otobs duranda iki saattir bekliyordum. I had been waiting at the bus stop for two hours. (Past Perfect Continuous) As it is seen in the above examples, only The Past Continuous Tense is used in Turkish to express both The Past Continuous and The Past Perfect continuous Tenses of the English language. WAS (WERE) GOING TO Gelecek Zamann Hikyesi This tense expresses an action that was going to be done in the past but was interrupted for some reason. The same tense exists in the English language, as well. To form this tense in Turkish, the [ecek] or [acak] allomorphs are attached to verb stems or frames first, then they are followed by [ti, t] past time allomorphs, and finally personal allomorphs (ben) [im, m]; (sen) [in, n]; (o) []; (biz) [ik, k]; (siz) [iniz, nz]; (onlar) [lerdi, lard] are added: Ev devimi yap-acak-t-m, ama birden elektrikler sn-d. (ev / *de*vi*mi / ya*pa*cak*tm / a*ma ~/ bir*den / e*lek*trik*ler / sn*d) I was going to do my homework, but suddenly the lights went out.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tam retmenin sorusuna cevap ver-ecek-ti-im, ama zil ald. (tam / *ret*me*nin / so*ru*su*na / ce*vap / ve*re*cek*tim / a*ma ~/ zil / al*d) I was just going to answer the teachers question, but the bell rang. Tam uykuy dal-acak-t-m, telefon ald. Just as I was going to sleep, the telephone rang. This tense is also used in conditional past tenses in Turkish: Bilet bul-sa/y/-d-m, tiyatroya git-ecek-ti-im. (bi*let / bul*say*dm~ / ti*yat*ro*ya / gi*de*cek*tim ) If I had found a ticket, I would have gone to the theatre. USED TO Geni Zamann Hikyesi The equivalent of the expression of used to is used in Turkish as it is used in English. To form this expression, the simple present tense allomorphs of [R], [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar], are used followed by [di, d, d, du] past time allomorphs; and finally, (ben) [im, m, m, um]; (sen) [in, n, n, un]; (o) []; (biz) [ik, k, k, uk]; (siz) [iniz, nz, nz, unuz]; (onlar) [ler/di, lar/d] personal allomorphs are added: Onsekiz yamdayken futbol oyna-ar-d-m. (on*se*kiz / ya*m*day*ken / fut*bol / oy*nar*dm) I used to play football when I was eighteen. Biz her akam radyo din-le-er-di-ik. (biz / her / ak*am / rad*yo / din*ler*dik) We used to listen to the radio every evening. negative: The negation allomorph, which is used without the /z/ phoneme for the first person in The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) negative, is used with the phoneme /z/ in negative used to tenses, such as git-mez, okumaz. After this, the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and the personal allomorphs follow: Genken basketbol oyna-maz-d-m. (gen*ken / bas*ket*bol / oy*na*maz*dm) I didnt use(d) to play basketball when I was young. Okula otobsle git-mez-di-ik. (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*mez*dik) We didnt use(d) to go to school by bus.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Babam gzlklerini takmama izin ver-mez-di. (ba*bam / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*ma*ma / i*zin / ver*mez*di) My father didnt use(d) to let me wear his eyeglasses. positive question: To produce a positive question, one of the Simple Present Tense allomorphs is attached to a verb stem or frame. Then, as a separate word, one of the question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], and then one of the Simple Past Tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du] is linked to the question allomorphs by the glide /y/, and finally a suitable personal allomorph follows them: Siz her gn ngilizce al-r m/y/-d-nz? (alyor muydunuz?) (siz / her*gn / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*r / my*d*nz) Did you use(d) to study English every day? (The /y/ glide is inserted between [m] and [d].) Mutfakta annene her gn yardm eder mi/y/di-in? (mut*fak*ta / an*ne*ne / her / gn / yar*dm / e*der / miy*din ) Did you use to help your mother in the kitchen every day? Sen genken kzlar futbol oynar m/y/-d? (sen / gen*ken / kz*lar / fut*bol / oy*nar / my*d) Did girls use to play football when you were young? This verbal composition is also used in conditional sentences: Senin yerinde ol-sa-m babamn dn dinle-er-di-im. (se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam / ba*ba*mn / **d*n / din*ler*dim) If I were you, I would listen to my fathers advice. Jack burda olsa bize yardm et-er-di. (Jack / bur*da / ol*sa~ / bi*ze / yar*dm / e*der*di) If Jack were here, he would help us. The double underlined /e/ and /i/ vowels drop, and the /t/ changes into the /d/ voiced consonant. THE RUMOR FORMS OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT AND CONTINUOUS TENSES The rumor forms of The Simple Present, The Present Continuous, The Simple Future and double rumor forms are also possible in Turkish. To form these tenses, one of the allomorphs of The Simple Present Tense [ir, r, r, ur], the allomorphs of The Present Continuous [iyor, yor, yor, uyor], the Simple Future [ecek, acak], or the rumor suffixes [mi, m, m, mu] is attached to a verb stem or frame. Then, one of the rumor allomorphs [mi,

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
m, m, mu] is used followed by personal allomorphs: (ben) [im, m, m, um]; (sen) [sin, sn, sn, sun]; (o) []; (biz) [iz, z, z, uz]; (siz) [siniz, snz, snz, su-nuz]; (onlar) [ler,lar]: Jack her yl yeni bir araba satn al-r-m. (jack / her / yl / ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / sa*t*na*lr*m) They say that Jack buys a new car every year. (The Simple Present) Jack her gn Trke al-yor-mu. (jack / her / gn / trk*e / a*l**yor*mu) They say that Jack is (was) studying Turkish every day. (The Present Cont.) Jack gelecek yl yeni bir araba satnal-acak-m. (jack~ / ge*le*cek / yl ~ / ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / sa*tn / a*la*cak*m) They say that Jack is going to buy a new car next year. (The Simple Future) Jack arabasn bir yl nce al-m-m. (jack / a*ra*ba*s*n~ / bir / yl / n*ce / al*m*m) They said that Jack had bought his car a year before. (Double Rumor) (The double rumor allomorphs express unbelievable rumor.) In all the above sentences, as in all rumor sentences, the origin of the rumor is unknown or unimportant. Some examples are as follows: Sen o kza ak-m-sn. (sen / o / k*za~/ a:*k*m*sn) They say that you are (were) in love with that girl. kinci el araba sat-ar-m-sn (sat-yor-mu-sun). (i*kin*ci / el / a*ra*ba / sa*t*yor / mu*sun) They say you are selling second-hand cars. Jack bir Rus kzn sev-iyor-mu. (jack~ / bir / rus / k*z*n / se*vi*yor* mu) They say that Jack is (was) in love with a Russian girl. Ben bir Rus kzn sev-iyor-mu-um. (ben / bir / rus / k*z*n / se*vi*yor*mu*um) They say that I am (was) in love with a Russian girl. Btn kzlar Jack'e ak-m-m. (b*tn / kz*lar / jack*e / a:*k*m*m) Jack says (or I have heard) that all girls are in love with him, which is ridiculously unbelievable. Ben bilgisayar kullan-a-ma-yor-mu-um. (ben / bil*gi*sa*yar / kul*la*na*m*yor*mu*um) They say that I cant use a computer.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE Mili Gemiin Hikyesi This tense is generally used in complex sentences. To form this tense, one of the allomorphs of [mi, m, m, mu] is used after a verb stem or frame, then one of the [ti, t, t, tu] past allomorphs is added, and finally, they are followed by one of the personal allomorphs. The personal allomorphs used in this tense are (ben) [im, m, m, um]; (sen) [in, n, n, un]; (o) []; (biz) [ik, k, k, uk]; (siz) [niz, nz, nz, nuz]; (onlar) [ler-di, lar-d]. All these suffixes follow the vowel and consonant harmony rules while they are being suffixed. The double underlined vowels in the following sentences drop as usual. Yat-ma-dan nce ev devimi bitir-mi-ti-im. (yat*ma*dan / n*ce ~/ ev / *de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mi*tim) I had finished my homework before I went to bed. Misafirler gel-me-den nce akam yemeimizi ye-mi-ti-ik. (mi*sa:*fir*ler / gel*me*den / n*ce / ak*am / ye*me*i*mi*zi / ye*mi*tik) We had eaten our lunch before the visitors arrived. Birisi babama telefon et-tik-i/n/-de babam evden yeni k-m-t. (bi*ri*si / ba*ba*ma / te*le*fon / et*ti*in*de~ / ba*bam / ev*den / ye*ni / k*m*t) When somebody telephoned my father, he had just left home. (Ben-im) hava alanna var-dk-m-da uak havalan-m-t.
noun + infinitive compound - [DE] syntactic adverb of time sentence

When I arrived at the airport, the plane had already taken off. (O) (ben-im) hangi lkelere git-tik-im-i ren-mek istedi.
NP NP (object of renmek) NP inf V

He wanted to know which countries I had been to. Daha nce (kendisi-nin) benimle karla-m ol-duk-u-/n/u syledi. He said that he had met me before. (The /k/ phonemes in [dik, dk, dk, duk] change into the voiced // phonemes.) THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE This tense expresses an action going on at a certain time in the future. To compose this tense, one of the progressive allomorphs [iyor, yor, yor, uyor] is attached to verb stems or frames first, and then the verb ol is attached to [acak] allomorph, which is followed by one of the personal allomorphs:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yarn saat sekizde seni bekle-iyor ol-acak-m. (ya*rn / sa*at / se*kiz*de / se*ni / bek*li*yor / o*la*ca*m) I will be waiting for you at eight oclock tomorrow. The double underlined /e/ drops, and the /k/ in olacak changes into its voiced form //. Yarn bu saatte al-yor ol-acak-m. (ya*rn / bu / sa*at*te / a*l**yor / o*la*ca*m) I will be working at this hour tomorrow. (The /k/ changes into //.) The same verb composition above can also be used in Turkish when The Future Perfect Continuous Tense verb expression is needed: Gelecek yl bu zaman bir yldrTrke ren-iyor ol-acak-m. (ge*le*cek / yl / bu / za*man ~/ bir / yl*dr / trk*e / *re*ni*yor / o*la*ca*m) I will have been studying Turkish for a year by this time next year. Misafirler geldiinde eim saattir mutfakta yemek piir-iyor ol-acak. My wife will have been cooking in the kitchen for three hours by the time the visitors arrive. THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (mi ol-acak) Both in English and Turkish, this tense expresses an action that will have been finished before a certain time in the future. To form this tense, one of the [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs is attached to a verb stem or frame, and then, as a separate word, one of the [ecek, acak] allomorphs is attached to the ol verb stem, and finally the verb structure is ended with one of the personal allomorphs: Saat be-te iimi bitir-mi ol-acak-m. (sa*at / be*te / i*i*mi / bi*tir*mi / o*la*ca*m) I will have finished my work by five oclock. (The underlined /k/ is replaced by its voiced form //.) Televizyonda benim favori programm baladnda ev odevimi yapm olacam. I will have done my homework by the time my favorite program starts on TV. (Sen) hava alanna vardnda uak havalanm olacak. (sen / ha*va / a*la*n*na / var*d*n*da~ / u*ak / ha*va*lan*m / o*la*cak) The plane will have taken off by the time you arrive at the airport.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
INFINITIVES (MASTARLAR) The grammar term infinitive (mastar) in Turkish covers both the gerunds and the infinitives of the English language. Therefore, we will talk about only infinitives. All infinitives are nouns made up of verb stems or verb frames. There are four kinds of infinitives in Turkish: 1.The [mek, mak] allomorphs attached to verb stems or verb frames: oku-mak (reding, to read); yz-mek (swimming, to swim); yardm et-mek (helping, to help); konu-mak (talking, to talk); temizle-mek (cleaning, to clean); oyna-mak (playing, to play); tart-mak, tart-l-mak, tart--mak; kamak, ka-n-mak, ka--mak; srt-mek, srt-l-mek, srt-n-mek, srt-mek; dv-mek, dv-l-mek, dv-n-mek, dv--mek; ek-mek, ekil-mek, ek-in-mek, ek-i-mek; at-mak, at-l-mak, at--mak; sev-mek, sev-il-mek, sev-in-mek, sev-i-mek; de-mek, de-in-mek, de-il-mek. 2.The [me, ma] allomorphs attached to verb stems and verb frames: git-me (going, to go); gel-me (coming, to come); al-ma (working, to work), eletir-me (criticizing, to criticize); anla-ma (understanding, to understand) ezberle-me (memorizing, to memorize); tart-ma, tart-l-ma, tart-ma; gr-me, gr-l-me, gr-n-me, gr--me; ka-ma, ka-n-ma, ka-ma. 3.The [i, , , u] allomorphs attached to verb stems: gl- (way of smiling); bak- (way of looking); anla-/y/ (ability of understanding), gel-i (way of) coming); davran- (way of behaving) 4. The [dik. dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs attached to verb stems or frames: yz-dk, gel-dik, oku-duk, temizle-dik, bekle-dik, al-tk; soy-un-duk, anla--tk, kes-i-tik, sev-il-dik, yz-le-tik, bek-le-i-tik, tart--tk. The Nr. 4 infinitives are used only in transforming sentences into possessor + possessed (noun+infinitive) compounds such as: ben-im grdk-m (gr*d*m), Hasann a-l-tk- (a*l*t*), biz-im beklei-tik-imiz (bek*le*ti*i*miz). In the examples above, the [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are not the allomorphs used in "Futbol oyna-d-k." For example, when the sentence "O futbol oynuyor" is transformed into a noun clause (noun + infinitive compound), it becomes "onun futbol oynadk-". This transformed sentence can be used as the object of "gryorum". "Onun futbol oynadk/n/ (oynuyor olduunu) gryorum." In this sentence, the allomorph [dk] does not convey a past time concept. Consequently, "oynuyor, oynar,

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
oynard, oynad, oynuyordu" tenses are all transformed into a noun+infinitive compound as "oynad": O futbol oynuyor. onun futbol oynad O futbol oynar. onun futbol oynad O futbol oynad. onun futbol oynad O futbol oynuyordu. onun futbol oynad When all the above four sentences are transformed and nominalized, they can be used in the following sentences as objects: Onun futbol oynad-/n/ gryorum. I can see that he is playing football. Onun her gn futbol oynad-/n/ biliyorum. I know that he plays football every day. Onun dn futbol oynad-/n/ grdm. I saw that he was playing football yesterday. These examples clearly prove that the [DK] morpheme is not the past time [D] morpheme. It is a morpheme attached to a verb stem to produce an infinitive: Onun arabay aldk- is a noun + infinitive compound like onun arabay al-ma-/s/. Generally speaking, "ben-im al-ma-m", "ben-im al--m", "ben-im al-dkm" expressions are all possessor + possessed noun compounds like "ben-im kap-m". The "V-[mek, mak]" infinitives are timeless as the other infinitives. They are not used in compounds. For instance: *onun git-mek-i is not used in compounds. For example, *"onun git-mek-i", *bizim gitmekimiz are impossible in Turkish. Note: You can find further explanations in the article written by Eser Erguvanl Taylan, Boazii niversitesi, (Trke'de Tmce Yapsna Sahip Tmle Yantmceleri)

1 (a). The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used in the subject position of a
sentence: Yz-mek salk iin yararldr. (yz*mek ~/ sa*lk / i*in / ya*rar*l*dr) Swimming is good for health. Sigara i-mek zararldr. (si*ga*ra / i*mek ~/ za*rar*l*dr) Smoking is harmful. Gnde sekiz saat uyu-mak salkl bir kii iin yeterlidir. (gn*de / se*kiz / sa*at / u*yu*mak ~/ sa*lk*l / bir / ki*i / i*in / ye*ter*li*dir) Sleeping eight hours a day is enough for a healthy person. (It is enough for a healthy person to sleep eight hours a day.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Btn gn televizyon seyret-mek zaman kaybdr. (b*tn / gn / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*mek / za*man / kay*b*dr ) Watching television all day long is a waste of time. Onu ikna et-mek kolaydr. (o*nu / ik*na: / et*mek / ko*lay*dr) To convince him is easy. (It is easy to convince him.); (He is easy to convince.) The same [mek, mak] infinitives can be used before postpositions: Bahede al-mak yerine tenis oynadk.
infinitive (noun) postp postp phrs (adverb)

(bah*e*de / a*l*mak / ye*ri*ne~ / te*nis / oy*na*dk) We played tennis instead of working in the garden. (yerine is a postposition.) Televizyon seyret-mek yerine iini yap. Do your work instead of watching television. Okula git-mek yerine sinemaya gittiler (o*ku*la / git*mek / ye*ri*ne~ / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti*ler) They went to the cinema instead of going to school. 1 (b). The same [mek, mak] allomorphs are also used before iin postpositions to express purpose: Ev devimi tamamla-mak iin sabahleyin erken kalktm. (e*v*de*vi*mi / ta*mam*la*mak / i*in~ / sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk* tm) I got up early to complete my homework. Yepyeni bir araba al-mak iin para biriktiriyoruz. (yep*ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*mak / i*in~ / pa*ra / bi*rik*ti*ri*yo*ruz) We are saving money to buy a brand new car. Onlar gr-mek iin pencereden baktm. (on*la*r / gr*mek / i*in / pen*ce*re*den / bak*tm) I looked out of the window to see them. Onu bitir-mek iin zamana ihtiyacmz var. (o*nu / bi*tir*mek / i*in / za*ma:*na / ih*ti*ya:*c*mz / var) We need time to finish it. Cumhurbakann gr-mek iin herkes ayaa kalkt, Everybody stood up to see the president. Yabanc dil ren-mek iin ok almak zorundasn.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ya*ban*c / dil / *ren*mek / i*in~ / ok / a*l*mak / zo*run*da*sn) You have to study hard to learn a foreign language. Beni anla-mak iin dikkatle dinle. Listen carefully to understand me. Islan-ma-mak iin emsiyesini ald. (negative infinitive) She took her umbrella not to get wet. Beni daha iyi gr-mek iin gzlklerini takt. He put his glasses on to see me better. Bize yardm et-mek iin (et-mek-te) israr etti. He insisted on helping us. Otobse yeti-mek iin kotuk. We ran to catch the bus. 1 (c). The infinitives with [mek, mak] are used as objects of the verb iste (want, wish): Trke ren-mek istiyorum. (trk*e / *ren*mek / is*ti*yo*rum) I want to learn Turkish. Bulaklar yka-mak istemiyorum. (bu*la*k*la*r / y*ka*mak / is*te*mi*yo*rum) I dont want to wash the dishes. Bu kitab oku-mak istiyor musun? (bu / ki*ta*b / o*ku*mak / is*ti*yor / mu*sun) Do you want to read this book? Canm okula git-mek istemiyor. (ca*nm / o*ku*la / git*mek / is*te*mi*yor ) I dont feel like going to school. 1 (d). The [mek, mak] allomorphs can also be followed by [ten, tan] allomorphs as all nouns can. The other two allomorphs of the phoneme [DEN] are not used here because the [mek, mak] allomorphs end with unvoiced consonants: Yanllk yap-mak-tan kanmalsn. (yan*l*lk / yap*mak*tan / ka*n*ma*l*sn) You must avoid making mistakes. Geceleyin yalnz dar k-mak-tan korkarm. (ge*ce*le*yin / yal*nz / d*a*r / k*mak*tan / kor*ka*rm) I am afraid of going out alone at night.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Btn kadnlar yalan-mak-tan korkar. (b*tn / ka*dn*lar / ya*lan*mak*tan / kor*kar) All women are afraid of growing old. Btn gn evde otur-mak-tan bktm (skldm). (b*tn / gn / ev*de / o*tur*mak*tan / bk*tm) I am tired (bored) of staying at home all day long. Yalan syle-mek-ten utanmyor musun? (ya*lan / sy*le*mek*ten / u*tan*m*yor / mu*sun) Arent you ashamed of telling lies? zl-mek-ten kendimi alamyorum. (*zl*mek*ten / ken*di*mi / a*la*m*yo*rum) I cant help being sorry. Bekle-mek-ten neftet ederim. (bek*le*mek*ten / nef*ret / e*de*rim) I hate waiting. ou renciler ev devi yap-mak-tan holanmaz. (o*u / *ren*ci*ler ~/ e*v*de*vi / yap*mak*tan / ho*lan*maz) Most students dislike doing homework. Pervaszca araba sr-mek-ten kanmalsn. (per*va:*sz*ca / a*ra*ba / sr*mek*ten / ka*n*ma*l*sn) You must avoid driving recklessly. Gl-mek-ten kendimi alamadm. (gl*mek*ten / ken*di*mi / a*la*ma*dm) I couldnt help laughing. Kzkardeim ev ii yap-mak-tan nefret eder. (kz*kar*de*im / e*vi*i / yap*mak*tan / nef*ret / e*der) My sister hates doing housework. Aldat-l-mak-tan nefret ederim. (al*da*tl*mak*tan / nef*ret / e*de*rim) I hate being cheated. (passive infinitive) Yardm iste-mek-ten ekinme. (yar*dm / is*te*mek*ten / e*kin*me) Dont avoid asking for help. Tavla oyna-mak-tan szettik. (tav*la / oy*na*mak*tan / s*zet*tik) We talked about playing backgammon.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR 2 (a). The second kind [me, ma] infinitives are used in the second part of
the possessor + possessed noun compounds. Compare and consider the following: Kitap-n kapak- (ki*ta*bn / ka*pa*) (the cover of the book) (The /p/ and /k/ change into /b/ and // respectively.) ben-im pencere-im (be*nim / pen*ce*rem) (my window) ben-im git-me-im (be*nim / git*mem) (my going, me to go)
noun + inf compound

(Sen-in) gerei syle-me-in-i istiyorum. (se*nin~ / ger*e*i / sy*le*me*ni / is*ti*yo*rum) I want you to tell the truth. senin gerei sylemen is a transformed nominalized sentence: (Sen) gerei sylersin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei sylyorsun (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei syledin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei sylerdin. (senin) gerei sylemen The personal allomorphs attached to both parts of a "noun + infinitive" compound are as follows: (ben-im) git-me-im (sen-in) git-me-in (o-/n/un) git-me-/s/i (biz-im) git-me-imiz (siz-in) git-me-iniz (onlar-n) git-me-/s/i (ben-im) al-ma-m (sen-in) al-ma-n (o-/n/un) al-ma-/s/ (biz-im) al-ma-mz (siz-in) al-ma-nz (onlar-n) al-ma-/s/ (ben-im) bekle-me-im (sen-in) bekle-me-in (o-/n/un) bekle-me-/s/i (biz-im) bekle-me-imiz (siz-in) bekle-me-iniz (onlar-n) bekle-me-/s/i

Note: All the double underlined vowels drop. As the personal allomorphs used in the possessed parts of a compound are enough to express the possessive adjectives (ben-im, sen-in, etc.), they may be ignored unless they are thought to be necessary to attract the listeners attention. Since the words like syle-me-in are infinitives, they are nouns, and so the [i, ], [e, a], [de, da], or [den, dan] suffixes can be attached to the infinitive parts of the compounds: syle-me-in-i, syle-me-in-e, syle-me-in-de, syle-me-in-den Babam (ben-im) daha ok al-ma-m- istiyor.
NP noun + infinitive comp (obj) NP V

My father wants me to study harder.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
A final rule to add to the previous explanations is that in Turkish certain verbs need certain morphemes such as, [], [E], [DE], or [DEN] attached to noun stems and pronouns. The allomorphs of these morphemes can also be attached to infinitives, or noun + infinitive (or infinitive + noun) compounds, which have to be named as syntactic nouns. 2 (b). The verbs that take noun + infinitive compounds as objects:

noun + infinitive - []
Yamur, (biz-im) zamannda tiyatroya git-me-imiz-i engelledi.
NP possessor adverb adverb possessed noun + infinitive compound (object) NP V

(ya*mur / bi*zim / za*ma:*nn*da / ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*mi*zi / en*gel*le*di) The rain prevented us from going to the theatre in time.
adv adv

(Ben) (sen-in) byle davran-ma-n- anlamyorum. (dav*ran*ma*n)

NP possessor adverb possessed noun + inf compound (obj) NP V

I dont understand your behaving like that. (Ben) (Ben-im) siyah pantolon-um-u (o-/n/un) tle-me-/s/i-/n/i rica ettim.
NP possessor adj possessed noun comp + [] (obj of tle) NP possessor possessed noun comp + [] (obj of rica et) NP V

The mental development of this last sentence contains two deep structures: 1. O ben-im siyah pantolonum-u tlesin. 2. Ben bu-/n/u rica ettim. The first sentence is transformed and nominalized as onun benim siyah pantolonumu tlemesi, and it is embedded and used in place of bu/n/u in the second sentence: (Ben) (onun) siyah pantolonumu tlemesi-/n/i rica ettim. I asked her to iron my black trousers. (ben, benim and onun words are optional.) Mary/n/in
possessor

piyano

al-ma-/s/-/n/ seyrettim.
V

N (obj of al) possessed

(ma*ri*nin / pi*ya*no / al*ma*s*n / sey*ret*tim) I watched Mary playing the piano. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Ben) (Sen-in) ev-e dn-me-in-i bekliyorum. (dn*me*ni)
NP possessor adv possessed noun compound (object) NP V

I am waiting for your coming back home.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
O/n/un konu-ma-/s/-/n/ anlamyorum. (o*nun / ko*nu*ma*s*n / an*la*m*yo*rum) I dont understand his way of speaking. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Ben-im) sana kahve getir-me-im-i ister misin? (ge*tir*me*mi) Would you like me to serve you coffee? (Ben-im) onun-la evlen-me-im imknsz.
possessor adv possessed noun compound (subject) V

It is impossible for me to marry her. (benim is optional) (Ben) onu, (o-nun) bize yardm et-me-/s/i iin ikna ettim.
subj obj noun + inf comp (object of iin) postp. postpositional phrase of purpose

I convinced him to help us . (The /s/ glide is used); (onun is not necessary; it is put there to show the reader the deleted "possessor" part of the compound.) Mektubu (ben-im) tekrar yaz-ma-m- rica etti. He asked me to write the letter again. (benim is optional) In the above sentences, bizim gitmemiz, senin davranman, onun tlemesi, beklemenin faydas, Marynin piyano almas, (senin) eve dnmen, (benim) getirmem, onun konumas, (ben-im) evlenmem, onun yardm etmesi are all noun + infinitive compounds that have been transformed from the deep structures by the transformational component in order to be used in phrase structure patterns. The transformational component performs this mental activity to shape and use the deep structure sentences in phrase structure molds. As the aim of this activity of the mind is to build up infinite surface structure sentences out of deep structures, it may be reasonable to call such phrases as syntactic, which means that such surface structural phrases have been built up for syntactic purposes. In the following lines the deep structure sentences are printed in italics, and the transformed noun + infinitive compounds are in bold type, which have been produced for syntactic purposes. By the way, it is necessary to remember that the meaning of a surface structure sentence is always hidden in a deep structure. The syntactic surface phrases can only be understood so long as they are paraphrased and interpreted by the listeners or readers. Read the deep structures and the syntactic surface structures below: Biz tiyatroya gidecektik. bizim tiyatroya gitmemiz Sen byle davranyorsun. senin byle davranman (O) siyah pantolonumu tlesin. (onun) siyah pantolonumu tlemesi

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Mary piyano alyordu. Marynin piyano almas Sen eve dneceksin. senin eve dnmen O konuur. onun konumas Ben kahve getiririm. benim kahve getirmem Ben onunla evlenirim. benim onunla evlenmem O bize yardm eder. onun bize yardm etmesi Ben mektubu tekrar yazaym. benim mektubu tekrar yazmam As it is seen in the above noun compounds, when sentences are transformed and nominalized, they lose their time concepts like all infinitives. The benim, senin parts of the compounds may be ignored, and so, only tiyatroya gitmemiz or mektubu tekrar yazmam can be used as noun compounds without the possessive adjectives. Bekle-me-/n/in fayda-/s/ yok. It is no use waiting. (Literally: "There is not the use of waiting") (beklemenin faydas is an infinitive + noun compound used as the subject of the sentence.) Infinitives attached to [i, ] allomorphs: V - [me, ma] -/y/ [i, ] (Sen) (ben-im) emsiye-im-i geri getir-me-/y/i unutma. (em*si*ye*mi / ge*tir*me*yi / u*nut*ma) Dont forget to bring my umbrella back. (The /y/ glide is used between the /e/ phoneme and the [i] defining allomorph.) (The sen and benim words can naturally be ignored.) Bizim takm kazan-ma-/y/ haketti. (bi*zim / ta*km / ka*zan*ma*y / ha*ket*ti) Our team deserved to win. Eski arabamz sat-ma-/y/ erteledik. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*m*z / sat*ma*y / er*te*le*dik) We postponed selling our old car. (arabamz- is the object of satmak; eski arabamz satma/y/ is the object of ertelemek.) Yz-me-/y/i bana babam retti. (yz*me*yi / ba*na / ba*bam / *ret*ti) My father taught me (how) to swim. Bizimle Bursaya git-me-/y/i kabul etti. (bi*zim*le / bur*sa*ya / git*me*yi / ka*bu:*let*ti) He agreed to go to Bursa with us. Hrsz kasay a-ma-/y/ denedi. (hr*sz / ka*sa*y / a*ma*y / de*ne*di) The thief tried opening the safe.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yeni bir araba al-ma-/y/ dnyoruz. (ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*ma*y / d**n*yo*ruz) We are considering buying a new car. Note: The infinitives above are all printed in bold type. 2 (c). The verbs that need noun + infinitive compounds followed by [e], [a] allomorphs: Babam, (ben-im) futbol mana git-me-im-e izin verdi. (git*me*me)
NP noun + infinitive compound - [e] adverb V

My father allowed me to go to the football match. Babam, kzkardeim-in gece yalnz sinemaya git-me-/s/i-/n/e kzd.
NP possessor adv adv adv possessed noun + infinitive compound + [e]= syntactic adverb V

My father got angry about my sisters going to the cinema alone at night. Babam, araba-/s//n/ (ben-im) kullan-ma-m-a hi izin vermiyor. (ba*bam~ / a*ra*ba*s*n / kul*lan*ma*ma / hi / i*zin / ver*mi*yor) My father is never allowing me to use his car. (Complaint) (benim is optional) Babam (benim) balk tut-ma-/y/a git-me-im-e itiraz etti (kar durdu). (ba*bam~ / ba*lk / tut*ma*ya /git*me*me / i:*ti*ra:z / et*ti) My father objected to my going fishing. (benim is optional) 2 (d). noun + infinitive compounds can also be followed by [den, dan]: Annem ben-im eve ge gel-me-im-den holanmyor.
NP possessor adv adv possessed noun + infinitive comp - [den] = adv V

My mother dislikes my (me) coming home late. There are two mental deep structures in the above sentence: 1. Ben eve ge geliyorum. 2. Annem bundan holanmyor. Sentence Nr.1 is transformed and nominalized as "benim eve ge gelmem". When this transformed sentence is put in the place of "bundan" in the second sentence, the new synonymous sentence "Annem benim eve ge gelmemden holanmyor" surface sentence is produced. In this transformed sentence, "ev-e", "ge" and benim eve ge gelmem-den expressions are adverbs modifying "holanmyor".

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) onun her ey-i anla-ma-/s//n/-dan korkuyorum.
V NP possessor obj of anla possessed noun + infinitive comp - [dan] = adv

I am afraid of her understanding everything. (The /s/ and /n/ glides are used.) Infinitives attached to [e, a] allomorphs: V - [me, ma] - /y/[e], /y/[a] (Ben) klasik mzik dinle-me-/y/e dknm.
NP NP infinitive nf - [e] = adverb VP V

I am fond of listening to classical music. imi tamamla-ma-/y/a alyorum. (i*i*mi / ta*mam*la*ma*ya / a*l**yo*rum) I am trying to complete my work. Dert-et-me-/y/e demez. (der*det*me*ye / de*mez) It is not worth troubling about. al-ma-/y/a devam etti. (a*l*ma*ya / de*va:*met*ti) He went on (continued) working. Yamur ya-ma-/y/a balad. (ya*mur / ya*ma*ya / ba*la*d) It began to rain (raining).

3 (a). The third kind of noun + infinitive compounds are made by adding
[i, , , u] allomorphs to verb stems; such as ben-im gl--m, sen-in bak--n, which means my way of smiling, your way of looking etc. These compounds may take [], [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes: (O) (ben-im) gl--m-e (g*l**me) hayrandr. He adores my way of smiling. (Ben) (sen-in) bana bak--n- (ba*k**n) zledim. I missed your way of looking at me. (O) (ben-im) gitar al--m- (a*l**m) sever. He likes my way of playing the guitar. (Onlar) (ben-im) eve dn--m-den mutlu oldular. They became happy about my coming back home. (ben. sen, o, benim, senin and onlarn words above are all optional.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR 4 (a). This noun + infinitive compound is widely used in transforming
simple sentences into syntactic nouns (noun clauses) or determiners (adjective clauses). The following example shows how a simple sentence is transformed into a noun + infinitive compound, and then how it is used as a syntactic noun in a sentence: possessor noun + V - [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] - [pers] ben-im
possessor

yz-dk-m
possessed

Ben denizde yzyordum. (benim) denizde yz-dk-m

sentence NP noun comp (obj) NP VP V syntactic noun (obj) NP VP (nominalized sent) (synt noun) V

(O) (ben-im) denizde yz-dk-m- grd. He saw that I was swimming in the sea.
NP

Note: In the sentence above, the /k/ phoneme changes into the voiced //, and the last [] is the determiner that determines the syntactic noun benim denizde yzdk-m. The same noun + infinitive compound can also be used as a determiner: Ben bir okula gidiyorum. ben-im git-tik-im okul
determiner + noun syntactic noun

benim gittiim + okul

syntactic noun synt noun (subj) NP

the school that I go to

syntactic noun VP synt noun (subj) NP VP

Benim gittiim okul ok kalabalk. The school that I go to is very crowded. Note : very is an intensifier (adverb). The possessed parts of the noun + infinitive compounds are also used as objects of postpositions (English prepositions): Her zaman okula ge geldigim iin ngilizce gretmenim beni azarlad.
syntactic noun (object of iin) + postp postpositional phrase of cause NP + VP prep (sentence) NP + VP

My English teacher shouted at me because of my always coming to school late.

synt noun (object of because of) prepositional phrase of cause

Note: Further explanations are given in the transformational section. A final note that should be added to the above explanations is that as the infinitives are made up of verbs, they can take objects when they are transitive, but if they are intransitive, they can take [E], [DE], and [DEN] morphemes:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Onun) beni beklemesini istiyorum. I want him to wait for me. In this sentence, o-nun ben-i bekle-me-/s/i is the object of the verb bekleme and o-nun ben- i bekle-me-/s/i-/n/i is the object of istiyorum. THE PASSIVE INFINITIVE Only the transitive verbs can be put into the passive voice In English, but in Turkish, both transitive and intransitive verbs can be changed into the passive form. Therefore, the passive making allomorphs can be attached to all kinds of verb stems. When the passive making allomorphs are attached to transitive verbs, these verbs are put into the passive voice, but when the intransitive ones are put into the passive form, only their forms are changed; they are not put into the passive voice. For example, Bu hapishaneden kal-maz, literally "*This prison cant be escaped", means It is impossible to escape from this prison. In this book, such verbs are called passive shaped intransitive verbs. The passive making allomorphs are as follows: 1.The verb stems ending with vowels and /L/ phonemes are put into the passive form by using [in], [n], [n], [un] passive making allomorphs, such as bekle-in, dene-in, ba-la-n, yakala-n, yr-n , doku-un, okuun, al-n, al-n, gel-in. 2. The verb stems ending with consonants take [il, l, l, ul] passive making allomorphs such as ek-il, se-il, ge-il, sr-l, gr-l. When some of these verbs take [in, n, n, un] allomorphs, they become reflexive verbs such as cek-in, ge-in, sr-n, gr-n. All the verb frames above can take [me, ma] or [mek, mak] allomorphs to be used as infinitives: bala-n-ma(k), topla-n-ma(k), besle-in-me(k), temizle-in-me(k), ekle-inme(k), yr-n-me(k), doku-un-ma(k) (weave), oku-un-ma(k), oyala-nma(k), ge-il-me(k), ge-in-me(k), sr-l-me(k), sr-n-me(k), gr-lme(k), gr-n-me(k) bak-l-ma(k), bak-n-ma(k), a-l-ma(k), se-il-me(k), yen-il-me(k), ed-il-me(k), ed-in-me(k), tap-l-ma(k), tap-n-ma(k), yap-lma(k), uy-ul-ma(k), konu-ul-ma(k), sr-l-me(k), sr-n-me(k), yz-lme(k), serp-il-me(k). The double underlined vowels drop as usual. Consider the following: Kendisiyle alay et-il-me-/s/i/n/-den nefret eder. (ken*di*siy*le / a*lay / e*dil*me*sin*den / nef*ret / e*der). She hates being made fun of. (The /t/ is replaced by the voiced /d/; and the /s/ and /n/ phonemes are used as glides.)

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Kendisine kaba davran-l-ma-/s//n/-dan holanmaz. (ken*di*si*ne / ka*ba / dav*ra*nl*ma*sn*dan / ho*lan*maz) She dislikes being rudely treated. Takmnn yen-il-me-/s/i/n/-den nefret eder. (ta*k*m*nn / ye*nil*me*sin*den / nef*ret / e*der) He hates his team being beaten. Btn kadnlar kendilerine yumuak davran-l-ma-/s//n/-dan holanr. (b*tn / ka*dn*lar / ken*di*le*ri*ne / yu*mu*ak / dav*ra*nl*ma*sn*dan / ho*la*nr) All women like being tenderly treated. Rahatsz et-il-mek istemiyorum. (ra*hat*sz / e*dil*mek / is*te*mi*yo*rum) I dont want to be disturbed. (The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/ consonant.) Herkes kendisine eit davranlmasn ister. (her*kes / ken*di*si*ne / e*it / dav*ra*nl*ma*s*n / is*ter) Everybody wants to be equally treated. Bu cmleler dikkatle okunmaldr. (bu / cm*le*ler / dik*kat*le / o*kun*ma*l*dr ) These sentences should be carefully read.

MODALS Yardmc Fiiller

PRESENT MODALS While English modals are made of words, Turkish modals are made either of morphemes or of words or of both. They convey nearly the same concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of them, which we think, will be more explicit. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered more satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them, which may lead to misunderstanding.

(can) (may) [e-bil, a-bil]

The [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs convey ability, possibility and permission as can do in English. To form the Simple Present Tense concept of this modal morpheme, one of its allomorphs [e-bil] or [a-bil] is attached to a verb stem or a verb frame followed only by [ir] Simple Present Tense time allomorph. The other Simple Present Tense allomorphs are not used after [e-bil]

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or [a-bil] due to the vowel harmony rules. The time allomorphs are naturally followed by suitable personal (suffixes) allomorphs: Yemek piir-e-bil-ir-im. (ye*mek / pi*i*re*bi*li*rim) I can cook. (ability) Bilgisayarm kullan-a-bil-ir-siniz. (bil*gi*sa*ya*r*m / kul*la*na*bi*lir*sin) You can (may) use my computer. (permission) Baz sorular zor ol-a-bil-ir. (ba*z / so*ru*lar / zor / o*la*bi*lir) Some questions may be difficult. (possibility) Size yardm et-e-bil-ir-iz. (si*ze / yar*dm / e*de*bi*li*riz) We can help you. (ability, possibility) (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Dar k-abil-ir-sin. (d*a*r / *ka*bi*lir*sin) You can go out. (permission) To change the [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs into the negative concept, [e-mez, a-maz] allomorphs are used in place of them with some phoneme removals and changes. They convey the concepts of inability, impossibility or prohibition: Piyano al-a-maz-m. (pi*ya*no / a*la*mam). I cant play the piano. (inability) (The double underlined /z/ and // drop.) Bu kk harfleri gzlksz gr-e-mez-im. (bu / k*k / harf*le*ri / gz*lk*sz / g*re*mem). I cant see these small letters without glasses. (inability) Bekle-/y/e-mez-im. (bek*le*ye*mem) I cant wait. (The /y/ glide is put between the successive / e/ vowels, and the double underlined /z/ and /i/ drop. (impossibility) Bu leke sabunla temizlen-e-mez. (bu / le*ke / sa*bun*la / te*miz*le*ne*mez) This stain cant be cleaned with soap. (impossibility) (passive)

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Burda bekle-/y/e-mez-sin. (bur*da / bek*le*ye*mez*sin) You cant wait here. (prohibition) Bakteriler plak gzle gr-l-e-mez. (bak*te*ri*ler / p*lak / gz*le / g*r*le*mez) Germs cant be seen with the naked eye. (impossibility, passive) Yarn seni gr-e-me-im. (ya*rn / se*ni / g*re*mem) I cant see you tomorrow. (impossibility) Evde ol-a-maz. (ev*de / o*la*maz) He cant be at home. (impossibility) ocuklar bahede oynuyor ol-a-maz. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yor / o*la*maz) The children cant be playing in the garden. (impossibility) The same [e-bil] modal concept can also be used with The Present Continuous [YOR] morpheme. In order to form this modal composition, [e-bil] or [a-bil] allomorphs are attached to verb stems or frames followed by the [iyor] and the personal allomorphs: Kara tahtay gr-e-bil-iyor-um. Tahtay gryorum. (ka*ra / tah*ta*y / g*re*bi*li*yo*rum) I can see the blackboard. (ability) The Simple Present Tense of this modal form does not express ability. If it is used, it expresses possibility: Seni yarn gr-ebil-ir-im. (se*ni / ya*rn / g*re*bi*li*rim) I can see you tomorrow. (possibility) Kenara ekilirsen karatahtay grebilirim. (ke*na*ra / e*ki*lir*sen~ /ka*ra*tah*ta*y / g*re*bi*li*rim) If you move aside, I can see the blackboard. (possibility) In the negative forms of The Present Continuous modal tenses, [e-me] or [ama] negation allomorphs are used followed by [iyor, yor] progressive allomorphs, and naturally suitable personal allomorphs are attached to them: Seni anla-/y/a-ma-yor-um. (se*ni / an*la*ya*m*yo*rum) I cant understand you.

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The /y/ glide is placed between the successive /a/ vowels, and the double underlined /a/ is dropped.) (inability) (seni anlayamam is impossible here; it can be used in conditional sentences): Daha yksek sesle konu-maz-san seni anlayamam. (da*ha / yk*sek / ses*le / ko*nu*maz*san~ / se*ni / an*la*ya*mam) I can't understand you unless you speak louder. Seni iit-e-me-iyor-um. (se*ni / i*i*te*mi*yo*rum) I cant hear you. (The double underlined /e/ drops as it is in imdi zaman) (inability) Bekle-/y/e-me-iyor-um. (bek*li*ye*mi*yo*rum) I cant wait. (inability) Bek-le-/y/e-me-im. (bek*li*ye*mem) I cant wait. It is impossible for me to wait. (impossibility) Seni gr-e-me-iyor-um. (se*ni / g*re*mi*yo*rum) I cant see you. (inability) Sylediklerin anlal-ma-yor. (sy*le*dik*le*rin / an*la*l*m*yor) What you say cant be understood: The [e-bil, a-bil] modal allomorphs, followed by the allomorphs of the morpheme [YOR], are used attached to verb stems in question forms, and finally, muyum, musun, mu, muyuz, musunuz, lar m, etc are separately added: Gzlksz televizyon seyret-e-bil-iyor musunuz? (gz*lk*sz / te*le*viz*yon /sey*re*de*bi*li yor / mu*su*nuz) Can you watch television without glasses? (The /t/ changes into /d/.) (ability) (edebilir misin? is also possible here.) When the intention of request is involved, The Simple Present Tense allomorphs of [R] are used after [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs, and finally, miyim?, misin?, mi?, miyiz?, misiniz?, ler mi? question words are separately written. Bana yardm et-e-bil-ir misiniz? (ba*na / yar*dm / e*de*bi*lir / mi*si*niz) Can you help me? (request)

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Size yardm et-e-bil-ir miyim? (si*ze / yar*dm /e*de*bi*lir / mi*yim) Can I help you? (request) Beni grmek iin yarn broma gel-e-bil-ir misin(iz)? (be*ni / gr*mek / i*in / ya*rn / b*ro*ma /ge*le*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you come to my office to see me tomorrow? (request) The Turkish equivalents of wh question words of English can also be used with [e-bil], [a-bil] allomorphs: Bu soruya kim cevap ver-e-bil-ir? (bu / so*ru*ya / kim / ce*vap / ve*re*bi*lir) Who can answer this question? (ability) (*Bu soruya kim cevap verebiliyor? is not possible.) Nerede le yemei ye-/y/e-bil-ir-iz? (nerde / *le / ye*me*i / yi*ye*bi*li*riz) Where can we have lunch? (possibility) (*"Nerede le yemei yiyebiliyoruz?" is not used in Turkish.) Nasl baar-abil-ir-im? (na sl / ba*a*ra*bi*li*rim) How can I succeed?

must [MEL]
This morpheme has two allomorphs; [meli] and [mal], which can be attached to verb stems or verb frames followed by personal suffixes. When it is used with verb to be, it conveys the idea of certainty or probability, but when it is used with action verbs like go, write, do, help, etc. it implies obligation imposed by the speaker: Snavlarda baarl olmak iin daha ok al-mal-sn. (s*nav*lar*da / ba*a*r*l / ol*mak / i*in / ok / a*l*ma*l*sn) You must study harder to succeed in the examinations. (strong advice or obligation imposed by the speaker) Annene ev ilerinde yardm et-meli-sin. (an*ne*ne / ev / i*le*rin*de / yar *dm / et*me*li*sin) You must help your mother with the housework. (obligation imposed by the speaker or strong advice) Ev devimi bitirmek iin ge vakte kadar otur-mal-/y/m. (e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mek / i*in / ge / vak*te / ka*dar / o*tur*ma*l*ym) I must sit up late to finish my homework. (internal obligation)

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Srcler trafik kurallarna uy-mal-dr. (s*r*c*ler / tra*fik / ku*ral*la*r*na / uy*ma*l*dr) Drivers must obey the traffic rules. (obligation) Yorgun ol-mal-sn. (yor*gun /ol*ma*l*sn) You must be tired. (very probability or certainty) Sabahleyin erken kalk-l-mal. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kal*kl*ma*l) It is necessary to get up early in the morning. (passive shaped intransitive) nemli evraklar kasada sakla-n-mal. (*nem*li / ev*rak*lar / ka*sa*da / sak*lan*ma*l) Important documents must be kept in a safe. Annen fkeli ol-mal. (an*nen / f*ke*li / ol*ma*l) Your mother must be angry. (very probability or certainty) Matematik skc ol-mal. (ma*te*ma*tik / s*k*c / ol*ma*l) Mathematics must be boring. The negative form of [meli, mal] is [me-meli, ma-mal] (must not), which conveys the idea of prohibition: Benimle byle konu-ma-mal-sn. (be*nim*le / by*le / ko*nu*ma*ma*l*sn) You mustnt talk to me like that. (prohibition) Kz kardeinin dev yapmasn engelle-me-meli-sin. (kz / kar*de*i*nin / *dev / yap*ma*s*n / en*gel*le*me*me*li*sin) You mustnt prevent your sister from doing her homework. (prohibition) Bir renci televizyon seyrederek vaktini boa harca-ma-mal-dr. (bir / *ren*ci ~/ te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*rek ~/ vak*ti*ni / bo*a / har*ca*ma*ma*l*dr) A student mustnt waste time watching television. Another negative form of [olmal] (must be) is ol-a-maz (cant be). This form is used with verb to be in sentences. Consider the following: Olum sinemada ol-a-maz; okulda olmal. (o*lum / si*ne*ma*da / o*la*maz / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l ) My son cant be at the cinema; he must be at school. (impossibility) Matematik ilgin ol-a-maz; skc olmal. (ma*te*ma*tik / il*gin / o*la*maz / s*k*c / ol*ma*l) Mathematics cant be interesting; it must be boring. (impossibility)

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Mehmet hasta ol-a-maz; rol yapyor olmal. (meh*met / has*ta / o*la*maz / rol / yap*p*yor / ol*ma*l) Mehmet cant be ill; he must be pretending. (impossibility) Babam fkeli ol-a-maz; yorgun olmal. (ba*bam / f*ke*li / o*la*maz / yor*gun / ol*ma*l) My father cant be angry; he must be tired. (impossibility) Kardein ciddi olamaz; aka yapyor olmal. (kar*de*in / cid*di: / o*la*maz / a*ka / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l) Your brother cant be serious; he must be joking. (impossibility) Bu hediye benim iin olamaz; sizin iin olmal. (bu / he*di*ye / be*nim / i*in / o*la*maz / si*zin / i*in / ol*ma*l) This present cant be for me; it must be for you. (impossibility) Cidd olamaz; rol yapyor olmal. (cid*d: / o*la*maz / rol / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l) He cant be serious; he must be pretending. Bu portre gerek olamaz; kopya olmal. (bu / por*tre / ger*ek / o*la*maz / kop*ya / ol*ma*l) This portrait cant be genuine, it must be a reproduction.

have to (zorunda)
This modal form expresses obligation imposed by an external authority or circumstances: e gitmek iin her sabah saat altda kalkmak zorunda-/y/m. (i*e / git*mek / i*in~ / her / sa*bah~ / sa*at / al*t*da / kalk*mak / zo*run*da*ym) I have to get up at six oclock every morning to go to work. (The /y/ glide is inserted between /a/ and // vowels.) (external obligation) Patronla konuurken dikkatli olmak zorunda-sn. (pat*ron*la / ko*nu*ur*ken~ / dik*kat*li / ol*mak / zo*run*da*sn) You have to be careful when you are talking to the boss. (external obligation) Bu yaz dikkatle yazlmak zorunda. (bu / ya*z ~/ dik*kat*le / ya*zl*mak / zo*run*da) This text has to be carefully written. (passive; external obligation) Odam tertiplemek zorunda-/y/m. (o*da*m / ter*tip*le*mek / zo*run*da*ym) I have to tidy my room. (external obligation)

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Bu cmleleri renmek zorunda mym? (bu / cm*le*le*ri / *ren*mek / zo*run*da / m*ym) Do I have to learn these sentences?

neednt or dont have to zorunda deil

Lack of necessity neednt or dont (doesnt) have to is expressed in Turkish with a negation allomorph [me, ma] attached to a verb stem or a verb frame such as, git-me, yaz-ma, satn al-ma, al-ma, "temizle-in-me". Then, one of the [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs is attached to the preceding [me, ma] negation allomorphs. After the [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs, The Simple Present Tense allomorph [ir] is used, and finally personal allomorphs are added: Okula git-me-/y/e-bil-ir-im, (o*ku*la / git*me*ye*bi*li*rim) I neednt (dont have to) go to school. (lack of necessity) imdi bala-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-iz. (im*di / ba*la*ma*ya*bi*li*riz) We neednt start now. (lack of necessity) Sabahleyin erken kalk-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-im. (sa*bah*le*yin~ / er*ken / kalk*ma*ya*bi*li*rim) I neednt get up early in the morning. (lack of necessity) Bugn bro temizle-in-me-/y/e-bil-ir. (bu / gn / b*ro / te*miz*len*me*ye*bi*lir) The Office neednt be cleaned today. (passive) gitmesem de olur, balamasak da olur, kalkmasam da olur, "kalkmama gerek yok", "gelmene gerek yok" expressions can also be used as alternatives to the sentences above: Sabakleyin erken kalk-ma-/s/a-m da olur. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*ma*sam / da / o*lur I needn't get up early in the morning. (lack of necessity) When a question is asked with [meli, mal], the answer to this question may be as follows: Konsere git-meli mi-/y/im? Git-me-/s/e-in de olur. Must I go to the concert? No, you neednt."

should or ought to (gerekir) (advice)

In order to compose this modal concept, one of the personal allomorphs is attached to the possessed part of a noun + infinitive compound. In the

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second parts of this compound, the second type of infinitives are used, which are made by attaching [me, ma] allomorphs to verb stems and verb frames such as gitme, bekleme, beklenme, satn alma, satn alnma, ezberleme, ezberlenme, sprlme, etc. The personal allomorphs attached to these noun + infinitive compounds are the ones printed in bold type in the following list: (ben-im) (sen-in) (o-nun) (biz-im) (siz-in) (onlar-n) [im, m] [in, n] [/s/i, /s/] [imiz, mz] [iniz, nz] [/s/i, /s/,] or [leri, lar]

Finally, after the above noun + infinitive compounds gerekir is used as a separate word: (Sen-in) daha ok al-ma-n gerekir. (se*nin / da*ha / ok / a*l*man / ge*re*kir) You should (ought to) study harder. (advice) (The double underlined // drops.) (senin is optional) (senin alman is a noun + infinitive compound.) rencilerin yeni kelimeleri ezberle-me-/s/i gerekir.
(noun compound) (subj) NP VP

The students should memorize the new words. (The /s/ glide is used between /e/ and /i/.) (advice) Babann dn dikkate al-ma-n gerekir. (ba*ba*nn / **d*n / dik*ka*te / al*man / ge*re*kir) You should consider your fathers advice. (The double underlined // drops.) (advice) Snav sonularnn bekle-in-me-/s/i gerekir. (s*nav / so*nu*la*r*nn / bek*len*me*si / ge*re*kir) It is necessary to wait for the examination results. (passive shaped intransitive) To make a negative advice, the above [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs are inserted between verb stems or verb frames and the [me, ma] infinitive allomorphs: (Sen-in) ok para harca-ma-ma-n gerekir. (se*nin / ok / pa*ra / har*ca*ma*man / ge*re*kir) You shouldnt spend much money. (The double underlined // drops.) (advice)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bir babann ocuklarn ihml et-me-me-/s/i gerekir. (bir / ba*ba*nn ~/ o*cuk*la*r*n / ih*ma:l / et*me*me*si / ge*re*kir) A father shouldnt neglect his children. (The /s/ glide is inserted between /e/ and /i/.) (advice) Vergi demenin ertele-in-me-me-/s/i gerekir. (ver*gi / *de*me*nin / er*te*len*me*me*si / ge*re*kir) Paying tax shouldnt be postponed. (advice) (passive) The double underlined /i/ drops, and the /s/ glide is used before the final defining allomorph /i/. (passive) May and can are both expressed in [e-bil, a-bil] allomorphs in Turkish. Therefore, they can be used with the question tag mi in questions. Compare the following sentences: Haber doru ol-a-bil-ir. (ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir) The news may be true. Haber doru ol-a-bil-ir mi? (ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir / mi) Can the news be true? ocuklar evde ol-a-bil-ir. (o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir) The children may be at home. ocuklar evde ol-a-bil-ir mi? (o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir / mi) Can the children be at home? Hakl ol-a-bil-ir-sin. (hak*l / o*la*bi*lir*sin) You may be right. Hakl ol-a-bil-ir mi-/y/im? (hak*l / o*la*bi*lir / mi*yim ) Can I be right? orba scak ol-a-bil-ir. (or*ba / s*cak / o*la*bi*lir) The soup may be hot. Tercme yanl ol-a-bil-ir. (ter*c*me / yan*l / o*la*bi*lir) The translation may be incorrect.

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PAST MODALS

Could
Could expresses ability in the past. To express the same concept in Turkish, V-[E-BL]-[iyor]-[du]-[pers] verb composition should be used: Yedi yamdayken yz-e-bil-iyor-du-um. (ye*di / ya*m*day*ken / y*ze*bi*li*yor*dum) I could swim when I was ten years old. (ability in the past) Ahmet okula gitmeden nce okuyup yaz-a-bil-iyor-du. (ah*met / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce~ / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du) Ahmet could read and write before he went to school. The negative form of this modal is V-[e-me, a-ma]-[YOR]-[du]- [pers], which expresses both the negative of "could" and "was able to": Ben okula gitmeden nce okuyup yaz-a-ma-yor-du-um. (ben / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce~ / o*ku*yup / ya*za*m*yor*dum) I couldn't read and write before I went to school. (The double underlined /a/ and /u/ vowels drop.) imi bitir-e-me-di-im. (i*i*mi / bi*ti*re*me*dim) I couldn't finish my work. (I wasn't able to finish my work.) (The double underlined /i/ drops.) Yeni dersi anla-/y/a-bil-di-in mi? (ye*ni / der*si / an*la*ya*bil*din / mi) Were you able to understand the new lesson?

was (were) able to (V-[me-/y/i, ma-/y/] baardm)

When a past success is implied, the verb baar is used in Turkish in place of the was able to, the succeeded in or the managed to expressions of the English language: Snavda iyi bir not al-ma-/y/ baar-d-m. (s*nav*da / i*yi / bir / not / al*ma*y / ba*ar*dm) I was able to get a good grade in the examination. (I succeeded in getting a good grade.) (I managed to get a good grade.) (The /y/ glide is inserted between the /a/ and // vowels, and the double underlined // drops.) Bizim takm, misafir takm yen-me-/y/i baar-d. (bi*zim / ta*km~ / mi*sa:*fir / ta*k*m / yen*me*yi / ba*ar*d) Our team succeeded in beating the visiting team. (The /y/ glide is inserted between /e/ and [i].)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
ini bitir-me-/y/i baar-d-n m? or ini bitirebildin mi? (i*i*ni / bi*ti*re*bil*din / mi) Were you able to complete your work? (The /y/ glide is used between [me] and [i]) As an alternative to the above sentence types, V-[e-bil, a-bil]-[di]-[pers] ([mi]) verb composition can be used: En sonunda iimi bitir-e-bil-di-im. (en / so*nun*da / i*i*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim) I was able to finish my work at last. V - [e-me, a-ma] - [di, d] - [pers] verb composition can be used in place of "couldn't, wasn't able to or didn't succeed in": Ma kazan-a-ma-d-k. (ma* / ka*za*na*ma*dk) We couldn't win the match. As could is used in English conditional clauses, so can V-[E-BL]-[ir]-[di][pers] verb composition be used in Turkish conditional sentences: Yeterince vaktim olsa sana imdi yardm et-e-bil-ir-di-im. (ye*te*rin*ce / vak*tim / ol*sa / im*di / sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*bi*lir*dim~ ) If I had enough time, I could help you now. (The /t/ in et changes into the voiced /d/, and the double underlined /i/ drops.) Hava daha iyi olsa piknie git-e-bil-ir-di-ik. (ha*va / da*ha / i*yi / ol*sa~ / pik*ni*e / gi*de*bi*lir*dik~) We could go for a picnic if the weather were better.

would, could (polite request)

V-[R]-[M]/y/-[D]-[pers] verb composition is used to express a polite request in Turkish: In this verb composition, V symbolizes a verb stem or a verb frame; [R] is a morpheme that includes all the allomorphs of the Simple Present Tense [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar]; [M] includes all interrogative allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu]; [D] represents the simple past tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du]; and [pers] symbolizes all the personal allomorphs. Consider the following sentences: Bir saniye beni dinle-ir-mi/y/-di-niz? (bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler / miy*di*niz) Would you listen to me for a second?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(The double underlined /i/ drops, and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mi] and [di].) In fact, this sort of request is the second part of a conditional sentence: Rica etsem, bir saniye beni dinler miydiniz? (ri*ca: / et*sem~ / bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler / miy*di*niz) Would you listen to me for a second if I asked? Bavulumu tamama yardm et-er mi/y/-di-niz? (ba*vu*lu*mu / ta**ma*ma / yar*dm / e*der / miy*di*niz) Would you help me to carry my suitcase? (The /t/ in et changes into /d/; and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mi] and [di].) If someone wishes to be politer, he can add the [E-BL] and [R] morphemes to the above verb composition: Beni bir saniye dinle-/y/e-bil-ir mi/y/-di-niz? (be*ni / bir / sa:*ni*ye / din*le*ye*bi*lir/ miy*di*niz) Could you listen to me for a second please? (The /y/ glides are inserted between dinle and [e-bil], and, [mi] and [di].) The [R] Simple Present, and [D] Simple Past Tense morphemes are also used together in Turkish conditional sentences: Burda olsa bize yardm et-er-di. (bur*da / ol*sa~ / bi*ze / yar*dm / e*der*di ) If he were here, he would help us. (The /t/ changes into the /d/ voiced consonant.) Senin yerinde olsa-m bu eski arabay sat-ar-d-m. (se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam~ / bu / es*ki / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tar*dm) If I were you, I would sell this old car. (The double underlined // vowels drop.) (advice) PERFECT MODALS

must have V - [mi, m, m, mu] + [ol - mal]- [pers]

The perfect modal verb composition conveys a past concept of certainty. Consider the following: Grevini bitir-mi ol-mal. (g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi / ol*ma*l ) He must have finished his duty. (I am sure he has finished it.) Evden ayrl-m ol-mal. (ev*den / ay*rl*m*ol*ma*l ) He must have left home. (I am sure he has left home.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Uak in-mi ol-mal. (u*ak / in*mi*ol*ma*l ) The plane must have landed. (I am sure it has landed.) Beni anla-m ol-mal-sn. (be*ni / an*la*m*ol*ma*l*sn ) You must have understood me. (I am sure you have understood me.) Onu bir yerde grm ol-mal-/y/m. (o*nu / bir / yer*de / gr*m*ol*ma*l*ym ) I must have seen her somewhere. (I am sure I have seen her somewhere.) Both certainty and possibility concepts can also be conveyed by V-[M]-[DR] verb composition: Grevini bitir-mi-tir. (g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi*tir ) He must (may) have finished his duty. Evden ayrl-m-tr. (ev*den / ay*rl*m*tr ) He must (may) have left home. Haberi duy-mu-tur. (ha*be*ri / duy*mu*tur ) He must (may) have heard the news. Haber-i duy-ma-m-tr. (ha*be*ri / duy*ma*m*tr) He cant (couldnt) have heard the news. Haber duy-ul-ma-m-tr, (ha*ber / du*yul*ma*m*tr) The news may not have been heard. (passive) Bu saatte yat-m-tr bile. (bu / sa*at*te / yat*m*tr / bi*le ) He must have already gone to bed at this hour. Yamur dur-mu-tur. (ya*mur / dur*mu*tur) It may (must) have stopped raining. The same verb composition may be used in conditional sentences, as well:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Parise gittiyse, Eyfel Kulesini gr-m-tr. (pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se~ / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gr*m*tr ) If he went to Paris, he must have seen the Eiffel Tower. Bir yanllk yaptysa zr dile-mi-tir. (bir / yan*l*lk / yap*ty*sa~ / *zr / di*le*mi*tir ) If he made a mistake, he must have apologized. Note: git-ti/y/-se means if he went, but git-se/y/-di means if he had gone: Parise git-se/y/-di Eyfel Kulesini gr-r-d. (pa*ri*se / git*sey*di ~/ ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / g*rr*d ) If he had gone to Paris, he would have seen the Eiffel Tower. (He didnt go and see.) Yeterince al-sa/y/-d kt bir not al-maz-d. (ye*te*rin*ce / a*l*say*d~ / k*t / bir / not / al*maz*d) If he had studied hard enough, he wouldnt have got a poor mark. (He didnt study, so he got a poor mark.) Oyunu seyretseydin houna giderdi. (o*yu*nu / sey*ret*sey*din~ / ho*u*na / gi*der*di) If you had watched the play, you would have enjoyed it.

cant have

V - [mi, m, m, mu] + ol - [a-maz] - [pers]

The above verb chain is used to form a verb composition to convey past impossibility. In doing this, when [a-maz] negation allomorph is attached to the first person personal allomorph [m], the /z/ and the // phonemes drop: gr-m ol-a-maz-m (gr*m / o*la*mam) gr-m ol-a-maz-sn (gr*m /o*la*maz*sn) gr-m ol-a-maz (gr*m / o*la*maz) gr-m ol-a-ma-/y/z (gr*m / o*la*ma*yz) gr-m ol-a-maz-snz (gr*m / o*la*maz*s*nz) gr-m ol-a-maz-lar (gr*m / o*la*maz*lar) Example sentences: Onu yanl anla-m ol-a-ma-m. (o*nu / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*mam ) (o*nu / yan*l *an*la*m*o*la*mam ) I can't (couldnt) have misunderstood it. Tiyatroya git-mi ol-a-maz. (ti*yat*ro*ya / git*mi / o*la*maz ) (ti*yat*ro*ya / git*mi*o*la*maz) He cant (couldnt) have gone to the theatre.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Seni iitmi ol-a-maz. (se*ni / i*it*mi / o*la*maz) (se*ni / i*it*mi*o*la*maz) He cant (couldnt) have heard you. Lastii patlam olmaz. (las*ti*i / pat*la*m / o*la*maz) He cant (couldnt) have had a flat tire. Btn sorulara cevap vermi olamazsn. (b*tn / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*mi / o*la*maz*sn) You cant (couldnt) have answered all the questions.

should have (ought to have) noun + infinitive + gerek-ir-di

This perfect modal composition is used to express a past obligation or expectation that was not carried out: (Sen-in) ev devini yap-ma-n gerek-ir-di.
noun + infinitive compound

(ev / *de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di) You should (ought to) have done your homework. (But you didnt.) Bu arabay satn almak iin (sen-in) daha ok para biriktir-me-in gerek-ir-di. (bu / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tn / al*mak / i*in~ / da*ha / ok / pa*ra / bi*rik*tir*men / ge*re*kir*di) You should have saved more money to buy this car. (But you didnt.) Snavda (ben-im) daha dikkatli ol-ma-m gerek-ir-di. (s*nav*da / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*mam / ge*re*kir*di) I should have been more careful in the examination. (But I wasnt.) (Sen-in) dn bana telefon et-me-in gerek-ir-di. (dn / ba*na / te*le*fon / et*men / ge*re*kir*di) You should have telephoned me yesterday. (But you didnt.) Evin temiz-le-in-me-si gerekirdi. (e*vin / te*miz*len*me*si / ge*re*kir*di) The house should have been cleaned. (It hasnt been cleaned.) (passive.) To change the above modal composition into the negative form, either [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs are put after the verb stems or frames, and then the [me] or [ma] infinitive allomorphs follow them preceding the personal allomorphs: (Senin) ekmek al-ma-ma-n gerek-ir-di. (se*nin / ek*mek / al*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di) You shouldnt (neednt) have bought bread. (But you did.) (advice)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Senin), kz kardeine bar-ma-ma-n gerek-ir-di. (kz / kar*de*i*ne / ba*r*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di) You shouldnt have shouted at your sister. (But you did.) (advice) (O-/n/un) yalan syle-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di. (o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ) He shouldnt have told a lie. (But he did.) Mehmetin snavda kopya ek-me-me-/s/i gerekirdi. (meh*me*din / s*nav*da / kop*ya / ek*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ) Mehmet shouldnt have cheated in the examination. (But he did.)

may have V - [mi, m, m, mu] + ol-a-bil-ir- [pers]

This modal adds possibility to verb stems and frames: Dar k-m ol-a-bil-ir. (d*a*r / k*m / o*la*bi*lir) He may have gone out. (Perhaps he has gone out.) Dar k-m-tr. (d*a*r / k*m*tr) He must have gone out. (Im sure he has gone out.) Otobs kar-m ol-a-bil-ir. (o*to*b*s / ka*r*m / o*la*bi*lir) He may have missed the bus. (Perhaps he has missed it.) Otobs kar-m-tr. (o*to*b*s / ka*r*m*tr) He must have missed the bus. ( Im sure he has missed it.) Seni yanl anla-m olabilir. (se*ni / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*bi*lir) She may have misunderstood you. (Perhaps she misunderstood you.) Bro temizle-in-mi olabilir. (b*ro / te*miz*len*mi / o*la*bi*lir) The office may have been cleaned. (Perhaps it has been cleaned.) Haberi iit-mi olabilirler. (ha*be*ri / i*it*mi / o*la*bi*lir*ler) They may have heard the news. Vazoyu kedi krm olabilir. (Vazoyu kedi krmtr.) (va*zo*yu / ke*di / kr*m*tr ) The cat may (must) have broken the vase.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bir anla-ma-/y/a varm olabilirler. (bir / an*la*ma*ya / var*m / o*la*bi*lir*ler) They may have reached an agreement.

might have V-[e-bil, a-bil]-[ir]-[di]-[pers]

Kaza geir-e-bil-ir-di-ik. (ka*za: / ge*i*re*bi*lir*dik) We might have had an accident. (It was probable but we didnt.) Pencereyi kr-a-bil-ir-di-in. (pen*ce*re*yi / k*ra*bi*lir*din) You might have broken the window. (It was probable but you didnt.) Ma kaybet-il-e-bil-ir-di. (ma / kay*be*di*le*bi*lir*di) The match might have been lost. (It was probable but it wasnt.) (The /t/ changes into /d/.) (passive) n-n-deki arabaya arp-a-bil-ir-di-in. (*nn*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / ar*pa*bi*lir*din) You might have hit the car in front of you. (But you didn't.) nndeki arabaya carp-ma-/y/a-bil-ir-di-in. (*nn*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / arp*ma*ya*bi*lir*din) You might not have hit the car in front of you. (But you hit it.)

neednt have noun + infinitive-[e, a] + gerek yoktu

This modal composition is used to express absence of obligation or necessity: Aye/n/in acele et-me-/s/i-/n/e gerek yoktu.
noun + infinitive compound - [E]

(ay*e*nin / a*ce*le / et*me*si*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu) Aye neednt have hurried. (But she did.) (Sen-in) btn sorulara cevap ver-me-in-e gerek yoktu. (b*tn / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*me*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu) You neednt have answered all the questions. (But you did.) (Onlar-n) ma ertele-me-ler-i-/n/e gerek yoktu. (on*la*rn / ma* / er*te*le*me*le*ri*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu) They neednt have postponed the match. (But they did.) (Siz-in) iekleri sula-ma-nz-a gerek yoktu. (i*ek*le*ri / su*la*ma*n*za / ge*rek / yok*tu) You neednt have watered the flowers. (But you did.)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Sen-in) ift ayakkab al-ma-n-a gerek yoktu. ( / ift / a*yak*ka*b / al*ma*na / ge*rek / yok*tu) You needn't have bought three pairs of shoes. Note: gitmese de olurdu, sulamasalar da olurdu sentence types can also be used as alternatives to the above sentences. The noun compounds in the above sentences are all underlined.

didnt need to noun + infinitive - [e, a] + gerek kalmad

This form of modal is used to express unfulfilled necessity in the past: (Benim) uzun zaman bekle-me-im-e gerek kalmad. (u*zun / za*man / bek*le*me*me / ge*rek / kal*ma*d) I didn't need to wait for a long time. (Bizim) okula yryerek git-me-imiz-e gerek kalmad. (o*ku*la / y*r*ye*rek / git*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d) We didnt need to walk to school. iek-ler-in su-lan-ma-/s/-/n/a gerek kalmad. (i*ek*le*rin / su*lan*ma*s*na / ge*rek / kal*ma*d) The flowers didnt need to be watered. (The /s/ and / n/ glides are used after [ma] and [] allomorphs respectively.) (passive infinitive) (Biz-im) bir araba kirala-ma-mz-a gerek kalmad. (bir / a*ra*ba / ki*ra:*la*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d) We didnt need to hire a car. Toplant yapmamz-a gerek kalmad. (top*lan*t / yap*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d) We didnt need to hold a meeting. Note: All the noun compounds above are underlined. TRANSFORMATIONS (ENGLISH) The transformational component in the mind has two functions. One of these functions is to transform items of thought into words using the innate phrase structures, and the other one is to transform the simple sentences into Nominal Phrases to use them in the same NP + VP main sentence producing system, and with the help of the semantic component, into syntactic adverbs. The main language activity of the mind is to shape and arrange thoughts into the phonemes, morphemes, and words of a target language and insert them into the NP + VP innate sentence mold using the transformational component.

183

TURKISH GRAMMAR
The innate abstract level of the sentence producing system of the mind possesses not only words and morphemes of a language, but it also possesses some fundamental concepts generalized in question words in languages such as the English words who, whom, what, where, when, how, why, for whom, from whom, from where, to whom, by whom, since when, until what time, etc. Any one or some of these question words or the answers to them are chosen by a person to be reflected into a projected deep structure before they are worded. The simple sentences that are printed in italics in this book are presumed to possess these fundamental elements of thought in transformational grammars. These items of thought are illustrated with detailed tree diagrams in transformational grammars. As it is inconvenient and unnecessary to show all the sentences in tree diagrams in this book, we prefer taking deep structures as a starting point. The aim of this book is not to teach Transformational Generative Grammar, but to put it into practice by using it as a new grammar approach. THE NOMINALIZATION OF THE SIMPLE ENGLISH SENTENCES If a speaker or writer wants to express himself in longer sentences, the simple sentences that are also been produced by the transformational function of the language-producing system of the mind are transformed into syntactic nouns to be used in the same NP + VP sentence pattern. By operating this function of the language-producing system of the mind a speaker or writer can transform the simple sentences, which are the shortest NP + VP sentences, into longer sentences shaped within the same NP + VP sentence producing system. Sentences may be infinitely long as far as the main NP + VP sentence producing system approves them. However, there is another important fact to keep in mind that the first and the second functions of the transformational component work coherently while producing sentences. For example, that Jack likes pop music is a transformed syntactic noun that is used in the sentence I know (that) Jack likes pop music as an object. If we think the other way round, Jack likes pop music is a simple sentence that has been produced by the syntactic, semantic and transformational components working together. As a result of this activity, an English or Turkish or a German simple surface structure sentence is materialized. These simple sentences can also be transformed and nominalized by the syntactic, semantic and transformational components to be used in NP + VP sentence mold. Some boys are swimming in the lake is a simple sentence. If we want to produce a syntactic noun out of this sentence, we can produce the boys (that are) swimming in the lake to be used in any part of a NP + VP sentence mold where any noun or a pronoun can be used. For instance:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The boys (that are) swimming in the lake are my sons.
NP (subject) VP

You can see the boys (that are) swimming in the lake?
NP V NP (object of see)

The first and the second functions of the syntactic, the semantic, the transformational and the phonological components are to direct and arrange all linguistic data in ones mind into the "NP + VP" phrase structure mold to produce sentences. The above explanations are grammatical explanations, but thought acts differently in producing a sentence. When somebody has an item of thought, such as "article" in his mind, he must have had two deep sentence alternatives in store in his mind to convey his thought to his listener or reader. It may be a sentence that he uttered before: "I read an article in a newspaper." If he actually uttered this sentence before, he goes on conveying his thought by saying "It was interesting." If he did not utter the same sentence, but he already has it in store in his mind, he transforms the same sentence into a noun + determiner compound such as, "The article that I read in the newspaper," and completes his sentence saying that "The article, which I read in the newspaper, was interesting." On the other side, the person who has heard what the speaker has said may go on saying: "Yes, I saw it. or Yes, I saw the article that you read in the newspaper." This shows us that transformations are carried out to shape and mold simple sentences into the NP + VP sentence pattern. In English, however, some transformations are also carried out within a simple sentence to change it into the question form such as You like pop music Do you like pop music?; You haven't done your homework Haven't you done your homework? A passive transformation is also carried out within a sentence to use the object as the subject of a sentence. The interrogative and a passive simple sentences can also be transformed into Nominal Phrases: Haven't you done your homework? whether I have done my homework Mother wants to know whether I have done my homework.
NP (obj)

Thives stole a necklace. "A necklace was stolen by some thieves" "the necklace that was stolen by the thieves" The necklace that was stolen by the thieves hasn't been found yet.
NP (subj)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Transformational and phonological rules are specific for every language, which means that all languages have their own transformational and phonological rules. Without knowing these rules, one cannot produce sentences. To sum up, we can say that the semantic, the transformational and the phonological components in ones mind act in close coordination differently in different languages to produce sentences. Therefore, the same procedure in Turkish differs as follows: "Ben gazetede bir makale okudum. "(o) ilginti." (Ben-im) gazete-de oku-duk-uduk-um makale ilgin-ti.
noun + infinitive compound (determiner) syntactic noun = NP noun VP

The sentences that contain only one finite verb can be transformed into syntactic nouns to be used in other sentences as subjects, objects, and as objects of prepositions. Consider the following: Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children last week.
Who V where (adv) how (adv) why (adv) for whom (adv) when (adv)

The question words below the lines and the answers to them above are the basic conceptual items of thought of simple sentences in languages. Therefore I avoid using the term kernel sentence in this book. For instance, when you hear the word went, you want to find answers in your mind to the questions who? and where? because only the word went does not convey satisfactory information. If you hear the sentence Jane went to the supermarket, your mind accepts it as a reasonable and satisfactory sentence. The other interrogative words are whom, where, to whom, for whom, how, why, which, how long, from where, from whom, by whom, etc. These question words and the answers to them are the es-sential contents of a simple sentence. For instance, Did Jane go? does not make any sense if it is not preceded by some other sentences. However, Where did Jane go? is a complete sentence as it is Jane went to the supermarket. The whole above simple example sentence can be nominalized only by putting that in the beginning of the sentence in English, and leaving the rest of the sentence unchanged: that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children in the morning is a transformed nominalized sentence because it can occupy the place of any NP in S NP + VP sentence producing basic system.

186

TURKISH GRAMMAR
The same sentence can also be nominalized by starting the sentence with the above-mentioned question words, and omitting the underlined phrases above them. The following sentences are all transformed nominalized sentences (syntactic nouns): who: where: how: why: for whom: when: who went to the supermarket where Jane went how Jane went to the supermarket why Jane went to the supermarket for whom Jane wanted to buy toys when Jane went to the supermarket

As it is seen, the nominalized sentences beginning with question words are not in the interrogative form. They are transformed and nominalized sentences ready to occupy the places of nouns or pronouns that can be used as subjects or objects of verbs as all nouns and pronouns can. I
S

know
V

it.
Obj

What do I know?

I know that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children
NP V NP (obj of know) syntactic noun VP

I know who went to the supermarket. (syntactic noun) I know where Jane went. (syntactic noun) I know how Jane went to the supermarket. (syntactic noun) I know why Jane went to the supermarket. (syntactic noun) I know for whom Jane wanted to buy toys. (syntactic noun) I know when Jane went to the supermarket. (syntactic noun) The parts that are printed in bold type in the above sentences are all used as the objects of the verb know. The same nominalized sentences can also be used as the objects of the following verbs: know, guess, ask, tell, remember, say I guess (that) she went to the supermarket. He asked me when Jane went to the supermarket. She says (that) Jane went to the supermarket. They ask me how Jane went to the supermarket. Do you remember when Jane went to the supermarket? The parts of the sentences that are printed in bold type are syntactic nouns and all are used as objects. When someone talks about the verb itself, he says:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
I can guess what Jane did yesterday, I dont know whether Jane went to the supermarket or not. The same nominalized simple sentences can also be used as subjects: Who went to the supermarket is a mystery.
syntactic noun (subject)

When Jane went to the supermarket is unknown.

syntactic noun (subject)

How Jane went to the supermarket is not important.

syntactic noun (subject)

The same nominalized sentences can be used as objects of prepositions as well: It depends on what Jane says.
object of on

I am bored of what you are talking about.

object of of

It reminds me of how we went to Bursa.

object of of

I was surprised at (by) what he said to me.

object of at

The interrogative simple sentences can also be nominalized: Have you done your work? whether I have done my work Mother asks me whether I have done my work.
object

Why didnt you come to the party? why I didnt come to the party Jane wonders why I didnt come to the party.
object

Where am I? where I am You cant guess where I am.

object

What am I interested in? what I am interested in You cant guess what I am interested in.
object

What is Jack doing? what Jack is doing Mother wants to know what Jack is doing. THE SIMPLE SENTENCES TRANSFORMED INTO DETERMINERS Simple sentences can be transformed into determiners in order to determine one of the nouns in the same simple sentences. These nouns, together with the transformed sentences, construct noun + determiner compounds in order to be used as Nominal Phrases. These compounds are

188

TURKISH GRAMMAR
constructionally compounds but syntactically nouns. The syntactic nouns are then used as subjects, objects, or objects of prepositions, and as predicates in sentences. All noun compounds and determined + determiner compounds are structural units that have been transformed from simple sentences into Nominal Phrases to be used in NP + VP sentence molds. This operation is performed by the mind while producing sentences. To sum up, we can say that the first aim of transforming simple sentences is to shape them into syntactic nouns to be used in NP + VP sentence pattern. First, let us see how simple sentences are transformed into noun + determiner compounds: Some girls were picking flowers in the garden.
N N N

To determine the underlined girls, the girls that (who) is put in the beginning of the sentence, and the rest of it is added to it without being changed. the girls that were picking flowers in the garden" is constructionally a noun + determiner compound, but syntactically a syntactic noun that can be used as the subject or the object of a sentence: The girls that were picking flowers in the garden were my students.
D N syntactic noun (subject) ( NP) D predicate (VP)

The same simple sentence can also be transformed so as the noun flowers can be determined by the rest of the sentence. To carry out this transformation, the flowers that (which) is used as the head of the transformed sentence and the rest of the sentence is left unchanged. In this way, the transformed sentence the flowers that the girls were picking in the garden can be used in "NP+VP" sentence mold as a NP. The flowers that the girls were picking in the garden were beautiful.
D N syntactic noun ( NP ) D predicate (VP)

I
NP

saw the flowers that the girls were picking in the fields.
V NP

The same above process can also be started to determine the noun garden: the garden in which (where) the girls were picking flowers
D N NP D

The garden in which the girls were picking flowers was not in good condition.
syntactic noun (NP) predicate (VP)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The same transformed sentences can be used in other parts of different sentences as well: I
NP

dont know
V

the girls that were picking flowers in the harden,

NP VP

A woman was chasing the girls that were picking flowers in the garden.
NP (subj) V VP NP

The simple sentences with verbs be and have got are transformed as follows: The rose was red the rose that was red the red rose
sentence NP transformed sentence transformed sentence NP

I picked the roses that were red

I picked the red roses

There are some books on the table. the books that are on the table
sentence NP (noun + determiner)

I want

the books (that are) on the table. NP V NP (obj of want) NP (obj of the infinitive) The books (that are) on the table are mine
syntactic noun ( subject) (NP) (predicate ) VP

to borrow

I have got a car. the car that I have got my car

sentence syntactic noun (NP) NP (syntactic noun) predicate (VP) NP(synt noun) (NP) predicate (VP)

The car that I have got is a second-hand car. My car is a second-hand car THE PRODUCTIVITY OF NATURAL LANGUAGES All natural languages are infinitely productive so long as the sentences are approved by the Phrase Structure Rules: S NP + VP. Consider the following deep structure sentences: The girls were picking flowers in the garden. The girls were playing in the garden. The girls were singing in the garden. In the three sentences above, the girls and in the garden expressions are repeated. To avoid this repetition, a speaker or writer can delete the repeated four words, and use the necessary others in his speech or writing: The girls were picking flowers, singing and playing in the garden. The same three deep structure sentences (thoughts) can also be transformad so as the girls may be determined by the rest of the sentence and the following surface structure can be produced.

190

TURKISH GRAMMAR
The girls that were picking flowers, playing and singing in the garden were happy.
NP VP

Now consider the following four deep structures: 1. Jack caught a fish. 2. Mr. Brown cleaned it. 3. Mary fried it. 4. Jane ate it. To transform and combine these four thoughts in a complex sentence, we begin with the last one and delete the understandable words: Jane ate the fish that Mary fried that Mr Brown cleaned that Jack caught. NP V noun + successive determiners)
NP

Contrary to the above sentence production, if we start with the first deep structure sentence, the complex sentence becomes as follows: Jack caught the fish that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate. If you try to understand the above sentence, it sounds funny, doesnt it? How can Jack catch the fish that Jane ate? A fish cannot be caught after it has been eaten. This example shows us that while producing sentences out of deep structures, one should be careful about the sequence of the determiners. Furthermore, only the words that jack caught that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate do not make sense without the words the fish, which complete the chain of determiners as a NP although the words the fish are in the beginning. Therefore, one can say that all natural languages are infinite so long as they are approved by the Phrase Structure rules, and so lomg as the human short - term memory can tolerate. An example from a Turkish sentence may clarify the above explanation: Jackin yakalad, Mr. Brownn temizledii, Marynin piirdii (?) sequence of words do not make sense without the word balk, which is the final word of the NP in Turkish. To complete this explanation we can also say that only a NP is not enough to produce a grammatically well-formed acceptable sentence without a VP following it. The fish that Jack caught that Mary fried that Jane ate was delicious.
NP VP

Whether sentences are infinitely long or short they end up in NP + VP inborn sentence producing system.

191

TURKISH GRAMMAR
A final point to add to the above explanations is that the final word in Turkish is at the end of a NP, but in English it is in the beginning. The reason why we begin organizing the deep structures from the last deep structure and go on to the first one in English is that the mind organizes the transformed sentences starting from the last one and going to the first. However, in Turkish this process is just the opposite; the mind does not start from the last sentence, it starts from the first one and goes on to the last because the final word balk is at the end of the NP. THE TRANSFORMED SIMPLE SENTENCES USED AS ADVERBS When the semantic component in the mind intends to transform a simple sentence into a basic general adverbial concept such as time, place, manner, degree, cause, contrast, purpose, comparison, result or condition, it chooses a suitable word (subordinating conjunction) to put in the beginning of a simple sentence. When these words are used, the simple sentences are transformed into syntactic adverbs that can be used before or after the main clauses. The subordinating conjunctions that are chosen to convey these concepts into syntactic adverbs are as follows:
TIME PLACE MANNER DEGREE COMPARISON CAUSE CONCESSION PURPOSE RESULT CONDITION:

when, while, before, after, as soon as, until, since, just as, by the time where, wherever as, how as... as, not so ...as, the ... the, so long as, as long as adj (adv)-[ER] + than or more + adj (adv) + than because, as, since, for although, even though, even if, no matter how (who, when) so that, in order that, in case, lest so, so ...that if, unless
TIME

when: while: before: after: as soon as: until: by the time: just as: since:

Jane was beautiful when she was eighteen. It began to rain while I was watering the flowers. Mary wants to buy a car before the prices go up. Ill do these exercises after I go home. The students stood up as soon as the teacher arrived. Ill stay here until you promise to marry me. Ill have finished my work by the time the visitors arrive. The postman knocked at the door just as I was leaving home. I have been waiting here since you telephoned me.
PLACE

where: Wherever:

Put my dictionary back where you found it. I will remember you wherever I go.

192

TURKISH GRAMMAR
MANNER

As:

You can do it as you wish.

DEGREE

as ... as: not so... as: the ... the: so ... as:

You should study as hard as you can. You are not so careful as you ought to be. The easier they rise, the harder they fall. You can stay here so long as you keep quite.
COMPARISON

than:

The bus arrived earli-er than we expected. Turkish is more complicated than English. Mary studies hard-er than her brother.
CAUSE

because: as: since: for:

I cant help you now because Im busy doing my homework. As Im busy doing my homework, I cant help you right now. Since you are not interested in watching football, wed better go fishing. He cant drive, for he is only sixteen.
CONCESSION

although: even if: while:

Although she studied hard, she couldnt succeed in the examination. I have to go on working although I am tired. We cant get to the bus stop in time even if we hurry. While some people are poor, others are wealthy.
PURPOSE

so that: in case:

They ran to the bus stop so that they shouldnt miss the bus. Take an umbrella in case it rains. Ring the bell in case of fire.
RESULT

so... that: such... that: so:

The book was so boring that I was able to read only a few pages. The children were making such a lot of noise that I had to leave home. He didnt study hard, so he failed.
CONDITION

if :

If you dont understand, please ask me. If you were a fish, the cat would eat you.

193

TURKISH GRAMMAR
If you had passed the examination, I would have bought You a bicycle. unless: She wont speak to you unless you apologize to her. Don't sign the document unless you read it carefully. TURKISH SENTENCE NOMINALIZATIONS A simple sentence, which contains only one finite verb, can be transformed into various transformed sentences by following certain rules in both English and Turkish. First, it is necessary to say that there are no clauses in Turkish as there are in English; there are noun + infinitive and determiner + determined compounds, instead. Let us first consider the following Turkish simple sentence: Aye ocuklarna baz oyuncaklar almak iin sabahleyin otobsle spermarkete gitti.
kim? kime? niin? ne zaman? nasl? nereye ne yapt?

When the whole sentence above is transformed into a noun compound, it results in as follows: Ayenin ocuklarna baz oyuncaklar almak iin sabahleyin otobsle spermarkete gitmesi As you notice, only the words Ayenin and gitmesi are different from Aye and gitti. The English equivalent of this sentence is the transformed sentence of that Aye went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children in the morning. In English, only the word that is put in the beginning of the transformed sentence and the rest of the sentence is left unchanged. When Ayenin gitmesi compound is considered, this transformation reminds us of the possessor + possessed noun compounds like Aenin antas, okulun kaps, or Ayenin amcas. These are structurally noun + infinitive compounds, but syntactically they are syntactic nouns. A syntactic noun is a transformed simple sentence that can be used in any part of a sentence where nouns and pronouns can. These nouns and pronouns are words like book, table, I, he, him, "it", them. The units used between "Aye'nin" and "gitmesi", such as "ocuklarna", "baz oyuncaklar almak iin", "sabahleyin", "otobsle", "spermarkete" are all the answers to the basic mental adverbial concepts of for whom, why, how, where, when. Compare and consider the following sentences: Cevab- biliyorum. I know the answer.
object object

194

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) Ayenin okul-a git-tik-i-/n/i biliyorum. I know that Aye went to school
NP NP (obj) VP V NP V VP NP (obj)

In the sentence above, Ayenin 0kula git-tik-i is structurally a noun + infinitive compound, but syntactically it is a syntactic noun because it is a transformed simple sentence nominalized so as to be used in the NP + VP mold as a NP. (a VP may contain a V and a NP) The phoneme changes in the above sentence are: The /k/ changes into its voiced form //, the first [i] is the possessed allomorph [i], the /n/ is a glide, and the second [i] is the defining allomorph. These syntactic nouns can occupy the places of both nouns and determiners in sentences: Ayenin okula gittik-i biliniyor. That Aye goes to school is known.
NP (syntactic noun) passive V NP (syntactic noun) (passive) V

Ayenin gittik-i okul

determiner noun NP (syntactic noun)

the school that Aye goes to

D N D NP (syntactic noun)

Ayenin gittii + okul is a determiner + noun compound, but when both parts of this compound is considered, it is a syntactic noun; in short, it is a NP. The reason why there are two different possessed infinitives in the end of the transformed sentences is that either git-tik-i or git-me-/s/i is used according to the existence or nonexistence (absence) of the question words or the answers to them in the transformed sentences, and additionally, the compounds without question words can only be used when the compound is used as the subject of a sentence. Some of the most frequently used question words that can be used in noun compounds are kim-in, kim-i, kim-e, kim-de, kim-den, kimle, kim iin, ne zaman, nasl, nere-/y/i, nere/y/e, nere-de, ner(e)-den, niin, neden, ne kadar, ka para, ne, neyle, ne-/y/in iin-den, (alt-/n/-dan), kim-in arka-/s/-/n/-dan, etc. Consider the following: Ayenin spermarkete otobsle git-me-si beni ilgilendirmez.
noun comp (subj) NP NP(obj) V

(No question words are used, and the noun compound is used as subject.) Kimin spermaket-e git-tik-i beni ilgilendirmez. (The question word kim-in is added.

195

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ayenin spermarkete niin git-tik-i (git*ti*i) beni ilgilendirmez. (The question word niin is added.) Ayenin kime oyuncak almak iin spermarkete git-tik-i beni ilgilendirmez. (The question word kime is added.) Kim-in, niin, ne zaman, neyle, nereye, nasl git-tik-i beni ilgilendirmez. (Successive question words are added.) When the answers to the above questions are put into the sentences, the [tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are also used in noun compounds: (Sen) Ayenin her hafta bir futbol mana git-tik-i-/n/i biliyor musun?
NP (subj) NP (obj) V

Do you know that Aye goes to a football match every week? However, if a transformed noun compound is used as the subject of a sentence, a noun + V-[me, ma]-/s/i (/s/) noun compound is used: Jackin basketbol oyna-ma-/s/ bizi ilgilendirmez.
NP (subj) NP (subj) NP(obj) V V NP(obj)

That Jack plays basketball doesnt concern us. TURKISH SIMPLE SENTENCE NOMINALIZATIONS As has been noted, there are no clauses in Turkish as those of the clauses in English. When English simple sentences are nominalized, (transformed into noun clauses) they do not lose their time concepts. On the contrary, when the Turkish simple sentences are nominalized, they are transformed into possessor + possessed noun compounds that result in loseing their time concepts that they had before being transformed. The time concepts that they do not convey can be understood from the time morphemes attached to the finite verbs used at the end of the Verbal Phrases. Nominalizing English simple sentences are easier than nominalizing the Turkish simple sentences: I know (that) Jack likes pop music.
nominalized sentence (object)

I guess (that) she loves me.

nominalized sent.(object)

(Ben) Jack'in pop mzik sev-dik-i-/n/i biliyorum.

NP noun + infinitive comp (obj) NP VP V

(Ben) onun beni sev-dik-i-/n/i tahmin ediyorum.

NP NP VP V

196

TURKISH GRAMMAR
When Turkish simple sentences are nominalized, they are first transformed into noun compounds by the transformational component, and so, they are used as Nominal Phrases in sentences. Although "(that) Jack likes pop music" and "(that) she loves me" subordinate English noun clauses do not look like physically transformed sentences, they can be considered as syntactically and mentally transformed sentences when they are used as Nominal Phrases. The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous, The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Perfect, The Present Perfect Continuous and Used To tenses are nominalized as follows:

1. V - [dik, dk, dk duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] - [pers] - ([])

(Ben) dn bir balk tut-tu-um. (The Simple Past) ben-im dn bir balk tut-tuk-um benim dn bir balk tuttuk-um is a noun compound like ben-im okulum. The only difference in this compound is that the possessed part of the compound is an infinitive. This noun compound, which may also be called a noun + infinitive compound, can occupy any place of a noun or pronoun in a sentence. (The /k/ phoneme in "tuttuk" changes into the voiced // phoneme.) Annem (ben-im) bir balk tuttuum-u grd. My mother saw that I caught a fish.
NP (syntactic noun) (obj) NP VP V NP V VP NP

(The [u] allomorph is one of the allomorphs of the defining morpheme []). (Ben-im) bir balk tuttuum kocaman bir yalandr. That I caught a fish is a big lie.
syntactic noun (subj) NP (predicate) VP synt noun (subj) NP VP

(be*nim / bir / ba*lk / tut*tu*um / ko*caman / bir / ya*lan*dr) The nominalization of the rest of the above seven tenses result in the same noun + infinitive compound: Ben balk tut-ar-m. (The Simple Present) ben-im balk tuttuum Ben balk tut-uyor-um. (The Present Continuous) ben-im balk tuttuum Ben balk tut-uyor-du-um. (The Past continuous) ben-im balk tuttum Ben balk tut-ar-d-m. (used to) ben-im balk tuttuum Ben iki saattir balk tut-uyor-um. ben-im iki saattir balk tuttuum The noun + infinitive compounds (syntactic nouns) above can be used in the following sentences: Herkes ben-im balk tuttuum-u bilir. Everybody knows that I catch fish.
NP NP (syntactic noun) (obj) VP V NP V VP NP

197

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Sen) balk tuttuum-u grmyor musun? Dont you see that I am catching fish?
NP NP VP V NP V VP NP

Babam gelince benim balk tuttuum-u grd. (ba*bam / ge*lin*ce ~/ be*nim / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / gr*d) When my father came, he saw that I was catching fish. Her gn balk tuttuum-u biliyorsun. (her / gn / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / bi*li*yor*sun) You know that I catch fish every day. ki saattir balk tuttuum-u babama syleme. (i*ki / sa*at*tir / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / ba*ba*ma / sy*le*me) Dont tell my father that I have been catching fish for two hours. The other three tenses are transformed as follows:

The Simple Future Tense: V - [ecek, acak] - [pers] - ([])

Yarn onu satn al-acak-m. yarn onu satn alacam (No structural change as it is in English nominalized sentences.) (Sen) (Benim) yarn onu satn alacam- biliyorsun.
NP (synt noun) (object) NP V

(ya*rn / o*nu / sa*t*na*la*ca**m / bi*li*yor*sun) You know (that) I will buy it tomorrow.
NP V NP (syntactic noun) (obj)

Ne zaman bitir-ecek-im? ne zaman bitireceim (no structural change) (ben) (Benim) onu ne zaman bitireceim-i tahmin edemem.
NP NP (synt noun) (object) V

I
NP

cant guess
V

when I will finish it.

NP (object)

(Benim) onu ne zaman bitireceim kesin deil.

NP (syntactic noun) (subject) VP

When I will finish it is not certain.

NP (subject) VP

The (ben) and (benim) parts of the above compounds are optional. They are not used unless they are intentionally stressed.

The Past Perfect: V - [mi, m, m, mu] + ol - [duk]-[pers]-([])

(Ben) eve gel-mi-ti-im. (ben-im) eve gel-mi ol-duk-um (O) (Benim) eve gel-mi olduum-u biliyordu.
NP NP V NP (synt noun) (obj) VP V

He knew that I had come home.

198

TURKISH GRAMMAR The Future Perfect: V - [mi, m, m, mu] + ol - [acak] - [pers]- ([])
(Ben) onu ne zaman bitir-mi ol-acak-m? (ben-im) onu ne zaman bitir-mi ol-acak-m (No structural change.) Ben bile (ben-im) onu ne zaman bitir-mi ol-acak-m- bilmiyorum.
NP possessor NP adverb possessed syntactic noun NP (object of bilmiyorum) VP V NP (synt noun) (object) V

Even I don't know when Ill have finished it.

NP

Examples of some frequently used tense nominalizations are as follows: SIMPLE SENTENCES WITH VERB STEM OL (BE) One should use the following verb composition to nominalize a simple sentence that has a noun, an adjective, a prepositional phrase or a noun [DE] followed by [], [DR], [D], [M] inflectional morphemes used in a VP (predicate):

a noun, an adjective, a prep phrase or a noun-[DE] + ol-[duk]-[pers]-([])

In this composition, as the verb stem is always ol, the allomorphs of the morpheme of [DK] are always [duk], and the personal allomorphs and the defining [] morpheme follow the vowel harmony rules. When ol-up olma-dk- expression is used, the allomorphs in the chain also change according to the harmony rules. (Sen-in) anne-in evde(dir). (sen-in) annen-in ev-de ol-duk-u Your mother is at home. that your mother is at home Ben sen-in anne-nin ev-de ol-duk-u-/n/u tahmin ediyorum.
NP chain noun compound-/n/u (obj) NP VP V VP NP V

I guess that your mother is at home.

NP

CHAIN NOUN COMPOUNDS There is a chain noun compound in the above-nominalized sentence. Therefore, an example from the English language may be helpful to understand it better: the cover of the book of your mother anne-in-in kitp--/n/n kapak- The first part of the chain is sen-in anne-in, which is a noun + noun compound. To lengthen this compound to a chain, (sen-in) anne-in compound is made the possessor part of another compound by attaching

199

TURKISH GRAMMAR
another [N] morpheme to it; (sen-in) anne-in-in. Now, this chain becomes the possessor part of another noun kapak-: sen-in
possessor

anne-in
possessed

= NP
possessed possessed possessed

sen-in

anne-in-in kitap- = NP
chain possessors chain possessors

chain possessors

sen-in anne-in-in kitap--/n/n kapak- = NP sen-in anne-in-in kitap--/n/n kapak--/n/n renk-i = NP (sen-in) anne-in-in kitp--/n/n kapak--/n/n renk-i (se*nin / an*ne*nin / ki*ta*b*nn / ka*pa**nn / ren*gi) Although the noun + noun compounds are finite sequences, they can be turned into infinite sequences by using successive possessor nouns. When we add a possessed noun to the end of the sequence, however, the sequence is closed and becomes a Nominal Phrase. We can show this endless sequence with the following nonsense chain: ey-in ey-i-/n/in ey-i/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i
infinite (determiners) possessors N O M I N A L P H R A S E possessed final

The last nonsense word ey-i ends the sequence and turns it into a NP The determiner sequences that are not put into Nominal Phrases are incomplete chains of words. For instance, that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr. Brown lived in is an incomplete infinite sequence of determiners if the house is not put in the beginning of the sentence. When this is done, the house that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr Brown lived in becomes a NP suitable to be used in NP + VP sentence producing system. In such sentences, the noun that ends the infinite sequence of determiners is in the beginning of a NP contrary to a Turkish NP, where the final word is at the end. As it is seen in the meaningless chain, the infinite chain is ended with ey-i. All noun compounds, whether they are made up of two, three, or even more parts, they syntactically function as one single noun in sentences: Ben onu hatrlyorum. I remember her.
NP NP NP NP V NP V V NP

Ben sen-in anne-in-i hatrlyorum. I

NP (synt noun) (obj) NP NP (chain noun comp) (obj)

remember your mother.

V V NP (synt noun) (obj)

Ben (sen-in) anne-in-in gl--/n/ hatrlyorum. I

NP

remember the smile of your mother.

V NP (synt noun) (obj)

200

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) (sen-in) anne-in-in ev-de ol-duk-u-/n/u biliyorum.
NP NP V NP (chain noun comp) (obj) NP (obj) V

I know that your mother is at home. The underlined parts of the last two sentences are chain noun compounds that act as syntactic nouns in sentences. In the last sentence, the double underlined /i/ vowel drops, the /k/ phoneme changes into //, and the /n/ glide is used between the last two vowels. Sen doktor-sun. sen-in doktor ol-duk-un (ol*du*un)
sentence NP nominalized sentence V NP (subj) V NP (synt noun) (obj)

Herkes (sen-in) doktor ol-duk-un-u biliyor. Everybody knows that you are a doctor.
NP (synt noun) (obj)

The [u] allomorph in the above sentence is the defining [] morpheme. Btn kzlar gzeldir. btn kzlar-n gzel ol-duk-u- (ol*du*u)
sentence sentence NP syntactic noun syntactic noun V

All girls are beautiful. that all girls are beautiful (Ben) btn kzlar-n gzel ol-duu-/n/u dn-yor-um.
NP (synt noun) (object)

(b*tn / kz*la*rn / g*zel / ol*du*u*nu / d**n*yo*rum) I think that all girls are beautiful.
NP V NP (synt noun) (obj)

1. (O) (ben-im) 2. (O) (ben-im) 3. (O) (ben-im) 4. (O) (ben-im) 5. (O) (ben-im)

kalem-im-i istedi. (ka*le*mi*mi / is*te*di) bekle-me-im-i istedi. (bek*le*me*mi / is*te*di) gel-i-im-i gzledi. (ge*li*i*mi / gz*le*di) gel-dik-im-i grmedi. (gel*di*i*mi / gr*me*di) ala-dk-m- iitmedi. (a*la*d**m / i*it*me*di)

The words in brackets in the above five sentences can be ignored unless they are intentionally emphasized. Sen bir greisin. sen-in bir grei ol-duk-un
sentence sentence synt noun (subj) (NP) synt noun (subj) (NP) nominalized sentence nominalized sentence predicate (VP) predicate (VP)

You are a wrestler. that you are a wrestler Senin bir grei olduun nemli deil. That you are a wrestler is not important. ocuklar hazr m? Are the children ready? ocuklar hazr m? ocuklar-n hazr olup ol-ma-dk-
Sentence sentence nominalized sentence nominalized sentence

Are the children ready? whether the children are ready

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
When someone hesitates over whether the verb is positive or negative, olup olmad positive and negative successive verbs are used as whether is used in English: (Ben) ocuklar-n hazr olup ol-ma-d-/n/ bilmiyor-um.
NP synt noun (object) NP V

(ben~ / o*cuk*la*rn / ha*zr / o*lup / ol*ma*d**n / bil*mi*yo*rum) I

NP

dont know whether the children are ready (or not).

V syntactic noun (object) NP

Karde-im nerde? karde-im-in nerde ol-duk-u (ol*du*u) Where is my sister? where my sister is Kardeimin nerde olduu-/n/u bilmiyorum. I dont know where my sister is. Ben kim-im? benim kim olduum Who am I? who I am (Sen) (ben-im) kim olduum-u tahmin edebilir misin?
NP NP synt noun (obj) NP V NP V

Can you guess who I am? The simple sentences containing verbs other than be are also nominalized using possessor + possessed noun compounds. As there are no clauses in Turkish, they lose their time concepts as usual. However, some others keep them when they are nominalized. The tenses that result in the same transformed compounds are as follows: (Ben) evi temizlerim. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Simple Present) (Ben) evi temizliyorum. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Present continuous or Present Perfect Continuous) (Ben) evi temizledim. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Simple Past or Present Perfect) (Ben) evi temizliyordum. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous ) (Ben) evi temizlerdim. (benim) evi temizle-dik-im-(i) (Used to) As one can understand, all the five different tenses (simple sentences) are nominalized using the same transformational composition: The above verb composition covers only the morphemes, therefore the allomorphs of these morphemes are given as follows: [DK]: [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]

All the /k/ phonemes chance into //, except when they are preceded by [ler, lar]. The contraction [pers] includes all the "possessed" allomorphs of all persons (ben-im defter-im). Therefore, they have to be separately shown:

202

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(ben): [im, m, m, um]; (sen): [in, n, n, un]; (o): [i, , , u]; (biz): [imiz, mz, mz, umuz]: (siz): [iniz, nz, nz, unuz]; (onlar) [i, , , u] or [leri, lar-]. Example: Sizin defter-iniz; benim defter-im; onlarn defter-ler-i The defining [] morpheme has naturally four allomorphs [i, , , u]. Only one of them is used according to the harmony rules when a nominalized sentence is used in the object position: (Ben) her gn evi temizlerim. (ben-im) her gn evi temizle-dik-im (Sen) (ben-im) her gn evi temizle-dik-im-i biliyorsun.
NP NP V (synt noun) (object) NP (synt noun) (object) NP V

You know that I clean the house everyday. (The last [i] is the defining [i] allomorph.) ocuklar bahede oynuyordu. ocuklar-n bahede oyna-dk- (Ben) ocuklar-n bahe-de oyna-d-/n/ grdm.
NP NP VP V

I
NP

saw that the children were playing in the garden.

V VP NP

(Ben) (ben-im) ev devimi yapyorum. ev devimi yap-tk-m (Sen) (ben-im) ev devimi yaptm- gryorsun.
NP synt noun (object) NP V

You can see that I am doing my homework. Seyahat ettiini biliyorum. = I know that he travels; I know that he is traveling; I know that he has traveled; I know that he has been traveling; I know that he traveled; I know that he used to travel As it is seen, all the above six English sentences are expressed in the same transformed Turkish sentence. To avoid this time ambiguity, suitable adverbs of time should be added to Turkish transformed sentences to make the meaning clearer. This is necessary because after the simple sentences are transformed and nominalized, they become noun + infinitive compounds. Like all infinitives these compounds are timeless. u anda seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that he is (you are) traveling right now. To avoid the above second ambiguity, either senin or onun words (possessive adjectives) should be used in the above sentence: Senin (or onun) u anda seyahat ettiini biliyorum. Onun her yl seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that he travels every year. Onun btn yl bounca seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that he travels all the year round.

203

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Senin geen yl seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that you were traveling last year. Senin geen sene boyuna seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that you were always traveling last year. When boyuna or habire adverbs are added to continuous sentences, they imply that the speaker is complaining about something: Karm habire fiyatlardan yaknyor. My wife is always complaining about the prices. Sen boyuna televizyon seyrediyorsun. You are always watching television. The above seyahat ettiin syntactic noun can naturally be used in the subject position, as well: Sen her sene seyahat edersin. senin her sene seyahat ettiin Sen-in her sene seyahat ettiin mehurdur.
(synt noun) (subj) NP VP

That you travel every year is well known. Or "It is well-known that you travel every year." The simple future tense allomorphs [ecek, acak] are kept when such sentences are nominalized. (Ben) yarn eski arabam sat-acak-m. ben-im yarn eski arabam sat-acakm
sentence (synt noun) (subject) (NP) sentence nominalized sentence predicate (VP) nominalized sentence

(Benim) yarn eski arabam satacak-m kesin deil. (sa*ta*ca*m) I will sell my old car tomorrow. that I will sell my old car tomorrow That I will sell my old car tomorrow is not certain. syntactic noun (subject) (NP) predicate (VP) (Sen) (ben-im) yarn eski arabam satacak-m- bilmiyor musun? (sen / be*nim / ya*rn / es*ki / a*ra*ba*m / sa*ta*ca**m / bil mi*yor / mu*sun) Dont you know that I will sell my old car tomorrow? (The /k/ phonemes used in satacak verbs change into the voiced //.) In The Past Perfect Tense, [M] and [D] morphemes are used one after the other. When the same tense is nominalized, the [M] morpheme is attached to the verb stem or frame, and then the ol verb stem is used attached to the [duk] allomorph, which is followed by a p ersonal suffix:
NP synt noun (obj) (NP) V

204

TURKISH GRAMMAR V - [M] + ol - [duk] - [pers] - ([])

(Ben) evi temizle-mi-ti-im. (ben-im) evi temizle-mi ol-duk-um"
sentence adv NP synt noun (object) NP syntactic noun V

Dn (sen) (ben-im) evi temizlemi olduum-u grdn. ( dn / e*vi / te*miz*le*mi / ol*du*u*mu / gr*dn) You saw that I had cleaned the house yesterday.
NP V synt noun (object) NP

(Sen) (ben-im) evi temizlemi olduum-u gryorsun.

NP synt noun (object) NP V

(e*vi / te*miz*le*mi / ol*du*u*mu / g*r*yor*sun) You (can) see that I have cleaned the house.
NP V synt noun (obj) NP

All syntactic nouns can be used in "NP + VP" = NP + NP + V syntactic pattern as Nominal Phrases. NOMINALIZED SENTENCES CONTAINING QUESTION WORDS niin (why), nere-de (where), kim (who), kim-i (who(m)), kim-e (to whom), kim-den (from whom), ne kadar sre (how long), nasl (how) question words and the like are used between the possessor and the possessed parts of noun compounds when sentences are nominalized: Sen niin bekliyorsun? sen-in niin bekle-dik-in Why are you waiting? why you are waitig (Ben) (sen-in) niin bekle-dik-in-i biliyorum.
NP synt noun (obj) NP VP V

( ben / se*nin / ni*in / bek*le*di*i*ni / bi*li*yo*rum) I know why you are waiting. (Ben) (Sen-in) nerede bekle-dik-in-i grdm.
NP NP V

(ben / se*nin / ner*de / bek*le*di*i*ni / gr*dm) I saw where you were waiting.
NP V NP

(Ben) (sen-in) kime gl-dk-n- anladm.

NP NP V NP NP V

I understood who you were laughing at. (Sen) Jackin kimi sevdik-in-i biliyor musun? (sen / jack*in / ki*mi / sev*di*i*ni / bi*li yor / mu*sun) Do you know who Jack is in love with?

205

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) (o/n/un) ne syle-dik-in-i hatrla-ma-yor-um. (ben / o*nun / ne / sy*le*di*i*ni / ha*tr*la*m*yo*rum) I dont remember what he said. (Sen) (ben-im) sana niin kz-dk-m- biliyor musun? (sa*na / ni* in / kz*d**m / bi*li yor / mu*sun) Do you know why I am angry with you? (Ben-im) seni ne kadar zle-dik-im-i tahmin edemezsin. (be*nim / se*ni / ne / ka*dar / z*le*di*i*mi / tah*min / e*de*mez*sin) You cant guess how much I miss you. (Sen) (sen-in) ne renmek iste-dik-in-i bana akla. (ne / *ren*mek / is*te*di*i*ni / ba*na / a*k*la) Explain to me what you want to learn. (Sen) (sen-in) ne kadar sre bekle-dik-in-i bana syle. (ne / ka*dar / s*re / bek*le*di*i*ni / ba*na / sy*le) Tell me how long you have been waiting. (Ben) (o-/n/un) niin ala-dk--/n/ bilmiyorum. (ben / o*nun / ni *in / a*la*d**n / bil*mi*yo*rum) I dont know why she is crying. (Sen-in) ne satn al-dk-n- grdm. (se*nin / ne / sa*t*nal*d**n / gr*dm) I saw what you bought. All the above nominalized sentences are used in the object position, and the /k/ phonemes in [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs change into the // phonemes. The last allomorphs are the defining allomorphs. All the words in brackets above are optional, and may be ignored unless they are intentionally emphasized. The following nominalized sentences are used in the subject position: (O-/n/un) nasl zengin ol-duk-u bir srdr. synt noun ( subj) NP VP (o*nun / na*sl / zen*gin / ol*du*u / bir / sr*dr) How he became rich is a mystery.
synt noun (subj) NP synt noun (subj) NP VP NP V

(Ben-im) ne dn-dk-m seni ilgilendirmez. (be*nim / ne / d*n*d*m / se*ni / il*gi*len*dir*mez) What I am thinking about doesnt concern you.
synt noun (subj) NP V NP

Sorular-n niin bu kadar zor ol-duk-u retmen tarafndan aklanmalyd.

(synt noun) (subj) NP postp phrase (adv) V (passive)

206

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(The reason) why the questions were so difficult should have been explained by the teacher. (Sen-in) dolapta gr-dk-n bir iskelet olamaz.
(subj) NP (predicate) VP

(do*lap*ta / gr*d*n / bir / is*ke*let / o*la*maz) What you saw in the cupboard cant be a skeleton.
(subj) NP (predicate) VP

(onlar-n) ne iste-dik-ler-i anla-l-a-ma-d.

(subj) NP (passive) V

(on*la*rn / ne / is*te*dik*le*ri / an*la**la*ma*d) (The /k/ does not change.) What they wanted couldn't be understood. (subject) NP (passive) V (O-/n/un) tm ye-dik-i sadece be sandviti.
synt noun (subj) NP (predicate) NP

(o*nun / tm / ye*di*i ~/ sa:*de*ce / be / san*d*vi*ti) All he ate was only five sandwiches. (O-/n/un) kim ol-duk-u polis tarafndan aratrlyor.
(synt noun) (subj) NP (postp phrase) (adv) V (passive)

(o*nun / kim / ol*du*u / po*lis / ta*ra*fn*dan / a*ra*t*r*l*yor) Who he is is being investigated by the police.
NP V (passive) (prep phrs) (adv)

(Sen-in) ara-dk-n (ey) ekmece-/n/in i-i/n/-de. (a*ra*d*n ~ / ek*me*ce*nin / i*in*de) What you are looking for is in the drawer. TURKISH DETERMINER + NOUN COMPOUNDS After having given a short description of the possessor + possessed transformation of the simple English sentences, we can proceed with the parallel determiner + noun or (determiner + determined) Turkish simple sentence transformations: Kzlar tarlalarda icek topluyor. The girls are picking flowers in the fields.
noun 1 noun 2 noun 3 1 3 2

1. tarlalarda iek topla-/y/an kzlar the girls that are picking flowers in the fields
determiner determiner determiner determined determined determined

2. kzlarn iek topla-dk- tarlalar the fields where the girls are picking flowers 3. kzlarn tarlalarda topla-dk- iekler the flowers that the girls are picking in the fiels We can derive the following rules from the transformed sentences above:

207

TURKISH GRAMMAR
1.When someone aims at determining the subject of a simple sentence, he transforms the rest of the sentence into a determiner + noun compound by using V - [en, an] + noun composition. This composition is a syntactic noun, which can be used in NP + VP sentence mold. If a verb stem or a verb frame ends with a consonant, it takes one of these allomorphs: konu-an, a-an, bek-le-en, beklen-en. If a verb stem ends with a vowel, it needs a /y/ glide to be linked to one of the following [en] or [an] allomorphs: bekle-/y/en, oku-/y/an, anla/y/an. This transformational pattern can be applied to the verbs in The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous Tenses, and (imdiki Zaman'n Hikyesi) used to. However, the verbs in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses keep their forms with or without the help of the verb ol: Kzlar yarn tarlalarda iek tolayacaklar. yarn tarlalarda iek toplayacak (olan) kzlar Kzlar tarlalarda iek toplamt. tarlalarda iek toplam (olan) kzlar Consequently, Kzlar bahede koar, Kzlar bahede kotu, Kzlar bahede kouyor, Kzlar bahede kouyordu, and Kzlar bahede koard simple sentences are all transformed into the determiner + noun structure as bahede koan kzlar. As has already been noted, none of the time concepts in these tenses (except The Simple Future and the Past Perfect ) are carried into the transformed Turkish sentences. 2. and 3. When one wants to determine one of the nouns, other than the subject, he has to use V - [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] - [i, , , u] [pers] + noun structure. The unvoiced /k/ phonemes change into the voiced // phonemes, except when they are followed by [ler, lar] plural allomorphs such as "topla-dk-lar-", yr-dk-ler-i, oku-duk-lar-, ektik-ler-i, where the /k/ phonemes do not change. As in the above examples, none of the tenses carry their time concepts into the transformed sentences. The time concepts of such sentences are inferred from the time suffixes of the finite verbs. 1. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz
1 2 3 determiner determined

2. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mufak

determiner determined

3. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n mutfakta soyduk-u patatesler.

determiner determined

As all the determiner + determined (Turkish) or determined + determiner (English) compounds are syntactic nouns, they can be used in the NP + VP phrase structure mold as Nominal Phrases:

208

TURKISH GRAMMAR
1. Mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz benim kzlarmdr. (so*yan)
syntactic noun (subj) NP NP (syntactic noun) (subj) (syntactic noun) (subj) NP predicate VP predicate VP predicate VP

2. ki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mutfak ok genitir. (soy*du*u) 3. ki kz-n mutfakta soy-duk-u patates-ler ok kalitelidir. (soy*du*u) (Ben) mutfakta patates soyan iki kz grd-m.
NP syntactic noun (object) (NP) VP V

If the simple sentences from which the transformed compounds were transformed were in different tenses, except the future and the past perfect tenses, the result would also be the same transformed sentences above: Mutfakta iki kz patates soyar, soyuyor, soydu, soyuyordu, soyard are all transformed as mutfakta patates soyan kzlar or kzlarn soyduu patatesler, or kzlarn patates soyduu mutfak. The English equivalents of the above sentences are as follows: 1.. the two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen
determined (1) determined (3) determined (2) determiner determiner determiner

2. the kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes 3. the potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen As all the determined + determiner compounds are syntactic nouns, they can be used in the NP + VP phrase structure mould as Nominal Phrases: The two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters.
NP NP NP VP VP VP NP VP

The kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes is very large. The potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen are of good quality. I
NP

saw the two girls that were peeling potatoes in the kitchen.
V

As an exception, the sentences in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses are transformed as follows: (Ben) bir problem zece-im. (ben-im) z-ece-im problem
sentence sentence syntactic noun (subject) (NP) determined VP determiner determiner VP determined

I will solve a problem. the problem that I will solve (Benim) zeceim problem ok zor. The problem that I will solve is very difficult.
syntactic noun (subject) (NP)

(Ben) bir problem zmtm. (ben-im) zm ol-duk-um problem I had solved a problem. the problem that I had solved

209

TURKISH GRAMMAR
zm olduum problem ok zordu.
syntactic noun (subject) NP syntactic noun (subject) NP VP VP

The problem that I had solved was very difficult. Some examples of the determiner + determined sentence transformations are as follows: O dn bir mektup yazd. onun dn yazd mektup = NP
determiner determined

Onun dn yazd mektup kayboldu.

NP VP

(o*nun / dn / yaz*d* / mek*tup / kay*bol*du) The letter that she wrote yesterday has been lost.
NP VP

Annem her gn evi tertipler. annemin her gn tertipledii ev Annemin her gn tertipledii ev karmakark.
syntactic noun (subject) NP (predicate) VP

(an*ne*min / her / gn / ter*tip*le*di*i / ev / kar*ma*ka*r*k) The house, which my mother tidies every day, is in a mess.
syntactic noun (subj) NP (predicate) VP

ocuklar havuzda model kayklar yzdryordu. ocuklar-n havuzda yz-dr-dk- model kayklar = NP ocuklarn havuzda yzdrd model kayklar el yapmyd.
syntactic noun (subject) NP (predicate) VP

(o*cuk*la*rn / ha*vuz*da / yz*dr*d* / mo*del / ka*yk*lar~ / el / ya*p*my*d) The modal boats that the children were sailing on the pond were handmade.
NP VP (predicate)

Parmama bir ine batt. parmama batan ine Parmama bat-an ine kckt.
(synt noun) (subject) (NP) (pred) VP VP (predicate)

The needle that stuck in my finger was very small.

syntactic noun (subject) (NP)

Bir problem zmeye alyordum. zmeye altm problem zmeye altm problem ok gt
syntactic noun (subject) (NP) (pred) VP

(z*me*ye / a*l*t*m / prob*lem / ok / g*t) The problem that I was trying to solve was very difficult.
(syntactic noun) (subject) (NP) (predicate) VP

Dn ieklerin hepsini suladm. dn suladm ieklerin hepsi

sentence NP (chain noun compound) (syntactic noun) VP

Dn suladm ieklerin hepsi soldu (dn / su*la*d*m / i*ek*le*rin / hep*si / sol*du) All the flowers that I watered yesterday have faded.
(syntactic noun) (subject) (NP) VP

210

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Geen hafta bana bir cep telefonu aldn. geen hafta bana aldn cep telefonu (Ben) (sen-in) geen hafta bana aldn cep telefonu-/n/u kaybettim.
NP NP V

(ge*en / haf*ta / ba*na / al*d*n / cep / te*le*fo*nu*nu / kay*bet*tim) I have lost the mobile telephone that you bought me last week.
NP V (syntactic noun) (object) (NP)

Amcam patates yetitiriyor. amcamn yeti-tir-dik-i patatesler Amcamn yetitirdii patatesler en st kalitededir.
(syntactic noun) (subject) (NP) syntactic noun (subject) (NP) (predicate ) VP (predicate) VP

The potatoes that my uncle grows are of top quality. When a simple sentence having a future tense is transformed, the [ecek, acak] allomorphs do not change: Prof. Brown yarn niversitede bir konuma yapacak . yarn Prof. Brownn niversitede yap-acak- konuma Yarn Prof. Brownn niversitede yapaca konuma/y/ dinlemek istiyor musun? Do you want to listen to the lecture that Prof. Brown is going to give at the university tomorrow? When the subject of a simple sentence is aimed at when transforming a simple sentence to produce a determiner, the above-mentioned Nr.1 kind of transformational rule is applied: Martlar gkyznde uu-uyor-lar. gkyznde u-u-an martlar Gkyznde uuan martlar harikayd.
(synt noun) (subject) (NP) (predicate) VP

(gk*y*zn*de / u*u*an / mar*t*lar / ha:*ri*kay*d) The seagulls that were flying about in the sky were fantastic.
syntactic noun (subject) (NP) (predicate) VP

renciler saat sekizden beri retmenlerini bekle-iyor-lar. bir saattir retmenlerini bekle-/y/en renciler Bir saattir retmenlerini bekle/y/en renciler sabrszlanyor. (syntactic noun) (subject) NP (predicate) VP The students that have been waiting for their teachers for an hour are being impatient.
NP VP

Kedi masann altnda kan-yor. masann altnda ka-n-an kedi Masann altnda ka-n-an kedi senin mi ?
(synactic noun) (subject) (NP) (predicate) VP

(ma*sa*nn / al*tn*da / ka**nan / ke*di / se*nin / mi) Is the cat (that is) scratching under the table yours?
syntactic noun (subject) (NP) VP

Renkler sonbaharda dei-ir. sonbaharda dei-en renkler Sonbaharda dei-en renkler herkesi byler.

211

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(son*ba*har*da / de*i*en / renk*ler / her*ke*si / b*y*ler) The colors that change in the autumn fascinate everybody. iekler sabahleyin a-ar. sabahleyin a-an iekler Sabahleyin aan iekler gzel kokar. (sa*bah*le*yin / a*an / i*ek*ler / g*zel / ko*kar) The flowers that open in the morning smell sweet. renciler retmenlerini dikkatle dinliyorlar-d . retmenlerini dikkatle dinle/y/en renciler retmenlerini dikkatle dinle/y/en renciler mutlu grnyorlard. The students who were listening to their teacher carefully were looking happy. There is an important difference between a simple sentence and a transformed simple sentence in Turkish. The words in a simple sentence may take different positions. The meanings of the following sentences are much less the same if the word stress and intonation are not taken into account: Ben dn bahede bir saat buldum. Bir saat buldum dn bahede ben. Bir saat buldum bahede dn ben. Buldum dn bahede bir saat ben. Bahede buldum ben dn bir saat. Buldum bahede bir saat dn ben. Although the first sentence is considered to be the valid grammatical order of the sentence, the other five are also understandable, but they are only used in Turkish poetry. The only inseparable grammatical unit in these sentences is "bir saat", which is a "D + N" unit. However, when the same sentence is nominalized, the possessed part of the compound is always at the end of the nominalized sentence; the other words may change places: "benim dn bahede bir saat bulduum" "dn benim bahede bir saat bulduum" "bahede dn benim bir saat bulduum" "bahede benim dn bir saat bulduum When the same sentence is transformed into the determiner + determined compound, the transformed sentences may change as follows: "benim dn bahe-de bulduum saat" "bahede benim dn bulduum saat" "dn benim bahe-de bulduum saat" "benim bahede dn bulduum saat"

212

TURKISH GRAMMAR
As one can notice, the determiner "bir" (indefinite article) is not used in the above transformed sentences because the word "bulduum" becomes a determiner that determines the noun "saat", which proves that "benim dn bahede bulduum" and the following three are determiners. In the above transformed sentences, the last syllables before the words bulduum are primarily stressed that shows the importance given to these words. If the second noun "bahe" is determined, the transformed sentence becomes as follows: "benim dn iinde (bir) saat bulduum bahe" "iinde benim dn (bir) saat bulduum bahe" "dn benim iinde (bir) saat bulduum bahe" "benim iinde dn (bir) saat bulduum bahe" We can give the following table to sum up the above transformational rules: 1. benim gitmem noun + infinitive 2. benim gidiim noun + infinitive 3. benim gittiim noun + infinitive 4. benim gittiim noun + infinitive 5. benim gideceim noun + infinitive 6. benim gideceim noun + infinitive 7. benim gitmi olduum noun + infinitive 8. benim gitmi oldugum noun + infinitive 9. benim gitmi olacamnoun + infinitive 10.benim gitmi olacamnoun + infinitive = noun comp= syntactic noun = = noun comp= syntactic noun = = noun comp = syntactic noun = = determiner+noun = syntactic noun= = noun comp = synt noun = = determiner + noun = synt noun = = noun comp = synt noun = = determiner + noun = synt noun = = noun comp = synt noun = = determiner + noun = synt noun = NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP

In the examples above, only the first person is given; the other persons might have been given accordingly, which would not change the result. Nr.1 and Nr.2 compounds can only be used as noun compounds such as Benim oraya gitmem olanaksz. Benim gidiim-i bekliyor However, Nr. 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; and 9 and 10 are used both as noun compounds and determiners such as Benim gittiim-i grd. (noun compound), Benim gittiim okul " (determiner + noun). Therefore, these noun compounds are used both as noun compounds and as determiners. As in all infinitives, the infinitive parts of these compounds may have one or more adverbs preceding to furnish them with time, place, reason, etc: Benim geen hafta bir futbol ma seyretmek iin Bursaya gitme-im karm kzdrd
adv of time. adv of reason adv of place

My going to Bursa last week to watch a football match made my wife mad. Benim geen hafta bir ift ayakkab almak iin gittiim dkkn ok kalablkt.
adv of time adv of reason noun

The shop where I went to buy a pair of shoes last week was very crowded.

213

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Benim ..gittiim-i grdn. = noun compound (object) = syntactic noun
noun compound

Benim.. gittiim + okul = determiner + noun = syntactic noun

determiner determiner + determined

Okula koan + ocuk

determined

= determiner + noun = syntactic noun

THE PASSIVE TRANSFORMATION A speaker or a writer generally prefers a passive sentence when he does not know the actual doer of the action, or, when, for some reason, he does not want to mention it, or if he thinks it is unimportant, or he begins his sentence with the object. This type of transformation is carried out within the simple sentence. It is not done to be used as a NP in NP + VP sentence mold. If necessary, a passive simple sentence can also be transformed to be used as a nominal phrase. Somebody stole a necklace. "A necklace was stolen." A necklace was stolen. the necklace that was stolen" "the necklace that was stolen" the stolen necklace" The necklace that was stolen hasnt been found yet. The stolen necklace hasnt been found yet. To perform a passive transformation, the object of a sentence is used as if it were the real subject of the sentence, and the verb stem is attached to a passive making allomorph. These allomorphs are as follows: When a verb stem ends with a consonant (V ), one of the [il, l, l, ul] allomorphs is attached to it before the time and personal allomorphs:
c

subject + Vc - [il, l, l, ul] - ([NEG]) - [time] - [pers]

kahve fincan kr-l-d. ( / kah*ve / fin*ca*n / k*rl*d) Three coffee cups have been broken. Davetiyeler bas-l-yor. (da:*ve*ti*ye*ler / ba*s*l*yor) The invitations are being printed. imdi ne yap-l-abil-ir? (im*di / ne / ya*p*la*bi*lir ) What can be done now? Dn ne yap-l-d? (dn / ne / ya*pl*d) What was done yesterday?

214

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Her ey bitir-il-di bile. (her*ey / bi*ti*ril*di / bi*le) Everything has already been finished. Burada ttn sat-l-ma-z. (bu*ra*da / t*tn / sa*tl*maz) Tobacco is not sold here. Ben aldat-l-d-m. (ben / al*da*tl*dm) I have been cheated. (Siz-in) araba-nz onar-l-d. (a*ra*ba*nz / o*na*rl*d) Your car has been repaired. Nehir kenarnda byk bir ev yap-l-yor. (ne*hir / ke*na*rn*da / b*yk / bir / ev / ya*p*l*yor) A large house is being built by the river. (Sen) cezalandr-l-abil-ir-/s/in. (ce*za:*lan*d*r*la*bi*lir*sin) You may be punished. Bahe henz spr-l-me-di. (bah*e / he*nz / s*p*rl*me*di) The garden hasnt been swept yet. Mikroplar cplak gzle gr-l-e-me-iz. (mik*rop*lar / p*lak / gz*le / g*r*le*mez) Germs cant be seen with the naked eye. Bu pis yzme havuzunda yz-l-me-iz. (bu / pis / yz*me / ha*vu*zun*da / y*zl*mez) It is impossible to swim in this dirty swimming pool. (passive shaped intransitive) (Ben-im) saatim bahede bul-un-du. (be*nim / sa*a*tim / bah*e*de / bu*lun*du) My watch has been found in the garden. Bu kasa matkapla del-in-e-mez. (bu / ka*sa / mat*kap*la / de*li*ne*mez) This safe cant be drilled.

215

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Pazar gnleri okula gel-in-mez. (pa*zar / gn*le*ri / o*ku*la / ge*lin*mez) It is a general rule that students do not come to school on Sundays. (passive shaped intransitive) Akl spermarketten satn al-n-maz. (a*kl / s*per*mar*ket*ten / a*ln*maz) Wisdom cant be bought from a supermarket. The verb stems ending with vowels (V ) are put into the passive form by using the following verb composition. In this composition, the double underlined first vowels of the passive making allomorphs drop:
v

Vv-[in, n, n, un]-(neg)-[time]-[pers]
Bu gmlek sadece lk suda yka-n-r. (bu / gm*lek / sa:*de*ce / *lk / su*da / y*ka*nr) This shirt is washed only in lukewarm water. Duvarlar beyaz-a boya-n-yor. (du*var*lar / be*ya*za / bo*ya*n*yor) The walls are being painted white. Hrsz yakala-n-d. (hr*sz / ya*ka*lan*d) The thief has been caught. Benim odam yarn temizle-in-ecek. (be*nim / o*dam / ya*rn / te*miz*le*ne*cek) My room is going to be cleaned tomorrow. Ma ertele-in-me-di. (ma / er*te*len*me*di) The match hasnt been postponed. Bu yk benim kamyonumda ta-n-a-maz. (bu / yk / be*nim / kam*yo*num*da / ta**na*maz) This load cant be carried in my lorry. As an exception to the above rule, the verb "anla" is put into the passive form with [l]: "Anla-l-d" (an*la*l*d) is used in place of *"anla-n-d". THE VERB FRAMES A list of frequently used verbs and their intransitive, transitive, causative, passive, reflexive and reciprocal forms (which are called verb frames) are given in the following list. While using reflexive and reciprocal verb

216

TURKISH GRAMMAR
frames, one should be careful because these two forms may have meanings different from the verb stems they are attached to. For instance, although anla means understand, anla means reach an agreement. Therefore, one should consult a dictionary before using them. Some of the most frequently used verb frames whose meanings are different from their stems are as follows: aldrmak: care, care about; almak: get used to; atmak: have a row with; bozulmak: deteriorate, embarrass; bozumak: break up, fall out with; bulumak: meet with someone; atlatmak: make somebody jealous; znmek: dissolve; dalamak: fight; dayanma: solidarity; dnmek: transform; dvnmek: beat ones chest; durulmak: calm down, settle down; geinmek: get on well with, make a living; gelitirmek: improve, develop; gerinmek: stretch; kanmak: avoid; karmak: miss, abduct, frighten away, hijack, go out of ones mind; kapmak: fall out with; kayrmak: bestow a privilege on; kesimek: intersect; kestirmek: dose, have a short nap, estimate; krmak: become wrinkled; korunmak: protect oneself; rtmek: coincide, correspond to, match up with; sylenmek: grumble; sylemek: chat; srnmek: creep, live a dogs life; armak: be confused, be mixed up; iinmek: boast; tartmak: argue, discuss, dispute; uydurmak: fabricate, feign. The suffixes used in producing verb frames are the first suffixes to be attached to verb stems; and the others such as the negation, time, and personal suffixes follow them.

The Structural Composition of the Causative Verb Frames

All the monosyllabic verb stems, and all the other ones ending with /t/ phonemes take [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur] allomorphs to change them into the causative verb frame: Examples of monosyllabic verbs: al-dr, at-tr, boz-dur, bul-dur, al-dr, arp-tr, ek-tir, z-dr, del-dir, dvdr, ger-dir, kap-tr, kes,tir, kur-dur, rt-tr, v-dr, soy-dur, et-tir, z-dr, yak-tr, yap-tr, yaz-dr, sat-tr, at-tr, tat-tr, a-tr, yak-tr, yrt-tr Examples of the polysyllabic (two or more syllables) verbs ending with /t/: iit-tir, ilet-tir, oturt-tur, kapat-tr, kzart-tr, patlat-tr, sarkt-tr, yaat-tr, ykselt-tir, tket-tir, tant-tr. All the polysyllabic verbs ending with /r/ take /t/ phonemes Example: yaptr yap-trt; gldr gl-drt ar-trt, bi-tirt, ge-tirt, at-trt, al-trt, -kart, dal-drt, dei-tirt, do-urt, doldurt, dn-drt, dur-durt, d-rt, ge-irt, ge-tirt, geli-tirt, ger-dirt, gez-dirt,

217

TURKISH GRAMMAR
gl-drt, -srt, it-tirt, ka-rt, kan-drt, karla-trt, ka-yrt, kaz-drt, konuturt, ko-part, ko-turt, o-nart, l-drt, pi-irt, sinirlen-dirt, sus-turt, s-prt, iirt, ta-rt, uy-durt, yar-trt, yap-trt, ya-trt, ye-dirt, yz-drt The last syllables of the above causative forms are all four- phoneme syllables such as tirt, trt, trt, turt, drt, durt, nart, etc. When the polysyllabic verbs ending with vowels are attached to [it, t, t, ut] allomorphs, the first vowels of these suffixes drop: bala-t (ba*lat), ertele-it (er*te*let), ona-t (o*nat), oyna-t (oy*nat,) bekle-it (bek*let), boya-t (bo*yat), by-t (b*yt), atla-t (at*lat), daya-t (da*yat), dene-it (de*net), denetle-it (de*net*let), dinle-it (din*let), ertele-it (er*te*let), frala-t (fr*a*lat), hatrla-t (ha*tr*lat), hazrla-t (ha*zr*lat), kovala-t (ko*va*lat), ka-t (ka*t), kokla-t (kok*lat), koru-ut (ku*rut), oyna-t (o*nat), sakla-t (sak*lat), sorgula-t (sor*gu*lat), syle-it (sy*let), tara-t (ta*rat), ta-t (ta*t), temizle-it (te*miz*let), uyu-ut (u*yut), tle-it (*t*let), yakala-t (ya*ka*lat), yka-t (y*kat), yr-t (y*rt), trmala-t (tr*ma*lat), sula-t (su*lat). Note: All the double underlined vowels drop. A SHORT LIST OF VERB FRAMES
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE CAUSATIVE PASSIVE REFLEXIVE RECIPROCAL

ak

anlat art bala bat bekle

bit

al arp atla k deitir

akt al anla anlat(tr) artr at balat batr bekle beklet besle bitir boya boz bul al al(tr) arptr atlat ek kar deitirt

akttr aldr

aktl aln anlal anlatl artrl atl balatl batrl beklen bekletil beslen bitiril boyan bozul bulun aln altrl arpl atlatl ekil karl

artrt attr balattr batrt beklet beklettir beslet bitirt boyat bozdur buldur aldr altrt arptrt atlattr ektir kart deitiril

at balan bekle beslen

bozul

bozu bulu

arp ekin dei eki k

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE CAUSATIVE PASSIVE REFLEXIVE RECIPROCAL

do dol dn dur d

ge

del dene denetle dinle dour doldur dv dndr durdur dr ertele fark et frala ge getir gelitir ger gr gster gldr hatrla hazrla i iit sr ilet inkr et it kar kandr kap kapat kapla karlatr ka kayr kes kr kzdr kzart kokla konutur kotur kurut oku

deldir denet denetlet dinlet dourt doldurt dvdr dndrt durdurt drt ertelet fark ettir fralat geirt getirt gelitirt gerdirt gstert gldrt hatrlat hazrlat iir iittir srt ilettir inkr ettir ittir kart kandrt kaptr kapattr kaplat karlatrt kat kayrt kestir krdr kzdrt kzarttr koklat konuturt koturt kuruttur okuttur

delin denen denetlen dinlen dourul doldurul dvl dndrl durdurul drl ertelen fark edil fralan geil getiril gelitiril geril grl gsteril gldrl hatrlan hazrlan iil iitil srl iletil inkr edil itil karl kandrl kapl kapatl kaplan karlatrl kan kay()rl kesil krl kzdrl kzartl koklan konuul koul kurutul okun

dvn durul

dolu dv dn

gel
geli

gein gelin

gerin grn

gr gl

gl

hazrlan

sr ile

ka kan

kan

iti ka kap

kapan

karla

kan kesi kr kz kokla kou

kz kzar kok konu ko kuru oku

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE CAUSATIVE PASSIVE REFLEXIVE RECIPROCAL

otur oyna l t patla pi sark

sinirlen sou

sus

a i ta

uy uyu

yap yaa yat

yksel yr yz

onar oturt oyna ldr rt ttr v patlat piir sakla sarkt sars sat sev seyret sinirlendir sout sorgula soy syle sustur spr sr ssle art iir tara tar ta temizle tercih et unut uydur uyut tle z yap yaptr yaat yatr yka yor ykselt yzdr

onart oturttur oynat ldrt rttr ttrt vdr patlattr piirt saklat sarkttr sarstr sattr sevdir seyrettir sinirlendirt souttur sorgulat soydur sylet susturt sprt srdr sslet arttr iirt tarat tart tat temizlet tercih ettir unuttur uydurt uyuttur tlet zdr yaptr yaptrt yaattr yatrt ykat ykselttir yrt yzdrt

onarl oturul oynan ldrl rtl ttrl vl patlatl piiril saklan sarktl sarsl satl sevil seyredil sinirlendiril soutul sorgulan soyul sylen susturul sprl srl sslen artl iiril taran tarl tan temizlen tercih edil unutul uydurul uyutul tlen zl yapl yaptrl yaatl yatrl ykan yorul ykseltil yrtl yzdrl

oturu oyna ln rtn vn rt t

saklan sarsl sevin sevi

soyun sylen

syle susu

srn sslen ar iin taran tan temizlen

uyu uyun zl

yaan yat ykan yorul

yz

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
THE ORDER OF MORPHEMES Negative [ME] Time [R] [D] [YOR] [M] [ECEK] [R-D] [YOR-DU] [ECEK-TI] [M-T] [D/Y-D] Question [M] Personal [M] [SN] [] [Z], [K] [SNZ] [],[LER], Question [M]

personal allomorphs (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : [im, m, m, um] [sin, sn, sn, sun,] [] [iz, z, z, uz] ([ik, k, k, uk]) [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz] [] ([ler, lar])

time allomorphs simple present simple past present cont rumor simple future used to past cont was going to past perfect : : . : : : : : : [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] [iyor, yor, yor, uyor] [mi, m, m, mu] [ecek, acak] [ir-di, r-d, r-d, ur-du, er-di, ar-d] [iyor-du, yor-du, yor-du, uyor-du] [ecek-ti, acak-t] [mi-ti, m-t, m-t, mu-tu] *([di/y-di, d/y/-d, d/y/-d, du/y/-du, ti/y/-di, t/y/d, t/y/d, tu/y/-du])

Note: There are two question columns in the table above because the order of question allomorphs change in some tenses. For example: gel-ir mi-/y/im?; gel-di-im mi?; bekle-iyor mu/y/-du-un?; al-ma-yor mu/y/du-un? (The double underlined vowels drop.) *Although [mi-ti] and [di/y/-di] past perfect forms are identical in meaning, the [di/y/-di] form is not frequently heard.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
The Verb frames are units in themselves like the verb stems that must be used first in generating a verb composition. The other morphemes follow them in succession such as: gl gl-d, gl-yor, gl-ecek, gl-m-t, gl-meli-/y/mi, gl-se- /y/mi gldr gldr-d, gldr-yor, gldr-ecek, gldr-ms, gldr-meme-liy-mi, gldr-me-sey-mi, gldr-ebil-ir-mi-mi, gldr-ecek-mi gl gl-t-ler, gl-ecek-ler, gl-yor-lar, gl-me-sin-ler The infinitive allomorphs [mek, mak] can only be added to the verb stems and verb frames: gl-mek, gldr-mek, gl-mek, gln-mek, sev-mek, sevdir-mek, sevin-mek, sevi-mek, kes-mek, kestir-mek, kesil-mek, kesi-mek, tart-mak, tartl-mak, tart-mak, tarttr-mak, a-mak, al-mak, atr-mak benze-mek, benzet-mek, benzetil-mek, kok-mak, kokla-mak, koku-mak CAUSATIVE VERB FRAME EXAMPLES We use a causative verb frame when we do not carry out the action ourselves, but we are responsible for the action being done: Ahmete arabam ykamasn syledim; o da ykad. Ahmete arabam- ykat-t-m I made Ahmet wash my car. I had Ahmet wash my car. I got Ahmet to wash my car. I asked someone to wash my car. Arabam ykat-t-m. I had my car washed. (The doer of the verb Ahmet is not mentioned.) As it is seen in the above two sentences, the two Turkish verb compositions are identical, ykattm. However, in the first sentence, the doer of the verb wash is mentioned; in the second, it is not. In English, when the doer of the verb is mentioned make somebody do something, or the abovementioned alternatives, but when the doer of the action is not mentioned, a different sentence type have something done is used. THE PASSIVE CAUSATIVE Passive causative frames are frequently used in both English and Turkish: Onlar bana kapy a-tr-d-lar. (on*lar / ba*na / ka*p*y / a*tr*d*lar) They made me open the door. (causative) Kap bana a-tr-l-d. (ka*p / ba*na / a*t*rl*d) I was made to open the door. (passive causative)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Hrsz kasay bana atrd. (hr*sz / ka*sa*y / ba*na / a*tr*d) The thief made me open the safe. (causative) Kasa bana atrld. (ka*sa / ba*na / a*t*rl*d) I was made to open the safe. Double causative forms are rarely used in Turkish, therefore they are not put in the verb frames list above: Arabam ykat-trt-t-m. (a*ra*ba*m / y*kat*trt*tm) I asked someone to have my car washed. (double causative) SOME EXAMPLE SENTENCES OF THE VERB FRAMES It may be useful to give further explanations on word stresses before giving some more example sentences on verb frames. There are two kinds of stress in Turkish: Primary stress and secondary stress. Turkish words generally have secondarily stressed syllables at the end of each word. However, there may also be some other secondarily stressed syllables in the first syllables of some others. The rest of the syllables are unstressed. For instance, there are two kinds of identical bir words in Turkish. One of which means a, the other one means one. In speech, if bir is unstressed, it means a or an, if it is stressed, it means one: (bir / ki*tap) a book, (bir / ki*tap) one book. If a word is considered important by the speaker, he strengthens the last secondarily stressed syllable of a word to make it dominant in a sentence. This definition, however, differs in verb compositions because the verb stems are generally made up of monosyllables in Turkish and they are suffixed by several inflectional morphemes. The verb stems and the syllables are secondarily stressed. Only one of these syllables is primarily stressed, which does not depend on the speakers choice. Some of the morphemes in the verb compositions are formed of two syllables such as me*li, ma*l, e*cek, a*cak, bi*lir; and only the last syllables of these morphemes can be primarily stressed. Consider the primarily stressed syllables in the following verb compositions: ( o*nu / an*la*dm) I understood it. ( o*nu / an*la*ma*dm) I didnt understand it. ( se*ni / an*l*yo*rum) I understand you. ( se*ni / an*la*m*yo*rum) I dont understand you. ( se*ni / an*l*ya*m*yo*rum) I cant understand you. (si*ze / yar*dm / e*de*bi*li*rim) I can help you.

223

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(si*ze / yar*dm / e*de*mem) I cant help you. (ce*za:*lan*d*r*la*bi*lir*din) You might have been punished. (ge*le*ce*im) I will come. (gel*mi*ye*ce*im) I wont come. (an*la*a*bi*li*riz) We can reach an agreement. (an*la*a*ma*yz) We cant reach an agreement. (*r*yo*rum) I can see. (g*re*mi*yo*rum) I cant see. (gel*mi*ler) They have come. They say that they have come. (gel*me*mi*ler) They havent come. They say that they havent come. (ge*le*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you come? (ge*le mez / mi*sin) Cant you come? One can change the meaning of a sentence by changing a secondary stress at the end of a word (except the ones in a verb composition) into a primary stress: (an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) In the sentence above, each word has only one or several secondarily stressed syllables that are printed in italics. The secondarily stressed syllables are not only secondarily stressed, but the last syllables of each word also imply the hearer a suspended juncture as if another word will be following it. The word stems may have one or more syllables. If a word stem has only one syllable, it is naturally secondarily stressed. If it has more than one syllables, the last syllable of it is secondarily stressed. When the stems are suffixed with inflectional or derivational suffixes, these suffixes are also secondarily stressed: (ter*lik), (ter*lik*i), (ter*lik*i*lik); (ba*ba), (ba*ba*s) (ba*ba*s*nn), (ba*ba*sn*dan); (yz), (y*z), (y*z*ne), (y*zn*de), (y*zn*den) However, when any one of these words is primarily stressed, only their last syllables can be primarily stressed such as: (ter*lik), (ter*lik*i), (ter*lik*i*lik); (ba*ba), (ba*ba*s), (ba*ba*s*nn), (ba*ba*sn*dan); (yz), (y*z), (y*z*ne), (y*zn*de), (y*zn*den) Compare the following sentences: (an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) means My mother is swimming in the sea; not any other woman. (an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) means My mother is swimming in the sea, not in a lake or a river.

224

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) means My mother is swimming in the sea; not sunbathing or chatting with her friends on the beach. Another point to be considered in a language is its intonation, which is the music of a language that influences its meaning significantly. To describe a piece of music in words is nearly impossible. Therefore, listening to native speakers speaking it in their own native languages is of vital importance for students of languages. The longer one is exposed to a foreign language, the easier and more soundly he can learn it. In the following example sentences, some frequently used verb frames and their syllables are given in brackets. The most primarily stressable syllables are also printed in bold type, but this does not mean that the other important words cannot be stressed. Any one of the words that are thought to be dominant in a sentence can be stressed accordingly. The open junctures (pauses) between words are showed by / slashes.

a:
iekler sabahleyin a-ar. (i*ek*ler / sa*bah*le*yin / a*ar) The flowers open in the morning. (intransitive) Jack kapy a-t. (jack / ka*p*y / a*t) Jack opened the door. (transitive) Jacke kapy a-tr-d-m. (jack*e / ka*p*y / a*tr*dm) I made (had) Jack open the door. (causative). Kap-/y/ a-tr-d-m. (ka*p*y / a*tr*dm) I had the door opened. (causative) Kap bilinmeyen bir el tarafndan a-l-d. (ka*p / bi*lin*me*yen / bir / el / ta*ra*fn*dan / a*l*d) The door was opened by an unknown hand. (passive) Hava a-l-d (at). (ha*va /a*l*d) The clouds scattered and the sun began to shine. (reflexive) Kap, Jacke a-tr-l-d. (ka*p /Ja*ke / a*t*rl*d) Jack was made to open the door. (passive causative)

225

TURKISH GRAMMAR al:

Kitab ald-m. (ki*ta*b / al*dm) I have taken (received, bought) the book. (transitive). Kitab satn aldr-d-m. (ki*ta*b / sa*t *nal*dr*dm) Ive had the book bought. (causative) Kitab satn al-drt-t-m. (ki*ta*b / sa*t*nal*drt*tm) I asked someone to have the book bought. (double causative). Kitap satn al-n-d. (ki*tap / sa*t*na*ln*d) The book has been bought. (passive) Kitab satn al-dr-d-m. (ki*ta*b / sa*tn / al*dr*dm) I have had the book bought. (causative) Al-dr-ma! (al*dr*ma) Never mind! (an expression) Elmalar Ahmete al-dr-l-d. (el*ma*lar / ah*me*te / al*d*rl*d) Ahmet was made to buy the apples. (passive causative) Elmalar Ahmete al-dr-d. (el*ma*la*r / ah*me*te / al*dr*d) She made Ahmet buy the apples. (causative) Bu elmalar geen hafta al-n-d. (bu / el*ma*lar~ / ge*en / haf*ta / a*ln*d) These apples were bought last week. (passive) (O), szlerimden al-n-d. (sz*le*rim*den / a*ln*d ) She was offended by what I said. (reflexive)

anla:
Jack dersi anla-d. (jack / der*si / an*la*d) Jack understood the lesson. (transitive)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ders anla-l-d. (ders / an*la*l*d) The lesson has been understood. (passive) Onlar anla-t-lar. (on*lar / an*la*t*lar) They have reached an agreement. (reciprocal)

anlat:
Jack bize bir masal anlat-t. (jack / bi*ze / bir / ma*sa*lan*lat*t) Jack told us a story. (transitive) retmen masal Ahmete anlat-tr-d. (*ret*men / ma*sa*l~/ ah*me*te / an*lat*tr*d) The teacher made (had) Ahmet tell the story. (causative) Masal anlat-tr-d-m. (ma*sa*l / an*lat*tr*dm) I had the story told. (causative) Masal dn anlat-l-d. (ma*sal / dn / an*la*tl*d) The story was told yesterday. (passive) Masal Ahmete anlat-tr-l-d. (ma*sal~ / ah*me*te / an*lat*t*rl*d) Ahmet was made to tell the story. (passive causative) retmen bir konu anlat-yor (retiyor). (*ret*men / bir / ko*nu / an*la*t*yor) The teacher is teaching a subject. (transitive)

art:
Hz art-t. (hz / art*t) or (h*zart*t) The speed increased. (intransitive) Hz artr-d. (h*z / ar*tr*d) He increased the speed. (transitive) Hz artr-l-d. (hz / ar*t*rl*d) The speed has been increased. (passive)

227

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ona hzn artrt-t. (o*na / h*z*n /ar*trt*t) He made him increase his speed. (causative) Hz artrt-t. (h*z / ar*trt*t) He had the speed increased. (causative) Hz Jacke artrt-l-d. (hz / ja*ke / ar*tr*tl*d) Jack was made to increase the speed. (passive causative)

bala:
Oyun balad. (o*yun / ba*la*d) The game (has) started. (intransitive) Hakem oyunu balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu / ba*lat*t) The referee started the game. (transitive) Hakem oyunu Ahmete balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu~ / ah*me*te / ba*lat*t) The referee made Ahmet start the game. (causative) Oyun Ahmete balat-l-d. (o*yun / ah*me*te / ba*la*tl*d) Ahmet was made to start the game. (passive causative) Oyun balat-l-d. (o*yun / ba*la*tl*d) The game was started. (by someone) (passive) Oyuna bala-n-d. (o*yu*na / ba*lan*d) The game was started. (passive shaped intransitive verb)

bat:
kinci Dnya Savanda birok gemi bat-t. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / bat*t) A lot of ships sank during The Second World War. (intransitive) kinci Dnya Savanda ok gemi batr-d-lar. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*tr*d*lar) They sank a lot of ships during The Second World War. (transitive)

228

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Savata birok gemi batr-l-d. (sa*va*ta / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*t*rl*d) A lot of ships were sunk during the war. (passive) (O), parmana bir ine batr-d. (par*ma**na / bir / i*ne / ba*tr*d) She stuck a needle into her hand. (transitive) Parmama ine batt. (par*ma**ma / i*ne / bat*t) A needle stuck into my finger. (intransitive)

bul:
Yzk--/n/ bul-du. (y*z**n / bul*du) She has found her ring. (transitive) Yzn kocasna bul-dur-du. (y*z**n / ko*ca*s*na / bul*dur*du) She got her husband to find her ring. (causative) Yzk kocasna bul-dur-ul-du. (y*zk / ko*ca*s*na / bul*du*rul*du) Her husband was made to find the ring. (passive causative) Yzn bul-dur-du. (y*z**n / bul*dur*du) She had her ring found. (causative) Yz bul-un-du. (y*z* / bu*lun*du) Her ring has been found. (passive)

al:
Birisi o-/n/un anta-/s/-/n/ al-d. (bi*ri*si / o*nun / an*ta*s*n / al*d) Somebody stole her handbag. (transitive) antasn al-dr-d. (an*ta*s*n / al*dr*d) She has had her handbag stolen. (causative) Geen hafta onun antas al-n-d. (ge*en / haf*ta / o*nun / an*ta*s / a*ln*d) Her handbag was stolen last week. (passive)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Jack piyano al-abil-ir. (jack / pi*ya*no / a*la*bi*lir) Jack can play the piano. (transitive) Hakem ddn al-d. (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive)

arp:
Top pencereye arp-t. (top / pen*ce*re*ye / arp*t) The ball hit the window.. (Turkish intransitive; English transitive) Kalbim senin iin arp-yor. (kl*bim / se*nin / i*in / ar*p*yor) My heart is beating for you. (intransitive) Arabasn elektrik direine arp-t. (a*ra*ba*s*n / e*lek*trik / di*re*i*ne / arp*t) She hit her car to a lamppost. (intransitive) Kapy arp-t. (ka*p*y / arp*t) He slammed the door. (transitive) Kap arp-l-d. (ka*p / ar*pl*d) The door has been slammed. (Passive) ki kamyon arp--t. (i*ki / kam*yon / ar*p*t) Two lorries collided. (reciprocal)

al:
Almanyada al-yor. (al*man*ya*da / a*l**yor) He is working in Germany. (intransitive) Motoru al-tr-a-ma-d. (mo*to*ru / a*l*t*ra*ma*d) He couldnt start the engine. (transitive) Karsn al-tr-ma-yor. (ka*r*s*n / a*l*tr*m*yor) He doesnt let his wife work. (causative)

230

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Eskiden otomobil motorlar elle al-tr-l-r-d. (es*ki*den~ / o*to*mo*bil / mo*tor*la*r / el*le / a*l*t*r*lr*d) In the past car engines used to be manually started. (passive) Bu fabrikada kasksz al-l-maz. (bu / fab*ri*ka*da / kask*sz / a*l*l*maz) It is forbidden (dangerous) to work without helmets in this factory. (passive shaped intransitive verb)

atla:
Bardak atla-d. (bar*dak / at*la*d ) The glass has cracked. (intransitive) Kaynar su barda atla-t-t. (kay*nar / su / bar*da* / at*lat*t) The boiling water cracked the glass. (transitive) Barda sen atla-t-t-n. (bar*da* / sen / at*lat*tn) You made the glass crack. (causative) Bardak atla-t-l-d. (bar*dak / at*la*tl*d) The glass was cracked. (passive)

ek:
Bu baca iyi ek-er. (bu / ba*ca / i*yi / e*ker) This chimney draws well. (intransitive) Annesine ek-mi. (an*ne*si*ne / ek*mi) She seems to have taken after her mother. (intransitive) Arabay iki at ek-iyor-du. (a*ra*ba*y / i*ki / at / e*ki*yor*du) Two horses were pulling the cart. (transitive) Klcn ek-ti. (k*l*c*n / ek*ti) He drew his sword. (transitive)

231

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(O) ac ek-iyor. (a*c / e*ki*yor) He is suffering. (transitive) Eskiden insanlar kuyulardan su cek-er-di. (es*ki*den / in*san*lar ~ / ku*yu*lar*dan / su / e*ker*di) People used to draw water from wells in the past. (transitive) Teklif (ben-im) dikkat-im-i ek-ti. (tek*lif / dik*ka*ti*mi / ek*ti) The proposal attracted my attention. (transitive) Arabam ek-il-di. (a*ra*bam / e*kil*di) My car has been towed away. (passive) Arabam ek-tir-di-im. (a*ra*ba*m / ek*tir*dim) I had my car towed. (causative) Bir diimi ektir-di-im. (bir / di*i*mi / ek*tir*dim) I had a tooth pulled out. (causative) O ek-in-iyor. (o / e*ki*ni*yor) She is reluctant. (reflexive) (*She is pulling herself) Onlar ek-i-iyor-lar. (on*lar / e*ki*i*yor*lar) They are struggling with each other. (reciprocal) Can eki-i-iyor. (can / e*ki*i*yor) He is in the death agony. (reciprocal)

k:
Evden k-t. (ev*den / k*t) He (has) left home. (intransitive) Ceketini k-ar-d. (ce*ke*ti*ni / *kar*d) He took off his coat. (transitive) apkam kart-t. (ap*ka*m / *kart*t) He made me take off my hat. (causative)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Dar k-ar-l-d. (d*a*r / *ka*rl*d) He was taken out. (passive) Boyuna sorun kar-yor. (bo*yu*na / so*run / *ka*r*yor) He is always creating problems. (transitive)

z:
Bir problem z-yor. (bir / prob*lem / *z*yor) He is solving a problem. (transitive) Problemi babasna z-dr-d. (prob*le*mi / ba*ba*s*na / z*dr*d) She got her father to solve the problem. (causative) Tm sorunlarmz z-l-d. (tm / so*run*la*r*mz / *zl*d ) All our problems have been solved. (passive) Bu dm z-e-me-iyor-um. (bu / d**m / *ze*mi*yo*rum ) I can't untie this knot. (transitive)

daya:
Merdiveni duvar-a daya-d. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*ya*d ) He leaned the ladder against the wall. (transitive) Merdiveni duvara dayat-t. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*yat*t ) He had the ladder leaned against the wall. (causative) Merdiven duvara daya-n-d. (mer*di*ven / du*va*ra / da*yan*d ) The ladder has been leaned against the wall. (passive)

dayan:
Bu ayakkablar daha ok dayan-r. (bu / a*yak*ka*b*lar ~ / da*ha / ok / da*ya*nr ) These shoes last longer. (intransitive) Bu scaa dayan-a-ma-yor-um. (bu / s*ca*a~ / da*ya*na*m*yo*rum ) I can't endure (tolerate) this warm weather. (intransitive)

233

TURKISH GRAMMAR dal:

Denize dal-d. (de*ni*ze / dal*d ) He dived into the sea. (intransitive) Elini suya dal-dr-d. (e*li*ni / su*ya / dal*dr*d ) He plunged his hand into the water. (transitive) Onu denize daldrt-t. (o*nu / de*ni*ze / dal*drt*t ) He got him to dive into the sea. (causative)

dei:
Seni son grdmden beri ok dei-ti-in (deimisin). (se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ok / de*i*tin ) You have changed a lot since I last saw you. (intransitive) Eve gelince giysilerini dei-tir-di. (e*ve / ge*lin*ce~ / giy*si*le*ri*ni / de*i*tir*di ) He changed his clothes when he came home. (transitive) Eski lastiklerimi dei-tirt-iyor-um. (es*ki / las*tik*le*ri*mi / de*i*tir*ti*yo*rum ) I am having my old tires changed. (causative) Kirli masa rts dei-tir-il-di. (kir*li / ma*sa / r*t*s / de*i*ti*ril*di ) The dirty tablecloth has been changed. (passive) Futbol kurallar degi-tir-il-e-cek. (fut*bol / ku*ral*la*r / de*i*ti*ri*le*cek) The football rules are going to be changed. (passive)

dinle:
Sylediimi din-le. (sy*le*di*i*mi / din*le ) Listen to what I say. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive) Bana, arksn dinlet-ti. (ba*na / ar*k*s*n / din*let*ti ) She got me to listen to her song. (causative)

do:

234

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ben Adanada do-du-um. (ben / a*da*na*da / do*dum ) I was born in Adana. (Turkish intransitive, English passive) Gne altda do-du. (g*ne / al*t*da / do*du) The sun rose at six. (intransitive) Geen ay bir olan do-ur-du. (ge*en / ay / bir / o*lan / do*ur*du ) She gave birth to a son last month. (transitive) Ay da doudan do-ar. (ay / da / do*u*dan / do*ar ) The moon also rises in the east. (intransitive)

dol:
Okul hemen ocuklarla dol-du. (o*kul / he*men / o*cuk*lar*la / dol*du ) The school soon filled with children. (intransitive) Sepetini elmayla dol-dur-du. (se*pe*ti*ni / el*may*la / dol*dur*du ) She filled her basket with apples. (transitive) Sepetini bana elmayla dol-durt-tu. (se*pe*ti*ni / ba*na / el*may*la / dol*durt*tu ) She made me fill her basket with apples. (causative) (onun) sepeti elma/y/-la doldur-ul-du. (o*nun / se*pe*ti / el*may*la / dol*du*rul*du ) Her basked was filled with apples. (passive) Sepet bana dol-durt-ul-du. (se*pet / ba*na / dol*dur*tul*du ) I was made to fill the basket. (passive causative)

dn:
Tekerlekler yava yava dn-yor. (te*ker*lek*ler / ya*va / ya*va / d*n*yor ) The wheels are turning slowly. (intransitive) Geri dn. (ge*ri / dn) Turn back. (intransitive)

235

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Saa dn. (sa*a / dn ) (normal): (sa*a: ~ / dn) (military order) Turn right. (intransitive) Sonbaharda yapraklar sarya dn-er (sararr). (son*ba*har*da / yap*rak*lar / sa*r*ya / d*ner ) (sa*ra*rr ) Leaves turn yellow in autumn. (intransitive) Yz kzar-d. (y*z / k*zar*d ) Her face turned red. She was ashamed. (intransitive) Kasay amak iin anahtar evirdi (dndrd). (ka*sa*y / a*mak / i*in / a*nah*ta*r / e*vir*di ) He turned the key to open the safe. (transitive)

d:
Kalemim yere d-t. (ka*le*mim / ye*re / d*t ) My pen fell on the floor. (intransitive) Kalemimi d-r-d-m. (ka*le*mi*mi / d*r*dm ) I dropped my pencil. (transitive) Beni d-r-d. (be*ni / d*r*d ) He made me fall down. (causative) Ar bavulunu d-r-d. (a*r / ba*vu*lu*nu / d*r*d ) He let his heavy bag fall. (transitive) D-r-l-d-m. (d**rl*dm ) I was made to fall down. (passive causative)

ge:
Arabalar nmden ge-iyor. (a*ra*ba*lar / *nm*den / ge*i*yor ) Cars are passing in front of me. (intransitive) Snav ge-eme-di-im. (s*na*v / ge*e*me*dim ) I couldnt pass the exam. (transitive)

236

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Onlar iyi ge-in-iyor-lar. (on*lar / i*yi / ge*i*ni*yor*lar ) They are getting on well with each other. (reflexive) nmdeki arabay ge-ti-im. (*nm*de*ki / a*ra*ba*y / ge*tim ) I overtook the car in front of me. (transitive)

gr:
Yanll gr-me-di-im. (yan*l*l* / gr*me*dim) I didnt (notice) see the mistake. (transitive) Yorgun gr-n-yor-/s/un. (yor*gun / g*r*n*yor*sun) You look tired. (reflexive) Bu teklif ilgin gr-n-yor. ( bu / tek*lif / il*gin / g*r*n*yor) This proposal sounds interesting. (reflexive) mknsz gr-n-yor. (im*kn*sz / g*r*n*yor) It seems impossible. (reflexive)

gl:
Bebek gl-yor. (be*bek / g*l*yor ) The baby is laughing. (intransitive) O beni her zaman gl-dr-r. (o / be*ni / her*za*man / gl*d*rr ) She always makes me laugh. (causative) Gl-d-rl-d-m. (gl*d*rl*dm ) I was made to laugh. (passive causative) Bu sorunlara gl-n-mez. (bu / so*run*la*ra / g*ln*mez ) These are not such problems to laugh at. (passive shaped intransitive) Kzlar bahede gl--yor-lar-d. (kz*lar / bah*e*de / g*l**yor*lar*d ) The girls were giggling in the garden. (reciprocal)

237

TURKISH GRAMMAR hatrla:

Onun ismini hatrla-yor-um. (o*nun / is*mi*ni / ha*tr*l*yo*rum ) I remember her name. (transitive) Karm klar kapatmam hatrlat-t. (ka*rm / *k*la*r / ka*pat*ma*m / ha*tr*lat*t ) My wife reminded me to turn the lights off. (transitive) Bu eski fotograf bana bykannemi hatrlat-yor. (bu / es*ki / fo*tog*raf / ba*na / b*y*kan*ne*mi / ha*tr*la*t*yor ) This old photograph reminds me of my grandmother. (transitive) Bu zafer uzun sre hatrla-n-acak. (bu / za*fer / u*zun / s*re / ha*tr*la*na*cak ) This victory will be remembered for a long time. (passive)

hazrla:
Annem le yemeini hazrla-d. (an*nem / *le / ye*me*i*ni / ha*zr*la*d ) Mother has prepared the lunch. (transitive) Annem yemei bana hazrla-t-t. (an*nem / ye*me*i / ba*na / ha*zr*lat*t ) Mother made me prepare the lunch. (causative) Yemek hazr-lan-d. (ye*mek / ha*zr*lan*d ) The lunch has been prepared. (passive) Hazrla-n-yor-um. (ha*zr*la*n*yo*rum ) I am getting ready. (reflexive) (*I am preparing myself.)

i:
Annem her sabah bir bardak ay i-er. (an*nem / her / sa*bah / bir / bar*dak / ay / i*er ) Mother drinks a cup of tea every morning. (transitive) Annem bana her sabah iki bardak st iir-ir. (an*nem / ba*na / her / sa*bah / i*ki / bar*dak / st / i*i*rir ) Mother makes me drink two cups of milk every morning. (causative)

238

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bu su iil-ir. (bu / su / i*i*lir ) This water is drinkable. Literally *(This water is drunk.) (passive)

iit:
yi iit-e-bil-iyor musun? (i*yi / i*i*te*bi*li*yor / mu*sun ) Can you hear well? (intransitive) Onun Londrada olduk-u-/n/u iit-ti-im. (o*nun / Lon*dra*da / ol*du*u*nu / i*it*tim ) I heard that he was in London. (transitive) Onun yalan syledii hi iit-il-me-di. (o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*di*i / hi / i*i*til*me*di ) He has never been heard to tell a lie. (passive)

sr:
Havlayan kpek sr-maz. (hav*la*yan / k*pek / *sr*maz ) A barking dog never bites. (intransitive) (a proverb) Senin kpein dn bacam sr-d. (se*nin / k*pe*in / dn / ba*ca**m / *sr*d) Your dog bit my leg yesterday. (transitive) Kuduz bir kpek tarafndan sr-l-d. (ku*duz / bir / k*pek / ta*ra*fn*dan / *s*rl*d) She was bitten by a mad dog. (passive) Beni kpeine srt-t. (be*ni / k*pe*i*ne / *srt*t ) She made (let) her dog bite me. (causative)

ka:
ki hkml hapisten ka-t. (i*ki / h*km*l / ha*pis*ten / ka*t ) Two prisoners have escaped from prison. (intransitive) ki kii be yanda bir ocuu kar-d. (i*ki / ki*i / be / ya*n*da / bir / o*cu*u / ka*r*d ) Two men kidnapped a five year old child. (transitive.)

239

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Herkes gen kadn-n kar-l-dk--/n/ dnyor. (her*kes~ / gen / ka*d*nn / ka**rl*d**n / d**n*yor ) Everybody thinks that the young woman has been abducted. (passive) ocuklar baheden kartt. (o*cuk*la*r / bah*e*den / ka*rt*t ) He frightened the children away from the garden. (causative) Grevini yapmaktan ka-n-ma-mal-sn. (g*re*vi*ni / yap*mak*tan / ka*n*ma*ma*l*sn ) You shouldnt avoid doing your duty. (reflexive) Herkes deiik ynlere ka--t. (her*kes / de*i*ik / yn*le*re / ka**t ) Everybody ran to different directions. (reciprocal) Akln kar-d. (ak*l*n / ka*r*d ) He went mad. (idiomatic) (transitive)

it:
Beni kenara itti. (be*ni / ke*na*ra / it*ti ) He pushed me aside. (transitive) Kenara it-il-di-im. (ke*na*ra / i*til*dim ) I was pushed aside. (passive) Arabasn bana it-tir-di. (a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / it*tir*di ) She made me push her car. (causative) t-i-iyor-lar. (i*ti*i*yor*lar ) They are pushing each other. (reciprocal) Beni kim it-ti? (be*ni / ki mit*ti ) Who pushed me? (transitive)

kandr:
Adam beni kandr-d. (a*dam / be*ni / kan*dr*d ) The man cheated me. (transitive)

240

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kandr-l-dm. (kan*d*rl*dm ) I was cheated. (passive) Beni kandrmaya alma! (be*ni / kan*dr*ma*ya /a*l*ma ) Don't try to deceive me! (transitive)

kap:
Kk bir ocuk antam kap-t. (k*k / bir / o*cuk / an*ta*m / kap*t ) A little boy snatched my handbag. (transitive) antam kaptr-d-m. (an*ta*m / kap*tr*dm ) I had my handbag snatched. (causative) antam kap-l-d. (an*tam / ka*pl*d ) (an*tam / kap*l*d) My handbag has been snatched. (passive)

kapat:
Kapy kapat-t-m. (ka*p*y / ka*pat*tm ) I have closed the door. (transitive) Kapy bana kapat-tr-d. (ka*p*y / ba*na / ka*pat*tr*d ) She made me close the door. (causative) Bahe kaps hizmeti tarafndan kapat-l-d. (bah*e / ka*p*s / hiz*met*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ka*pa*tl*d ) The garden gate was closed by the servant. (passive) Dkknlar saat yedide kapa-n-r. (dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*nr ) Shops close at seven p.m. (reflexive) (They close themselves.) Gen kadn kapa-n-d. (gen / ka*dn / ka*pan*d ) The young woman veiled herself. (reflexive)

241

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Hava kapa-n-d. (ha*va / ka*pan*d ) It has got cloudy. (reflexive)

karla:
Arabasn benim-ki/y/-le karlatr-d. (a*ra*ba*s*n ~ / be*nim*kiy*le / kar**la*tr*d ) He compared his car with mine. (transitive) retmen bana ngilizceyle Franszcay karla-trt-t. (*ret*men / ba*na / in*gi*liz*cey*le~ / fran*sz*ca*y / kar**la*trt*t ) The techer made me compare English to French. (causative) Mutluluk-la znt karlatr-l-amaz. (mut*lu*luk*la / *zn*t / kar**la*t*r*la*maz ) Happiness and sorrow cant be compared. (passive) Onlar sokakta kar-la-t. (on*lar / so*kak*ta / kar**la*t ) They came across in the street. (reciprocal)

ka:
Ban ka-d. ( ba**n / ka**d ) He scratched his head. (transitive) Srtn karsna kat-t. (sr*t*n / ka*r*s*na / ka*t*t ) He got his wife to scratch his back. (causative) Srtm ka-n-yor. (sr*tm / ka**n*yor ) My back is itching. (intransitive) Kpek ka-n-yor. (k*pek / ka**n*yor ) The dog is scratching. (reflexive) (It is scratching itself.)

kr:
Vazoyu sen kr-d-n, deil mi? (va*zo*yu / sen / kr*dn / de*il / mi) You broke the vase, didnt you? (transitive) Vazo dn kr-l-d. (va*zo / dn / k*rl*d) The vase was broken yesterday. (passive)

242

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sen beni kr-d-n. (sen / be*ni / kr*dn ) You hurt my feelings. You refused me. (transitive) Kalbimi kr-d-n. (kl*bi*mi / kr*dn ) You broke my heart. (transitive) Kr-l-d-m. (k*rl*dm ) I was hurt. (passive) Tahta kutuyu bana kr-dr-d. (tah*ta / ku*tu*yu / ba*na / kr*dr*d ) She made me break the wooden box. (causative)

kz:
O bana kz-d. (o / ba*na / kz*d ) He got angry with me. (intransitive) O beni kzdr-d. (o / be*ni / kz*dr*d ) He made me angry. (transitive.) O kzdr-l-d. (kz*d*rl*d ) He was made angry. He was irritated. (passive) Buna kzl-maz. (bu*na / k*zl*maz ) This is not a matter to be angry at. (passive shaped intransitive)

kzar:
Balklar kzar-yor. (ba*lk*lar / k*za*r*yor) The fish are frying. (intransitive) Balk kzart-yor. (ba*lk / k*zar*t*yor ) She is frying fish. (transitive) Btn balklar bana kzartt. (b*tn / ba*lk*la*r / ba*na / k*zart*t) She made me fry all the fish. (causative)

243

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tm balklar kzart-l-d. (tm / ba*lk*lar / k*zar*tl*d ) All the fish have been fried. (passive) Yz kzar-d. (y*z / k*zar*d ) Her face reddened. She blushed with shame.(intransitive)

kok:
Bu balk bayat kok-uyor. (bu / ba*lk / ba*yat / ko*ku*yor) This fish smells stale. (intransitive) Bu ekmek dilimi sarmsak kokuyor. (bu / ek*mek / di*li*mi / sa*rm*sak / ko*ku*yor) This slice of bread smells of garlic. (intransitive) Her sabah gllerini kokla-r. (her / sa*bah / gl*le*ri*ni / kok*lar) She smells her roses every morning. (transitive) Bana yeni parfmn koklat-t. (ba*na / ye*ni / par*f*m*n / kok*lat*t) She made me smell her new perfume. (causative) Kokla-yor-lar. (kok*la**yor*lar) They are smelling each other. (reciprocal) Bu balk kok-u-mu. (bu / ba*lk / ko*ku*mu) This fish smells rotten. (reciprocal) (astonishment)

konu:
Onunla yarn konu-acak-m. (o*nun*la / ya*rn / ko*nu*a*ca*m) Ill talk (speak) to him tomorrow. (intransitive) Polis onu konu-tur-abil-ir. (po*lis / o*nu / ko*nu*tu*ra*bi*lir) The police can make him talk. (causative) O, iki dil konu-ur. (o / i*ki / dil / ko*nu*ur ) She speaks two languages. (transitive)

244

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Trkiyede Trke konu-ul ur. (tr*ki*ye*de / trk*e / ko*nu*u*lur ) Turkish is spoken in Turkey. (passive)

kop:
p kop-tu. (ip / kop*tu) The rope broke. (intransitive) Aacn bir daln kop-ar-d. (a*a*cn / bir / da*l*n / ko*par*d ) He broke a branch off the tree. (transitive) Aacn dallarndan birini bana kopart-t. (a*a*cn / dal*la*rn*dan / bi*ri*ni ~/ ba*na / ko*part*t) He made me break off one of the branches of the tree. (causative)

ko:
Baz ocuklar okula ko-uyor. (ba:*z / o*cuk*lar / o*ku*la / ko*u*yor) Some children are running to school. (intransitive) Atn drtnal ko-tur-du. (a*t*n / drt*nal / ko*tur*du) He made his horse run at a gallop. (causative) At drtnal ko-tur-ul-du. (a*t / drt*nal / ko*tu*rul*du) His horse was made to run at a gallop. (passive causative) ocuklar bahede ko-u-uyor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*u*u*yor*lar ) The children are running about in the garden. (reciprocal) Bu tarlada ko-ul-maz. (bu / tar*la*da / ko*ul*maz ) It is impossible to run in this field. (passive shaped intransitive)

kuru:
ieklerimden bazlar kuru-du. (i*ek*le*rim*den / ba:*z*la*r / ku*ru*du) Some of my flowers dried. (intransitive) Yazn baz nehirler kuru-ur. (ya*zn / ba:*z / ne*hir*ler / ku*rur) Some rivers dry up in summer. (intransitive)

245

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kzgn gne ieklerimi kurut-tu. (kz*gn / g*ne / i*ek*le*ri*mi / ku*rut*tu ) The hot sun dried my flowers. (transitive) San bana kurut-tu. (sa**n / ba*na / ku*rut*tu ) She got me to dry her hair. (causative) Islak ceketin kurut-ul-du. (s*lak / ce*ke*tin / ku*ru*tul*du) Your wet coat has been dried. (passive)

oku:
Osmann babas gazetesini oku-uyor. (os*ma*nn / ba*ba*s / ga*ze*te*si*ni / o*ku*yor) Osmans father is reading his newspaper. (transitive) Mektubu bana okut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / ba*na / o*kut*tu) He made me read the letter. (causative) Btn hikye bana okut-ul-du. (b*tn / hi*k:*ye / ba*na / o*ku*tul*du) I was made to read all the story. (passive causative) u ana kadar on sayfa oku-un-du. (u / a:*na / ka*dar / on / say*fa / o*kun*du) Ten pages have been read until now. (passive)

onar:
Musluku szan bir boruyu onar-yor. (mus*luk*u / s*zan / bir / bo*ru*yu / o*na*r*yor ) The plumber is repairing (fixing) a leaking pipe. (transitive) Bu szan boruyu onart-mal-sn. (bu / s*zan / bo*ru*yu / o*nart*ma*l*sn) You must have this leaking pipe repaired. (causative) Arabam henz onar-l-ma-d. (a*ra*bam / he*nz / o*na*rl*ma*d) My car hasnt been repaired yet. (passive) Annem krk vazoyu bana onart-t. (an*nem / k*rk / va*zo*yu / ba*na / o*nart*t) Mother made me fix the broken vase. (causative)

246

TURKISH GRAMMAR otur:

Onlar bir bankta otur-uyor-lar. (on*lar / bir / bank*ta / o*tu*ru*yor*lar ) They are sitting on a bench. (intransitive) Kk ocuu masaya oturt-tu. (k*k / o*cu*u / ma*sa*ya / o*turt*tu) He made (helped) the little boy sit on the table. (causative) O, keye oturt-ul-du. (o~/ k*e*ye / o*tur*tul*du) He was made to sit in the corner. (passive causative). Hl otur-u-uyor-/s/unuz. (h:*l: / o*tu*ru*u*yor*su*nuz) You are still sitting and doing nothing. (reciprocal) O, Kadkyde otur-uyor. (o ~/ ka*d*ky*de / o*tu*ru*yor) He lives in Kadky. (intransitive) Bu evde otur-ul-maz. (bu /ev*de / o*tu*rul*maz) It is impossible to live in this house. (passive shaped intransitive)

oyna:
ocuklar bahede basketbol oyna-uyor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / bas*ket*bol / oy*nu*yor*lar) The children are playing basketball in the garden. (transitive) Ko onu mata oynat-ma-d. (ko / o*nu / ma*ta / oy*nat*ma*d) The coach didnt let him play in the match. (causative) O mata oynat-l-ma-d. (o~ / ma*ta / oy*na*tl*ma*d) He wasnt allowed to play in the match. (passive causative) Onlar oyna--yor-lar. (on*lar / oy*na**yor*lar) They are carrying on a love affair. (reciprocal)

247

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sahnede oyna-uyor. (sah*ne*de / oy*nu*yor) She is belly dancing on the stage. (intransitive) renciler bir piyes oynamaya karar verdiler. (*ren*ci*ler / bir / pi*yes / oy*na*ma*ya / ka*rar / ver*di*ler) The students decided to perform a play. (transitive) Bu sahada futbol oyna-n-maz. (bu / sa:*ha*da / fut*bol / oy*nan*maz) Football cant be played on this field. (passive)

l:
O, 1920de l-d. (o~/ bin / do*kuz / yz / yir*mi*de / l*d) He died in 1920. (intransitive) Onu yanllkla l-dr-d. (o*nu / yan*l*lk*la / l*dr*d) He killed him by mistake. (transitive) Onu ona ldrt-t. (o*nu~ / o*na / l*drt*t) She made him kill her. (causative) O, ona ldrt-l-d. (o~/ o*na / l*dr*tl*d) He was made to kill her. (passive causative) Vatan iin l-n-r. (va*tan / i*in / *l*nr) One can sacrifice himself for his country. (reflexive)

rt:
Koltuklar tozdan korumak iin rt-t. (kol*tuk*la*r / toz*dan / ko*ru*mak / i*in / rt*t) She covered the armchairs to protect them from dust. (transitive) Mobilyay bana rt-tr-d. (mo*bil*ya*y / ba*na / rt*tr*d) She made me cover the furniture. (causative) Duvarlar boyanmadan nce btn mobilya rtl-m-t. (du*var*lar / bo*yan*ma*dan / n*ce~/ b*tn / mo*bil*ya / r*tl*m*t) All the furniture had been covered before the walls were painted. (passive)

248

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Beni grnce rtn-d. (be*ni / g*rn*ce / r*tn*d) She put on her scarf when she saw me. She covered her head with a scarf when she saw me. (reflexive)

t:
Kular ter. (ku*la*r*ter) (ku*lar / *ter) (intransitive) Birds sing. Hakem ddn t-tr-d (al*d). (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive) O gzel ark syle-ir. ( o / g*zel / ar*k / sy*ler) She sings beautifully. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive). Ddk-m- t-trt-t. (d*d**m / t*trt*t) He made (let) me blow my whistle. (causative) Ddk cal-n-d. (d*dk / a*ln*d) The whistle has been blown. (passive) Kular t--yor. (ku*lar / *t**yor) The birds are singing. (reciprocal) Horozlar t-yor. (ho*roz*lar / *t*yor) The roosters are crowing. (intransitive)

v:
O beni v-d. (o / be*ni / v*d) He praised me. (transitive) O kz kardeini bana vdrt-t. (o~/ kz*kar*de*i*ni / ba*na / v*drt*t) He made me praise his sister. (causative) O kardei tarafndan ok v-l-r. (o~ / kz*kar*de*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ok / *v*lr) He is praised a lot by his sister. (passive)

249

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Boyuna v-n-yor. (o / bo*yu*na / *v*n*yor) He is always boasting. (reflexive) (He is praising himself.)

patla:
Bir su borusu patla-d ve ev su/y/-la dol-du. (bir / su / bo*ru*su / pat*la*d~/ ve / ev / suy*la / dol*du) A water pipe burst and the house filled with water. (intransitive) Bir bomba patla-d. (bir / bom*ba / pat*la*d) A bomb exploded. (intransitive) Bir bomba patlat-t-lar. (bir / bom*ba / pat*lat*t*lar) They exploded a bomb. (transitive) Bombay, ona patlat-tr-d-lar. (bom*ba*y / o*na / pat*lat*tr*d*lar) They made him explode the bomb. (causative) Bomba ona patlat-tr-l-d. (bom*ba / o*na / pat*lat*t*rl*d) He was made to explode the bomb. (passive causative) Bomba onun tarafndan patlat-l-d. (bom*ba / o*nun / ta*ra*fn*dan / pat*la*tl*d) The bomb was exploded by him. (passive)

pi:
Yemek pi-iyor. (ye*mek / pi*i*yor) The meal is cooking. (intransitive) Annem mutfakta yemek pi-ir-iyor. (an*nem / mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*ri*yor) Mother is cooking in the kitchen. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive.) Annem mutfakta bana yemek piirt-ti. (an*nem~ / mut*fak*ta / ba*na / ye*mek / pi*irt*ti) Mother made me cook in the kitchen. (causative) Yemek pi-ir-il-iyor. (ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor) (ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor) The meal is being cooked. (passive)

250

TURKISH GRAMMAR sakla:

ocuk, oyuncaklarn dolabn arkasna sakla-d. (o*cuk / o*yun*cak*la*r*n / do*la*bn / ar*ka*s*na / sak*la*d) The boy hid his toys behind the cupboard. (transitive) Jack, yrtk gmleini bana saklat-t. (jack~ / yr*tk / gm*le*i*ni / ba*na / sak*lat*t) Jack made me hide his torn shirt. (causative) Calnm mallar bir maaraya sakla-n-d. (a*ln*m / mal*lar / bir / ma*a*ra*ya / sak*lan*d) The stolen goods were hidden in a cave. (passive) Kedi koltuun arkasna sakla-n-d. (ke*di / kol*tu*un / ar*ka*s*na / sak*lan*d) The cat hid behind the armchair. (reflexive) (It hid itself.)

sark:
Duvardan sark-t. (du*var*dan / sark*t) He hung down the wall. (intransitive) Sepeti pencereden sarkt- t. (se*pe*ti / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*t) He let the basket hang down the window. (Turkish transitive, English causative) Sepeti bana pencereden sarkt-tr-d. (se*pe*ti / ba*na / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*tr*d) He made me hang down the basket from the window. (causative) Sepet pencereden sarkt-l-d. (se*pet / pen*ce*re*den / sar*k*tl*d) The basket was allowed to hang down the window. (passive)

sars:
Patlama yeri sars-t. (pat*la*ma / ye*ri / sars*t) The explosion shook the ground. (transitive) Yer sars-l-d. (yer / sar*sl*d) The ground was shaken. (Turkish passive or reflexive)

sat:

251

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Eski arabasn sat-t. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / sat*t) He has sold his old car. (transitive) Eski arabasn bana sattr-d. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / sat*tr*d) He made me sell his old car. (causative) (Benim) eski arabam sat-l-d. (es*ki / a*ra*bam / sa*tl*d) My old car has been sold. (passive)

sev:
Sen beni sev-me-iyor-sun. (sen / be*ni / sev*mi*yor*sun) You dont love me. (transitive) O bana kendisini sev-dir-di. (o / ba*na / ken*di*si*ni / sev*dir*di) She made me love her. (causative) O herkes tarafndan sev-il-ir. (o / her*kes / ta*ra*fn*dan / se*vi*lir) She is loved by everybody. (passive) Hepimiz sev-in-di-ik. Hepimiz mutlu olduk. (he*pi*miz / se*vin*dik) We all became happy. (reflexive). Onlar sev-i-iyor-lar. (on*lar / se*vi*i*yor*lar) They are in love with each other. (They are carrying on a love affair.) (reciprocal)

seyret:
Boyuna televizyon seyrediyor. (bo*yu*na / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor) She is always watching television . (transitive) (complaint) Annem bana televizyon seyret-tir-me-iyor. (an*nem / ba*na~ / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*tir*mi*yor) Mother doesnt let me watch TV. (causative) (complaint) Byle televizyon programlar seyret-il-me-meli. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*re*dil*me*me*li) Such TV programs shouldnt be watched. (passive) (advice)

252

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Byle televizyon programlar ocuklara seyret-tir-il-me-meli. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / o*cuk*la*ra / sey*ret*ti*ril*me*me*li) Children shouldnt be allowed to watch such TV programs. (passive) Baz televizyon programlar seyretmeye demez. (ba*z / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*ret*me*ye / de*mez) Some TV programs are not worth watching.

sinirlen:
Onun sylediklerini iitince sinirlen-di-im. (o*nun / sy*le*dik*le*ri*ni / i*i*tin*ce / si*nir*len*dim) I got mad when I heard what he said. (intransitive) Kz kardeim beni sinirlen-dir-di. (kz*kar*de*im / be*ni / si*nir*len*dir*di) My sister made me mad. (transitive) Sinirlen-dir-il-di-im. (si*nir*len*di*ril*dim) I was irritated. (passive)

sou:
Hava sou-du. (ha*va / so*u*du) It became (turned) cold. (intransitive) meden nce limonatan sout. (i*me*den / n*ce / li*mo*na*ta*n / so*ut) Cool your lemonade before you drink it. (transitive) Sou-du-um. (so*u*dum) I have lost my interest or desire. (intransitive)

soy:
Patates soy-uyor. (pa*ta*tes / so*yu*yor) She is peeling potatoes. (transitive) Elmalar soy-ul-uyor. (el*ma*lar / so*yu*lu*yor) The apples are being peeled. ( passive)

253

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Patatesleri hep bana soy-dur-uyor. (pa*ta*tes*le*ri / hep / ba*na / soy*du*ru*yor) She is always making me peel the potatoes. (causative) (complaint) Banyo yaptrmak iin bebeini soy-du. (ban*yo / yap*tr*mak / i*in / be*be*i*ni / soy*du) She undressed her baby to bath him. (transitive) Dn gece bir banka soy-du-lar. (dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / soy*du*lar) They robbed a bank last night. (transitive) Dn gece bir banka soy-ul-du. (dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / so*yul*du) A bank was robbed last night. (passive) Soy-un-uyor. (so*yu*nu*yor) She is undressing. (reflexive)

syle:
(O) bana bir ey syle-me-di. (ba*na / bir / ey / sy*le*me*di) (ba*na / bi*ey / sy*le*me*di) He didnt tell me anything. (transitive) Ne istediini bana syle. (ne / is*te*di*i*ni / ba*na / sy*le) Tell me what you want. (transitive) Ona hereyi sylet-ti-ler. (o*na / her*e*yi / sy*let*ti*ler) They made him tell everything. (causative) Byle eyler syle-in-mez. (by*le / ey*ler /sy*len*mez) Such things are never mentioned. (passive) O boyuna syle-in-iyor (homurdan-yor). (o / bo*yu*na / sy*le*ni*yor) He is always grumbling. (reflexive) (*He is talking to himself.) Ona, onu bil-dik-i-/n/i syle-di. (o*na / o*nu / bil*di*i*ni / sy*le*di) He told him that he knew it. (transitive) (The /k/ changes into //, and the /n/ glide is inserted between the successive /i/ vowels.)

254

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Polis ona hereyi sylet-ti. (po*lis / o*na / her*e*yi / sy*let*ti) The police made him tell everything. (causative) Ona herey sylet-il-di. (o*na / her*ey / sy*le*til*di) He was made to tell everything. (passive causative) Bana herey syle-in-di. (ba*na / her*ey / sy*len*di) I was told everything. (passive)

sus:
Sus-tu. (sus*tu) He stopped talking or crying. (intransitive) retmen rencileri sus-tur-du. (*ret*men / *ren*ci*le*ri / sus*tur*du) The teacher made the students stop talking. (causative) O sus-tur-ul-du. (o / sus*tu*rul*du) He was made to stop talking or writing. (passive causative) Bu kpek havlamadan duramaz. (bu / k*pek / hav*la*ma*dan / du*ra*maz) This dog never stops barking. Sus-ma-ya-cak-m. Susmycam. (sus*m*ya*ca*m) (sus*my*cam) I wont stop talkng. (refusal)

spr:
Kuru yapraklar baheden spr-d-m. (ku*ru / yap*rak*la*r / bah*e*den / s*pr*dm) I have swept the dry leaves out of the garden. (transitive) Annem baheyi bana sprt-t. (an*nem / bah*e*yi / ba*na / s*prt*t) Mother made me sweep the garden. (causative) Oturma odas henz spr-l-me-di. (o*tur*ma / o*da*s / he*nz / s*p*rl*me*di) The living room hasnt been swept yet. (passive)

255

TURKISH GRAMMAR sr:

O arabasn dikkatli sr-er. (o~ / a*ra*ba*s*n / dik*kat*li / s*rer) She drives her car carefully. (transitive) Ben tarlam sonbaharda sr-dr-r-m. (ben / tar*la*m ~/ son*ba*har*da / sr*d*r*rm) I have my field ploughed in autumn. (causative) Tarlalar kn sr-l-mez. (tar*la*lar / k*n / s*rl*mez) Fields arent ploughed in winter. (passive)

ssle:
ocuklar Christmas iin oturma odasn ssle-di. (o*cuk*lar / kris*mas / i*in / o*tur*ma / o*da*s*n / ss*le*di) The children decorated the sitting room for Christmas. (transitive) Oda ssle-in-iyor (dekore ediliyor). (o*da / ss*le*ni*yor) The room is being decorated. (passive) Yeni evimizi dekore ettireceiz. (ye*ni / e*vi*mi*zi / de*ko*re / et*ti*re*ce*iz) We are going to have our new house decorated. (causative) Ssle-in-iyor. (ss*le*ni*yor) She is putting on her best dress and doing her make-up. (reflexive)

a:
Onun syledii sze a-t-m. (o*nun / sy*le*di*i / s*ze / a*tm) I was astonished by what he said. (Turkish is intransitive; English is passive.)

art:
Syledii sz beni art-t. (sy*le*di*i / sz / be*ni / a*rt*t) What he said surprised me. (transitive) Snavda sorulan sorular beni art-t. (s*nav*da / so*ru*lan / so*ru*lar / be*ni / a*rt*t) The questions asked in the exam confused me. (transitive.)

256

TURKISH GRAMMAR
art-l-d-m. (a*r*tl*dm) I was confused. (passive)

tara:
San tara-yor. (sa**n / ta*r*yor) She is combing her hair. (transitive) San annesine tarat-t. (sa**n / an*ne*si*ne / ta*rat*t) She got her mother to comb her hair. (causative) Sa tara-n-yor. (sa* / ta*ra*n*yor) Her hair is being combed. (passive) Tara-n-yor. (ta*ra*n*yor) She is combing herself. (reflexive)

tart:
Yal adam uyanr uyanmaz altnlarn tartt. (ya*l / a*dam / u*ya*nr / u*yan*maz ~/ al*tn*la*r*n / tart*t) The old man weighed his gold coins as soon as he woke up. unlar tarttr. (un*la*r / tart*tr) Have these things weighed. Tartyorlar. (tar*t**yor*lar) They are discussing. They are having a row. (reciprocal)

ta:
Nehir ta-t. (ne*hir / ta*t) The river overflowed. (intransitive) St ta-t. (st / ta*t) The milk boiled over. (intransitive)

257

TURKISH GRAMMAR
St ta-r-ma. (s*t / ta*r*ma) Dont let the milk boil over. (causative)

ta:
Baz bcekler hastalk ta-r. (ba*z / b*cek*ler / has*ta*lk / ta*r) Some insects carry disease. (transitive) Bebeini bana tat-t. (be*be*i*ni / ba*na / ta*t*t) She made me carry her baby. (causative) Ar ykler kamyonla tan-r. (a*r / yk*ler / kam*yon*la / ta**nr) Heavy loads are carried by lorries. (passive) Ta-n-yor-uz. (ta**n*yo*ruz) We are moving house. (reflexive) (*We are carrying ourselves.)

temizle:
Annem buzdolabn temizle-iyor. (an*nem / buz*do*la*b*n / te*miz*li*yor) Mother is cleaning the refrigerator. (transitive) Annem evi temiz-let-ecek. (an*nem / e*vi / te*miz*le*te*cek) Mother is going to have the house cleaned. (causative) Snf temizle-in-iyor. (s*nf / te*miz*le*ni*yor) The classroom is being cleaned. (passive)

tercih et:
Kzm, televizyon seyretmeyi dev yapmaya tercih eder. (k*zm~ / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*me*yi ~ / *dev / yap*ma*ya / ter*ci:*he*der) My daughter prefers watching TV to doing her homework. Genellikle kalabalk ehirlerde kk arabalar tercih ed-il-ir. (ge*nel*lik*le / ka*la*ba*lk / e*hir*ler*de / k*k / a*ra*ba*lar / ter*ci:*he*di*lir) Compact cars are generally preferred in crowded cities. (passive)

258

TURKISH GRAMMAR unut:

Iklar sndrmeyi unut-ma. (*k*la*r / sn*dr*me*yi / u*nut*ma) Dont forget to turn off the lights. (transitive) Mektubu atmay unut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*y /u*nut*tu) He forgot to post the letter. (transitive) lacn aldn unut-tu. (i*l*c*n / al*d**n / u*nut*tu) He forgot taking his medicine. (transitive) Mutlu gnler hi unut-ul-maz. (mut*lu / gn*ler / hi / u*nu*tul*maz) Happy days are never forgotten. (passive) Bana onun doum gnn unut-tur-ma. (ba*na~ / o*nun / do*um / g*n*n / u*nut*tur*ma) Dont let me forget her birthday. (causative)

uy:
Bu ceket bana uy-ma-uyor. (bu / ce*ket / ba*na / uy*mu*yor) This coat doesnt fit (become) me. (transitive) Gmlein sana iyi uy-uyor (yakyor). (gm*le*in / sa*na / i*yi / u*yu*yor) Your shirt fits ( becomes) you well. (intransitive)

uyu:
Ml ml uyu-uyor. (m*l / m*l / u*yu*yor) She is sleeping soundly. (intransitive) Bir saattir uyu-uyor. (bir / sa*at*tir / u*yu*yor) He has been sleeping for an hour. (intransitive) Bebei yarm saat nce uyut-tu-um. (be*be*i / ya*rm / sa*at / n*ce / u*yut*tum) I had the baby sleep half an hour ago. (causative) Bebek daha yeni uyut-ul-du. (be*bek / da*ha / ye*ni* / u*yu*tul*du) The baby has just been made to sleep. (passive causative)

259

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bu grltde uyu-un-maz. (bu / g*rl*t*de ~/ u*yun*maz) It is impossible to sleep in such a noise. (reflexive) Saat 11de uyudum. (sa*at / on*bir*de / u*yu*dum) I fell asleep at 11. (intransitive) Daha uyu-ma-d. (da*ha / u*yu*ma*d) He hasnt fallen asleep yet.

tle:
Pantalonumu tle-di-in mi? (pan*to*lo*nu*mu / *t*le*din / mi) Have you ironed my trousers? (transitive) Sabahtan beri t yapyor. (sa*bah*tan / be*ri / *t / ya*p*yor) She has been ironing since morning. (Turkish is transitive, English is intransitive.) Giysilerini hep kzkardeine tlet-iyor. (giy*si*le*ri*ni / hep / kz*kar*de*i*ne / *t*le*ti*yor) He is always making his sister iron his clothes. (causative) (complaint) Gmleklerin tle-in-iyor. (gm*lek*le*rin / *t*le*ni*yor) Your shirts are being ironed. (passive)

z:
ittiim szler beni z-d. (i*it*ti*im / sz*ler / be*ni / z*d) What I heard made me sorry. (transitive) z-l-d-m. (*zl*dm) I felt sorry. (reflexive) z-l-me. (*zl*me) Dont worry. (Dont feel sorry.) (reflexive)

yakala:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Kaleci topu yakalad. (ka*le*ci / to*pu / ya*ka*la*d) The goal-keeper caught the ball. (transitive) Sonunda tavan yakala-n-d. (so*nun*da / tav*an / ya*ka*lan*d) The rabbit was caught at last. (passive) retmen beni kopya yap-ar-ken yakala-d. (*ret*men / be*ni / kop*ya / ya*par*ken / ya*ka*la*d) The teacher caught me cheating. (transitive) Halk hrsz polise yakalat-t. (halk~/ hr*s*z / po*li*se / ya*ka*lat*t) The people had (helped) the police catch the thief. (causative)

yan:
Kuru odun kolay yanar. (ku*ru / o*dun / ko*lay / ya*nar) Dry wood burns easily. (intransitive) Mutfakta yemek piir-ir-ken parmaklarn yak-t. (mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*rir*ken~ / par*mak*la*r*n / yak*t She burnt her fingers while cooking in the kitchen (transitive) Tepede bir ate yak-t-lar. (te*pe*de / bir / a*te / yak*t*lar) They lit a fire on the hill. (transitive) Annem mumlar bana yaktr-d. (an*nem / mum*la*r / ba*na / yak*tr*d) Mother had me light the candles. (causative) Yak-n-yor. (ya*k*n*yor) She is complaining. (reflexive)

yap:
Zarfa pul yap-tr-ma-/y/ unuttum. (zar*fa / pul / ya*p*tr*ma*y / u*nut*tum) I forgot to stick a stamp on the envelope. (transitive) Bu pul yap-ma-yor. (bu / pul / ya*p*m*yor) This stamp doesnt stick. (intransitive)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Anne-im bana yatak oda-m-n kap-/s/-/n/a bir uyar yaptrt-t. (an*nem / ba*na~/ ya*tak / o*da*mn / ka*p*s*na / bir / u*ya*r /ya*p*trt*t) Mother made me stick a notice on my bedroom door. (causative) Duvarlara birey yap-tr-l-ma-sn. (du*var*la*ra / bir*ey / ya*p*t*rl*ma*sn) Nothing should be stuck on the walls. (passive)

yat:
Saat 11de yat-t-m. (sa*at / on*bir*de / yat*tm) I went to bed at 11 p.m. (intransitive) Anneleri onlar saat 10da yat-r-r. (an*ne*le*ri / on*la*r / sa*at / on*da / ya*t*rr) Their mother makes them go to bed at 10 p.m. (causative) Bebei yatana yatr-d. (be*be*i / ya*ta**na / ya*tr*d) She laid the baby in her bed. (transitive) Onu grdmde yerde yat-yor-du. (o*nu / gr*d*m*de~ / yer*de / ya*t*yor*du) When I saw her, she was lying on the floor. (intransitive) Yorgun-um. Yat-mal-ym. (yor*gu*num) (yat*ma*l*ym) I am tired. I must lie down. (intransitive)

yaz:
Mary bir mektup yaz-yor. (ma*ry / bir / mek*tup / ya*z*yor) Mary is writing a letter. (transitive) rertmen snavda bize bir kompozisyon yaz-dr-d. (*ret*men / bi*ze / s*nav*da / bir / kom*po*zis*yon / yaz*dr*d) The teacher made us write a composition in the examination. (causative) Mektup yaz-l-d bile. (mek*tup / ya*zl*d / bi*le) The letter has already been written. (passive)

ye:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Saat kata akam yemei ye-ir-siniz? (sa*at / ka*ta / ak*am / ye*me*i / yer*si*niz ) What time do you eat dinner? (transitive) Bebei ye-dir-iyor. (be*be*i / ye*di*ri*yor) She is feeding the baby. (transitive) Bu hamburger yen-(il)-mez. (bu / ham*bur*ger / yen*mez) This hamburger is not edible. (passive) (It cant be eaten.) Akam yemei yen(il)-iyor. (ak*am / ye*me*i / ye*ni*yor) Dinner is being eaten. (passive) Annem bana iki tabak sebze ye-dir-di. (an*nem / ba*na / i*ki / ta*bak / seb*ze / ye*dir*di) Mother made me eat two plates of vegetables. (causative)

yka:
Kz kardeim bulaklar yka-yor. (kz*kar*de*im / bu*la*k*la*r / y*k*yor) My sister is washing the dishes. (transitive) Annem kk kardeime yemekten nce ellerini ykat-r. (an*nem / k*k / kar*de*i*me / ye*mek*ten / n*ce / el*le*ri*ni / y*ka*tr) Mother makes my little brother wash his hands before lunch. (causative) Araba yka-n-yor. (a*ra*ba / y*ka*n*yor) The car is being washed. (passive) Jack yka-n-yor. (Jack banyo yapyor.) (jack / y*ka*n*yor) Jack is having a bath. (reflexive)

yor:
Btn gn bahede almak beni yor-du. (b*tn / gn / bah*e*de / a*l*mak / be*ni / yor*du) Working in the garden all day long tired me. (transitive) Yor-ul-dum. (yo*rul*dum) Ive got tired. ( I feel tired.) (reflexive) Senin sama sapan sorularndan bktm. (se*nin / sa*ma / sa*pan / so*ru*la*rn*dan / bk*tm) I am tired of your nonsense questions. (intransitive)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR yksel:

Balon gkte yksel-iyor. (ba*lon / gk*te / yk*se*li*yor) The balloon is rising in the sky. (intransitive). iddetli yamurdan sonra nehir yksel-di. (id*det*li / ya*mur*dan / son*ra / ne*hir / yk*sel*di) The river rose after the heavy rainfall. (intransitive) Gne doudan doar ve batdan batar. (g*ne / do*u*dan / do*ar / ve / ba*t*dan / ba*tar) The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. (intransitive) Soruya cevap vermek iin elini kaldr-d. (so*ru*ya / ce*vap / ver*mek / i*in / e*li*ni / kal*dr*d) He raised his hand to answer the question. (transitive)

yr:
Ona rasladmda caddede yr-yor-du-um. (o*na / ras*la*d*m*da / cad*de*de / y*r*yor*dum) I was walking along the street when I met him. (intransitive) Otobse yetimek iin beni hzl yrt-t. (o*to*b*se / ye*ti*mek / i*in / be*ni / hz*l / y*rt*t) She made me walk fast to catch the bus. (causative) Hzl yrt-l-d-m. (hz*l / y*r*tl*dm) I was made to walk fast. (passive causative) Bu yolda yr-n-mez. (bu / yol*da / y*rn*mez) It is impossible to walk in this street. (passive shaped intransitive) yz: Annem denizde yz-yor. (an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor) Mother is swimming in the sea. (intransitive) Onlar glde model kayklar yz-dr-yor-lar. (on*lar / gl*de / mo*del / ka*yk*lar / yz*d*r*yor*lar) They are sailing model boats on the lake. (transitive) Kpeini glde yz-dr-d. (k*pe*i*ni / gl*de / yz*dr*d) He made (let) his dog swim in the lake. (causative)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Frtna varken denizde yz-l-mez. (fr*t*na / var*ken / de*niz*de / y*zl*mez) It is impossible to swim in the sea when there is a storm. (passive shaped intransitive) ADVERB CLAUSES Syntactic Adverbs We can transform simple sentences into syntactic adverbs to furnish them with the concepts of time, concession, cause, purpose, result, manner, degree, place, condition, etc. English syntactic adverbs (adverb clauses) are structurally simple sentences that are connected to main clauses by subordinating conjunctions, which are characterized by some fundamental adverbial concepts mentioned above. On the other hand, Turkish simple sentences undergo some transformational changes before they are used as syntactic adverbs. Therefore, we can say that the English adverb clauses are structurally adverbial sentences as they have finite verbs at the end of every adverb clause. In order to express both the English and the Turkish adverb clauses in the same words, it may be more helpful to use the term syntactic adverb to eliminate this differance of terminology. TIME
BEFORE

This time concept is expressed in V - [me-den] ([ma-dan]) + nce in Turkish: Ev devimi yaptm. Sonra okula geldim. I did my homework. Then I came to school. From these sentences one can understand that the time of the first sentence is before the time of the second one. To furnish the first English sentence with a previous time concept, The Past Perfect Tense may be used to convey this time difference, and the conjunction before is put in the beginning of the second sentence without its order (the simple sentence structure) being changed: I had done (or did) my homework
sentence (NP + VP)

before
subordinating conj

I came to school.
sentence (NP + VP)

Although the normal order of the English sentence is like the sentence above, the regular order of the Turkish sentence is Before I came to school, I had done my homework. If we think about it on the abstract level, we can find out that there are two deep abstract sentences in our minds: Ben ev devimi yaptm. Ben okula geldim.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
In order to add a "before" time concept to the abstract sentence "I came to school", only the word "before" is put in the beginning of the English sentence. However, In Turkish, to add the same concept of "before (nce)" to the Turkish sentence, the abstract sentence "Ben okula geldim + nce" is transformed into "ben okula gel-me-den nce": ben okula geldim + nce ben okula gel-me-den nce (Ben) okula gelmeden nce ev devimi yaptm (yapmtm). I came to school + before before I came to school I did (had done) my homework before I came to school. Ben eve gideceim + nce ben eve git-me-den nce Ben eve gitmeden nce biraz meyve alacam. I will go home + before before I go home I will buy some fruit before I go home. (Ben) okula gel-me - den (nce) (ben) ev devimi yap-m-t-m.
NP infinitive - [den] postp postpositional phrase of time NP NP VP

(o*ku*la / gel*me*den / n*ce~ / ev / *de*vi*mi / yap*m*tm) In the sentence above, the [me, ma] allomorphs are a cause of confusion in Turkish. They are considered as either the allomorphs of an infinitive morpheme [me,ma], or the allomorphs of the negation morpheme [me, ma]. Therefore, Turkish students are inclined to build up English sentences like *"I had done my homework before I didn't come to school." This is because the syllable stress in speech is generally used on the verb stem (gel*me*den), not on the [den, dan] allomorphs, which mislead the learners of English. In fact, these are the infinitive allomorphs; if they were not, the [den, dan] allomorphs would not be attached to them. The above sentence order may also be changed as follows: (Ben) ev devimi, okula gel-me-den nce yapmtm.
NP NP inf-[DEN] + postp postpositional phrs (adv) V

(ben / e*v*de*vi*mi~/ o*ku*la / gel*me*den / n*ce /yap*m*tm) This sentence order is used when the adverb of time is stressed. The adverbial clauses (syntactic adverbs) in English start with subordinating conjunctions, and both the main clauses and the subordinate clauses in such complex sentences have finite verbs, which means that both clauses are structurally simple sentences. When a subordinating conjunction such as before, after, since, although, until, when or while, etc. is placed before one of these sentences, these subordinating conjunctions transform them into adverbial clauses (syntactic adverbs) having the concepts of these conjunctions. On the contrary, when adverb clauses are

266

TURKISH GRAMMAR
formed in Turkish, the simple sentences are transformed into postpositional phrases before they become syntactic adverbs. If we think on the abstract deep structure level, we can find the following surface structure sentences: (Ben) istasyona vardm + nce "ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-m-dan + nce (Ben) istasyona vardm + nce "ben istasyona var-ma-dan + (nce)" Ben-im istasyona var-ma-m-dan nce tren gitti (gitmiti). Ben istasyona var-ma-dan (nce) tren gitmiti. (Ben-im) istasyona var-ma-m - dan nce tren gitmiti
noun + infinitive (synt noun) - [DEN] postp postpositional phrase of time NP VP

This sentence is like the English sentence The train had left before my arriving at the station. In this sentence, benim istasyon-a varmam is a noun + infinitive compound. stasyon-a is an adverb composed of noun-[E]. Ben-im istasyona varmam is a syntactic noun. As all nouns can be followed by [], [E], [DE], [DEN] morphemes, this compound can also be followed by a [dan] allomorph. nce is a postposition used after noun-[DEN] + nce such as le-den nce, okul-dan nce, sen-den nce, yemek-ten nce, sen gel-me-den nce. So benim istasyon-a varmam-dan once is a noun compound - dan + nce, which is a postpositional phrase acting as an adverb of time. stasyon-a var-ma-dan nce
adv inf + [DEN] postp postpositional phrase of time (adv)

Consider and compare the following sentences: Ben istasyona var-ma-dan (nce) tren gitmiti. ( ben / is*tas*yo*na / var*ma*dan / n*ce / tren / git*mi*ti) Before I arrived at the station, the train had left. Tren, ben istasyona var-ma-dan nce gitmiti. (tren~ / ben / is*tas*yo*na / var*ma*dan / n*ce / git*mi*ti) The train had left before I arrived at the station. Cevap ver-me-den (nce) dn. (ce*vap / ver*me*den / n*ce / d*n) Think before you answer. Unut-ma-dan (nce) onu defterime yazacam. (u*nut*ma*dan / n*ce / o*nu / def*te*ri*me / ya*za*ca*m) I will write it in my notebook before I forget it.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Brona git-me-den (nce) tra olmalsn. (b*ro*na / git*me*den / n*ce / tra / ol*ma*l*sn) You must shave before you go to your office. Dar k-ma-dan nce ceketini giy. (d*a*r / k*ma*dan / n*ce / ce*ke*ti*ni / giy ) Put your coat on before you go out. Kompozisyonunu teslim et-me-den nce babas yanllarn dzeltmiti. (kom*po*zis*yo*nu*nu / tes*lim / et*me*den / n*ce~ / ba*ba*s / yan*l*la*r*n / d*zelt*mi*ti) Her father had corrected her mistakes before she handed in her composition. lac al-ma-dan nce sieyi iyice calkala. (i*la*c / al*ma*dan / n*ce~ / i*e*yi / i*yi*ce / al*ka*la) Shake the bottle well before you take the medicine. Camiye gir-me-den nce ayakkablarn kar-mal-sn. (ca:*mi*ye / gir*me*den / n*ce~ / a*yak*ka*b*la*r*n / *kar*ma*l*sn) You must take your shoes off before you enter the mosque. Baz renciler zil al-ma-dan (nce) snftan ktlar. (ba:*z / *ren*ci*ler ~/ zil / al*ma*dan / n*ce / s*nf*tan / k*t*lar) Some students (had) left the classroom before the bell rang. mzala-ma-dan nce onu dikkatle oku. (im*za:*la*ma*dan / n*ce / o*nu / dik*kat*le / o*ku) Read it carefully before you sign it. Yat-ma-dan nce klar sndr. (yat*ma*dan / n*ce / *k*la*r / sn*dr) Turn the lights off before you go to bed. Sou-ma-dan (nce) orban i. (so*u*ma*dan / or*ba*n / i) Eat up your soup before it gets cold. Ack-ma-dan (nce) bir ey yeme. (a*ck*ma*dan / bir*ey / ye*me) Dont eat anything before you get hungry. Ack-ma-dan (ackmakszn) birey yeme. (a*ck*ma*dan / bir*ey / ye*me) Dont eat anything without getting hungry.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Tiyatroya git-me-den (nce) piyesi okumutum. (ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*den / n*ce / pi*ye*si / o*ku*mu*tum) I had read the play before I went to the theatre. Hava karar-ma-dan (nce) eve dn. (ha*va / ka*rar*ma*dan / e*ve / dn) Come back home before it gets dark . kinci el bir arabay satn al-madan nce test etmelisin. (i*kin*ci / el / bir / a*ra*ba*y /sa*tn / al*ma*dan / n*ce test / et*meli*sin) You must test a second-hand car before you buy it. Okula git-me-den nce okuyup yazabiliyordu. (o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce~ / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du) He could read and write before he went to school. Sevdigim program televizyonda bala-ma-dan nce evde olacam. (sev*di*im / prog*ram / te*le*viz*yon*da / ba*la*ma*dan / n*ce / ev*de / o*la*ca*m) Ill be home before my favorite program starts on TV. Yemee gel-me-den nce ellerini ykamalsn. (ye*me*e / gel*me*den / n*ce / el*le*ri*ni / y*ka*ma*l*sn) You must wash your hands before you come to dinner. k-ma-dan nce kasiyere de. (k*ma*dan / n*ce / ka*si*ye*re / *de) Pay the cashier before you leave.
AFTER

To transform a simple sentence into an after clause, one should use V[dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]-[ten, tan] + sonra composition following the vowel and consonant harmony rules. Sonra is a postposition used after noun-[DEN] + sonra such as: okul-dan sonra, sen-den sonra, sen gel-dik-ten sonra, which are postpositional phrases. For example: gel-dik-ten sonra, al-dk-tan sonra, gl-dk-ten sonra, oku-duk-tan sonra, se-tik-ten sonra, a-tk-tan sonra, rt-tk-ten sonra, yut-tuktan sonra, gr-n-dk-ten sonra, bekle-i-tik-ten sonra, anla--tk-tan sonra, pi-ir-il-dik-ten sonra, bizden sonra, ondan sonra, anladktan sonra. Note: The symbol V covers both the verb stems, verb frames and verb compositions.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
In the above composition, the [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are the allomorphs of the phoneme [DK], which produce infinitives that are followed by the allomorphs of [DEN] and the postposition sonra. Like all infinitives, this composition does not convey a time concept. Its time concept is inferred from the time concept of the main clause that is used together with the syntactic adverb: Follow the examples: (O) ev dev-i-/n/i yap-tk-tan sonra yatt.
NP obj of yap infinitive-[DEN] postp postpositional phrase of time V

He went to bed after he had done (he did) his homework. ocuklar zil al-dk-tan sonra futbol oynamak iin dar ktlar.
NP inf - [DEN] + postp postp phrs of time infinitive + postp postp phrs of cause syntactic adv of time adv V

The boys went out

NP V adv

to play football
prep phrs of cause VP

after the bell rang.

Bitir-dik-ten sonra kompozisyonumu teslim ettim. (bi*tir*dik*ten / son*ra / kom*po*zis*yo*nu*mu / tes*lim / et*tim) After I had finished my composition, I handed it in. Onlar k-tk-tan sonra almaya baladm. (on*lar / k*tk*tan / son*ra / a*l*ma*ya / ba*la*dm) I began to study after they (had) left. stanbuldan ayrl-dk-tan sonra sana bir mektup yazacam. (is*tan*bul*dan / ay*rl*dk*tan / son*ra / sa*na / bir / mek*tup / ya*za*ca*m) I will write you a letter after I leave stanbul. Bir ift yeni ayakkab al-dk-tan sonra eve gitti. (bir / ift / ye*ni / a*yak*ka*b / al*dk*tan / son*ra / e*ve / git*ti) She went home after she (had) bought a new pair of shoes. Emekli ol-duk-tan somra bir kyde yaamaya balad. (e*mek*li / ol*duk*tan / son*ra / bir / ky*de / ya*a*ma*ya / ba*la*d) He began to live in a village after he (had) retired. Okuldan ayrl-dk-tan sonra ne yaptn? (o*kul*dan / ay*rl*dk*tan / son*ra / ne / yap*tn) What did you do after you (had) left school? Du yap-tk-tan sonra yatt. (du / yap*tk*tan / son*ra / yat*t) He went to bed after he had (had) a shower.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Konser bit-tik-ten sonra bir restorana gidelim. (kon*ser / bit*tik*ten / son*ra / bir / res*to*ra*na / gi*de*lim) Lets go to a restaurant after the concert is over.
WHEN

To transform a simple Turkish sentence into a when clause, V-[ince, nca, nce, unca] verb composition is used. The [NCE] morpheme is a suffix that is attached to verb stems or frames to express the concept of when of the English language. Likewise, the [RKEN] morpheme, which has the allomorphs of [irken, rken, rken, rken, erken, arken], is attached to verb stems and frames to expresses while. In the following examples the [NCE] and [RKEN] morphemes are attached to verbs that end with consonants: When ben okula gel-ince ben onu sat-nca o gl-nce sen ona dokun-unca zil al-nca okul al-nca elmalar sat-l-nca while ben okula gel-irken sen onu al-rken sen ksr-rken sen konu-urken sen elmalar e-erken sen patatesleri soy-arken biz bahede gez-erken

However, when the verbs end with vowels, the allomorphs of [NCE] are attached to these verbs with the /y/ glides. On the other hand, when the allomorphs of [RKEN] are attached to verbs ending with vowels, the first vowels of these allomorphs drop: when durakt bekle-/y/ince ben onu anla-/y/nca ben okuma-/y/a bala-/y/nca while sen durakta bekle-irken Ahmet horozu kovala-rken Mary san kurula-rken

Besides the [NCE] morpheme, there are two more adverbial alternatives that can convey the concept of when: V - [DK] -[possessed personal morpheme] + zaman or V - [DK] - [possessed personal morpheme] - [de, da] Okula git-ince retmenini greceksin. (gi*din*ce) Okula gittik-in zaman retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in / za*man) Okula gittik-in-de retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in*de) The meaning of all the three sentences above is You will see your teacher when you go to school, and the expressions printed in bold type are the equivalents of the coordinating conjunction when.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
We can explain how this mental composition is transformed as follows: Sen onu greceksin + zaman sen onu gr-nce, or sen onu grdk-n zaman, or sen onu gr-dk-n-de O beni grd + zaman o beni gr-nce, or o beni grd zaman, or o beni grdnde You will see him + when when you see him (The future mental deep structure transforms into The Simple Present surface structure form in English.) 1. (Sen) okula git-ince (senin) retmen-in-i greceksin.
NP adverb of time (noun comp-i) NP VP V

(o*ku*la / gi*din*ce / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin) You will see your teacher when you go to school. 2. Okula gittik-in zaman retmenini greceksin. (o*ku*la / git*ti*in / za*man / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin) You will see your teacher when you go to school. 3. Okula git-tik-in-de retmenini greceksin. (o*ku*la / git*ti*in*de / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin) You will see your teacher when you go to school. When simple sentences are transformed into when syntactic adverbs, they lose their time concepts as they do in before and after clauses. This time deficiency is fulfilled by the finite verb of the main clause. Follow the examples: (Biz) al-nca (Biz) reniriz. (a*l*n*ca / *re*ni*riz) We learn when we study. Beni gr-nce glmsedi. (be*ni / g*rn*ce / g*lm*se*di) She smiled when she saw me. (Siz) susa-/y/nca (siz) ne iersiniz? (su*sa*yn*ca / ne / i*er*si*niz) What do you drink when you are thirsty? retmen snfa gir-ince btn renciler ayaa kalkar. (*ret*men / s*n*fa / gi*rin*ce ~/ b*tn / *ren*ci*ler / a*ya*a / kal*kar) All the students stand up when the teacher enters the classroom.

272

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Sen) haberi iit-ince (sen) mutlu olacaksn. (ha*be*ri / i*i*tin*ce / mut*lu / o*la*cak*sn) You will be happy when you hear the news. (Sen) yabanc bir lkeye gittiin zaman (gidince, gittiinde) (sen) paran deitirmelisin. (ya*ban*c / bir / l*ke*ye / git*ti*in / za*man~ / pa*ra*n / de*i*tir*me*li*sin) When you go to a foreign country, you must change your money. (Ben) onu gr-dk-m-de (o) kiraz yiyordu. (o*nu / gr*d*m*de / ki*raz / yi*yor*du) She was eating cherries when I saw her. (Sen) okumay bitir-ince ltfen (sen) (benim) kitabm geri gnder. (o*ku*ma*y / bi*ti*rin*ce / lt*fen / ki*ta*b*m / ge*ri / gn*der) Please send my book back when you have finished reading it. (Ben) yorgun ol-duk-um zaman (ben) bir fincan kahve imekten zevk alrm. (yor*gun / ol*du*um / za*man ~/ bir / fin*can / kah*ve / i*mek*ten / zevk / a*l*rm) I enjoy having a cup of coffee when I am tired. (Ben) hazr ol-duk-um zaman (sen) (benim) ne yapmam istiyorsun? (ha*zr / ol*du*um / za*man~ / ne/ yap*ma*m / is*ti*yor*sun) What do you want me to do when I am ready? Biz bir yanllk yap-nca (bizim) retmenimiz dzeltir. (biz / bir / yan*l*lk / ya*pn*ca~ / *ret*me*ni*miz / d*zel*tir) When we make a mistake, our teacher corrects it. (Benim) vaktim ol-unca (ben) gelip seni greceim. (vak*tim / o*lun*ca / ge*lip / se*ni / g*re*ce*im) I will come and see you when I have time. Trafik klar krmzya dn-nce durmalyz. (tra*fik / *k*la*r / kr*m*z*ya / d*nn*ce / dur*ma*l*yz) We must stop when the traffic lights turn red. Fatma gel-ince ders alacaz. (fat*ma / ge*lin*ce / ders / a*l*a*ca*z) Well study when Fatma comes. stasyona var-nca biletini (satn) alabilirsin. (is*tas*yo*na / va*rn*ca / bi*le*ti*ni / a*la*bi*lir*sin) You can buy your ticket when you arrive at the station. Note: The pronouns in parentheses are not generally used. They are put in the sentences above to make the meaning clearer for the learners.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
WHILE

In order to insert the duration concept of while into a transformed simple sentence, V-[ir-ken, r-ken, r-ken, ur-ken, er-ken, ar-ken] structure is used when action verbs are involved: gel-irken, git-erken, yaz-arken, otururken, beklen-irken. This morpheme is like the morpheme [YOR] whose second syllable never follows the vowel harmony rules. However, when adjectives, nouns or a noun-[DE] adverbs are used, only [KEN] syllables are attached to these words to convey both when and while. This syllable does not follow the vowel harmony rules, and consequently has no allomorphs. In fact, the [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] allomorphs are The Simple Present Tense allomorphs attached to [KEN] morphemes. Note: The /y/ glide is used when a word ends with a vowel; but when a word ends with a consonant only ken is attached to such words such as evde/y/ken, okulda/y/-ken, boyal/y/-ken, evli/y/-ken, bekr-ken, ocuk-ken, var-ken, kasap-ken, gen-ken, yal/y/-ken, burada/y/-ken, etc. The mental composition of "while" (duration) syntactic adverbs are as follows: Jack okula gidiyordu + duration Jack okula git-erken Jack okula giderken bir kese altn para buldu. Jack was going to school + duration while Jack was going to school While jack was going to school, he found a purse of gold coins. Consider the example sentences: Olum bahede oyna-rken eski bir para buldu. (o*lum / bah*e*de / oy*nar*ken ~/ es*ki / bir / pa*ra / bul*du) My son found an old coin while he was playing in the garden. Ben ev-de/y/-ken btn ev ilerini kendim yaparm. (ben / ev*dey*ken ~/ b*tn / e*vi*le*ri*ni / ken*dim / ya*pa*rm) I do all the housework myself when I am at home. Biz ocuk-ken televizyon seyredemiyorduk, nk televizyon daha kefedilmemiti. (biz / o*cuk*ken ~/ te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*mi*yor*duk / n*k~ / te*le*viz*yon / da*ha / ke*fe*dil*me*mi*ti) We couldnt watch television when we were children because it hadnt been invented yet. Ev devini ben bura-da/y/-ken yap. (ev / *de*vi*ni / ben / bur*day*ken / yap) Do your homework while (when) I am here.

274

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ben yeni szckleri retirken Fatma pencereden dar bakyordu. (ben / ye*ni / sz*ck*le*ri / *re*tir*ken ~ / fat*ma / pen*ce*re*den / d*a*r / ba*k*yor*du) While I was teaching the new words, Fatma was looking out of the window. Ben bura-da/y/-ken grlt etme. (ben / bur*day*ken / g*rl*t / et*me) Dont make a noise while I am here. Radyo dinle-irken ders alabilir misin? (rad*yo / din*ler*ken / ders / a*l*a*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you study while (when) you are listening to the radio? Kardeini ders al-rken rahatsz etme. (kar*de*i*ni / ders / a*l*r*ken / ra*hat*sz / et*me) Dont disturb your brother while (when) he is studying. Ben darda/y/-ken kimse bana telefon etti mi? (ben / d*ar*day*ken / kim*se / ba*na / te*le*fon / et*ti / mi) Did anyone telephone me when (while) I was out? Fatma onsekiz ya-/n/-da/y/-ken ok gzeldi. (fat*ma / on*se*kiz / ya*n*day*ken / ok / g*zel*di) Fatma was very beautiful when she was eighteen. Sen mutfakta megul-ken kedi btn st iti. (sen / mut*fak*ta / me*gul*ken~ / ke*di / b*tn / s*t / i*ti) The cat drank up all the milk when you were busy in the kitchen. Onlar rmakta yz-erken birisi onlarn giysilerini ald. (on*lar / r*mak*ta / y*zer*ken~ / bi*ri*si / on*la*rn / giy*si*le*ri*ni / al*d) Somebody stole their clothes while (when) they were swimming in the river. Vaktin var-ken derslerini al. (vak*tin / var *ken ~/ ders*le*ri*ni / a*l) Study your lessons while you have time. Vaktin ol-unca arabay ykayabilirsin. (vak*tin /o*lun*ca ~/ a*ra*ba*y / y*ka*ya*bi*lir*sin) You can wash the car when you have time. Ko-arken dt. (ko*ar*ken / d*t) He fell down while he was running. Kzma bir hikye anlat-rken uyu-ya-kald. (k*z*ma / bir / hi*k:*ye / an*la*tr*ken~/ u*yu*ya / kal*d) My daughter fell asleep while I was telling her a story.

275

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Merdivenden aa in-erken dikkatli ol. (mer*di*ven*den / a*a* / i*ner*ken ~ / dik*kat*li / ol) Be careful when you are walking down the stairs. Ev devini yap-arken televizyon seyredemezsin. (e*v*de*vi*ni / ya*par*ken ~/ te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*mez*sin) You can't watch television while you are doing your homework. (prohibition)
AS SOON AS

In order to express as soon as in Turkish, the positive and negative forms of The Simple Present Tense (geni zaman) are used following one another. The syntactic adverbs that are built up with these positive + negative verbal compounds are just like postpositional phrases: Zil ald. zil alar almaz Jack eve geldi. Jack eve gelir gelmez Gne doacak. gne doar domaz Mary beni grd. Mary beni grr grmez Mary okuldan gelecek. Mary okuldan gelir gelmez As it is seen, the transformed sentences above are timeless as the infinitives are: Jack eve gelir gelmez devini yapmaya balad Gne doar domaz yola koyulacaklar. Mary beni grr grmez kapnn arkasna sakland. Mary okuldan gelir gelmez annesine yardm edecek. Zil al-ar al-maz renciler bahede oynamak iin dar ktlar.
syntacticadv of time NP adv infinitive + postp adv adv phrase of purpose V

As soon as the bell rang, the students went out to play in the garden. The places of adverbs and nouns are arranged in accordance with the importance given to these units in sentences. Therefore, the following alternatives of the above sentence may also be produced as follows: renciler, zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin diar ktlar. renciler, bahede oynamak iin zil alar almaz dar ktlar. Zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin renciler dar ktlar. *Dar ktlar renciler zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin. The last sentence above is understandable, but a Turkish teacher does not accept it as a good sentence.

276

TURKISH GRAMMAR
The main point in changing the places of the above units is that the nearer to the verb, the more important these units are. However, in doing this, the grammatical units should be kept intact. The grammatical units in this sentence are: 1.zil alar almaz 2.bahede oynamak iin 3.dar ktlar 4. renciler. Examples: Yatana yat-ar yat-maz uykuya dald. (ya*ta**na / ya*tar / yat*maz / uy*ku*ya / dal*d) He fell asleep as soon as he went to bed. Sokaktaki ocuu gr-r gr-mez frene bast. (so*kak*ta*ki / o*cu*u / g*rr / gr*mez / fre*ne / bas*t) He hit the brakes as soon as he saw the boy in the street. Sen hazr ol-ur ol-maz dar kacaz. (sen / ha*zr / o*lur / ol*maz~ / d*a*r / *ka*ca*z) Well go out as soon as you are ready. Avc kaplan gr-r gr-mez ate etti. (av*c / kap*la*n / g*rr / gr*mez / a*te / et*ti) As soon as the hunter saw the tiger, he fired. Vaktin ol-ur ol-maz gel beni gr. (vak*tin / o*lur / ol*maz / gel / be*ni / gr) Come and see me as soon as you have time Gne doar domaz yola koyuldular. (g*ne / do*ar / do*maz / yo*la / ko*yul*du*lar) They set off as soon as the sun rose.
UNTIL

When a noun, such as sabah, yarn, saat alt is chosen, they are attached to [e, a] allomorphs followed by the postposition kadar:

noun - [e, a] + kadar

(Onlar) sabah-a kadar alacaklar. They will work until morning.
NP postp phrs of time VP V NP V prep phrs of time VP

Gece yars-/n/a kadar televizyon seyrettik. (ge*ce / ya*r*s*na / ka*dar / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*tik) We watched TV until midnight.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Saat e kadar beni bekle. (sa*at / *e / ka*dar / be*ni / bek*le) Wait for me until three oclock. Gelecek sene-/y/e kadar ngilizce alma-/y/a devam edeceim. (ge*le*cek / se*ne*ye / ka*dar / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*ma*ya / de*va:m / e*de*ce*im) I will go on studying English until next year. If a simple sentence is chosen to be used as an adverb of time, V - [e-/n/e, a-/n/a] + kadar structure is used to express until in Turkish. The abstract mental composition of "until" is as follows: Gne dodu + kadar gne do-a-/n/a kadar (do*a*na) Gne do-ana kadar tarlada altlar. The sun rose + until until the sun rose They worked in the field until the sun rose. Gne doacak + kadar ne do-ana kadar Gne doana kadar tarlada alacaz. The sun will rise + until until the sun rises We will work in the field until the sun rises. (Onlar) gne do-ana kadar tarla-da altlar.
NP postp phrs of time (adv) VP adverb V

They worked in the field until the sun rose

NP V adv phrase VP synt adv of time

(Sen) yarn-a kadar bekle. (You) wait till tomorrow.

NP noun -[E] + postp postp phrs of time VP NP V V prep phrase adv VP

As an alternative to the above syntactic adverb structure V - [in-ce-/y/e, nca-/y/a, n-ce-/y/e, un-ca-/y/a] + kadar form can also be used: Boya kuru-/y/unca-/y/a kadar (kuru-/y/a-/n/a kadar) duvarlara dokunma. (bo*ya / ku*ru*ya*na / ka*dar / du*var*la*ra / do*kun*ma) Dont touch the walls until the paint dries. Sen eve dn-ene kadar ders alacama sz veriyorum. (sen / e*ve / d*ne*ne / ka*dar / ders / a*l*a*ca**ma / sz / ve*ri*yo*rum) I promise I will study until you come back home. Hava karar-ana kadar ocuklar bahede oynadlar. (ha*va / ka*ra*ra*na / ka*dar~ / o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / oy*na*d*lar) The children played in the garden until it got dark.

278

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bir iftlie gel-ene kadar bu patikay izle. (bir / ift*li*e / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bu / pa*ti*ka*y / iz*le) Follow this path until you come to a farm. Yardm gel-ene kadar beklemek zorunda kaldlar. (yar*dm / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bek*le*mek / zo*run*da / kal*d*lar) They had to wait until the help came. l-ene kadar savatlar. (*le*ne / ka*dar / sa*va*t*lar ) They fought until they died. arlana kadar darda bekle. (a*r*la*na / ka*dar / d*ar*da / bek*le) Wait outside till you are called. (passive) Bir adaya gel-in-ce-/y/e kadar (gel-ene kadar) krek ektiler. (bir / a*da*ya / ge*lin*ce*ye / ka*dar / k*rek / ek*ti*ler) They rowed until they came to an island. Yamur dur-ana kadar bir yere snalm. (ya*mur / du*ra*na / ka*dar / bir / ye*re / s**na*lm) Let us shelter somewhere till it stops raining. Onlar gel-ene kadar bir ey yapamayz. (on*lar / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bir*ey / ya*pa*ma*yz We cant do anything till they come. zr dileyene kadar seninle konumayacam. (*zr / di*le*ye*ne / ka*dar / se*nin*le / ko*nu*m*ya*ca*m) I wont speak with you until you apologize. Saat kaa kadar burda beklememi istiyorsun? (sa*at / ka*a / ka*dar / bur*da / bek*le*me*mi / is*ti*yor*sun ) Until what time do you want me to wait here? Ne zamana kadar beklemek zorundaym? (ne / za*ma:*na / ka*dar / bek*le*mek / zo*run*da*ym) Until when do I have to wait? Seni l-ene kadar seveceim. (se*ni / *le*ne / ka*dar / se*ve*ce*im) I will love you till I die.
BY and BY THE TIME

By or by the time means not later than in English. This time concept is reflected into Turkish sentences by using The Future Perfect Tense bitir-

279

TURKISH GRAMMAR
mi olacam, gel-mi olacak-lar, etc. preceded by a noun-[e, a] + kadar structure. Study the following carefully: (Ben) yarn-a kadar iimi bitirmi olacam.
NP postp phrs of time NP VP NP VP V

I
NP

will have finished my work by tomorrow.

V prep phrs of time

If a simple sentence is needed to be transformed, V - [en-e, an-a]+ kadar structure is used in the adverbial phrase section of a sentence. The abstract mental composition of this transformation is as follows: Annem eve dnecek + o zamana kadar annem eve dn-ene kadar Mother will come back home + by the time by the time mother comes back home (Ben) annem eve dn-ene kadar iimi bitir-mi olacam.
NP postpositional phrase of time VP V NP VP NP V

I will have finished my work by the time my mother comes back home.
NP syntactic adverb of time

Dn-n-ceye kadar may also be used as an alternative to the above expression: Annem eve dn-nce-/y/e (dn-ene) kadar iimi bitirmi olacam. Saat be-e kadar drt sayfa daktilo etmi olacam. (sa*at / be*e / ka*dar / drt / say*fa / dak*ti*lo / et*mi /o*la*ca*m) I will have typed four pages by five. Sen eve var-n-caya kadar (var-ana kadar) btn pastay yemi olacaklar. (sen / e*ve / va*rn*ca*ya / ka*dar / b*tn / pas*ta*y / ye*mi / o*la*cak*lar) They will have eaten up all the cake by the time you arrive home.
SINCE

If single nouns or determiner + noun compounds such as dokuz, sabah, len, dn, "geen hafta", "geen ay", "geen yl" are chosen to be expressed, a noun-[den, dan,] + beri or a possessor + possessed- [den, dan] + beri postpositional phrase structure is used to express since nine, since morning, "since last year", since last summer or since you went away expressions. The word beri is a postposition. The function of these phrases are all adverbial:

280

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) onu, geen hafta-dan beri grmedim.
NP NP (postp phrs) adverb of time VP V

I
NP

havent seen
V

her

since last week.

NP (prep phrs) (adv of time) VP

Saat dokuzdan beri bekliyorum. (sa*at / do*kuz*dan / be*ri / bek*li*yo*rum) I have been waiting since nine. As dokuz, sabah. len, etc. are nouns, a noun + infinitive - [DEN] + beri can also be used in their places: (Ben) seni grdm + den beri (ben-im) seni gr-dk-m-den beri I saw you + since since I saw you (ben-im) seni grdm - den beri = since I saw you
Noun compound - [DEN] + postp postpositional phrase of time

(Benim) seni grdm-den beri (sen) birsey yapmadn

postpositional phrs of time NP NP VP V

You havent done anything since I saw you.

NP V NP VP synt adv of time

Seni ilk gr-dk-m-den beri seviyorum. (se*ni / ilk / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / se*vi*yo*rum) I have been in love with you since I saw you first. (Sen-in) stanbuldan ayrl-dk-n-dan beri senden bir mektup almadm. (is*tan*bul*dan / ay*rl*d*n*dan / be*ri / sen*den / bir / mek*tup / al*ma*dm) I havent received a letter from you since you left stanbul. (Ben) (sen-in) evden k-tk-n-dan beri birsey yapmadm. (ev*den / k*t*n*dan / be*ri / bir / ey / yap*ma*dm) I havent done anything since you left home. (Ben-im) seni son gr-dk-m-den beri (sen) ne yapyorsun? (se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ne / ya*p*yor*sun ) What have you been doing since I saw you last? Kzlardan bazlar snfa gir-dik-ler-i/n/-den beri glp konuuyorlar. (kz*lar*dan / ba*z*la*r / s*n*fa / gir*dik*le*rin*den / be*ri / g*l*p / ko*nu*u*yor*lar)

281

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Some of the girls have been chatting and giggling since they came into the classroom. (Sen-(in) buraya gel-dik-in-den beri ne kadar oldu? or Sen buraya gel-eli ne kadar oldu? (sen / bu*ra*ya / ge*le*li / ne / ka*dar / ol*du) How long is it (has it been) since you came here? Bizim komunun u aptal kpei ben eve geldiim-den beri havlyor. (bi*zim / kom*u*nun / u / ap*tal / k*pe*i ~/ ben / e*ve / gel*di-im*den / beri / hav*l*yor) That stupid dog of our neighbors has been barking since I came home. Otobs kar-dk-m-dan beri burada bekliyorum. (o*to*b*s / ka*r*d*m*dan / be*ri / bur*da / bek*li*yo*rum) I have been waiting here since I missed the bus. CAUSE or REASON As, since or because subordinating conjunctions are used in English to express cause or reason. In Turkish, in place of as or since, iin postposition is used. Since all postpositions follow nouns in Turkish, iin can also follow either a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a noun + infinitive compound. All noun + infinitive and determiner + noun compounds are syntactic nouns. Follow the simple sentences below: Ben eve ge geldim + iin (ben(im) eve ge gel-dik-im iin I came home late + as as I came home late As the (ben-im) parts in the noun compounds are generally ignored, only the possessed parts of the noun compounds are used as geldiim and ge geldiim. Since these parts are the possessed parts of the noun compounds, they are also nouns, and so, they can be followed by the postposition iin: (Ben) okula ge gel-dik-im iin (onlar) beni cezalandrdlar.
noun + inf compound + postp postpositional phrase of cause NP NP VP V

Note: (Ben) and (onlar) are not generally used; they have been put there so that the noun compounds can be well understood. The personal suffixes at the end of the verb compositions are enough to express the subjective pronouns. (Ben) okula ge gel-dik-im iin = As I came to school late,
noun + inf compound + postp postpositional phrase of cause syntactic adverb of cause

beni cezalandrdlar
sentence

they punished me
sentence

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Okula ge geldiim iin beni cezalandrdlar. (o*ku*la / ge / gel*di*im / i*in / be*ni / ce*za:*lan*dr*d*lar) They punished me as I came to school late. Sorular g ol-duk-u iin ouna cevap veremedim. (so*ru*lar / g / ol*du*u / i*in~ / o*u*na / ce*vap / ve*re*me*dim) As the questions were difficult, I couldnt answer most of them. ok yamur ya-dk- iin stadyuma zamannda varamadlar. They couldnt get to the stadium in time as it was raining heavily. (Benim) gzlm (benim) evde unut-tuk-um iin retmenin tahtaya yazdklarn gremedim. (gz*l**m / ev*de / u*nut*tu*um / i*in~ / *ret*me*nin / tah*ta*ya / yaz*dk*la*r*n / g*re*me*dim) As I had left my glasses at home, I couldnt see what the teacher was writing on the blackboard. The two "benim" words are put here to explain the compounds clearly. They are not used in current speech, and "retmenin tahtaya yazdklar is a noun + infinitive compound. Saat be ol-duk-u iin almay braksak iyi olur. (sa*at / be / ol*du*u / i*in~ / a*l*ma*y / b*rak*sak / i*yi / o*lur) As it is five, we had better stop working. The conjunction nk is used in Turkish as because is used in English: (O) yava yava yryordu, nk ar bir sepet tayordu. She was walking slowly because she was carrying a heavy basket. ok almalsn, nk yarn bir snavn var. You must study hard because you have an examination tomorrow. Yznden, den dolay or nedeniyle complex postpositions can be used in Turkish as because of preposition is used in English: iddetli yamur yznden (nedeniyle) ma ertelemek zorunda kaldlar. (id*det*li / ya*mur / y*zn*den~ / ma* / er*te*le*mek / zo*run*da / kal*d*lar) They had to postpone the match because of the heavy rain. Youn trafik yznden (nedeniyle) okula ge kaldm. (yo*un / tra*fik / y*zn*den ~/ o*ku*la / ge / kal*dm) I came to school late because of the heavy traffic.

283

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Grev yznden (nedeniyle) eve yryerek gitmek zorunda kaldk. (grev / y*zn*den / e*ve / y*r*ye*rek / git*mek / zo*run*da / kal*dk) We had to walk home because of the strike. Yksek fiyatlar yznden (nedeniyle) hi birey satn alamadm. I couldnt buy anything because of the high prices. Fatma gzel gzleri nedeniyle ekicidir. (fat*ma / g*zel / gz*le*ri / ne*de*niy*le / e*ki*ci*dir) Fatma is attractive because of her beautiful eyes. CONCESSION and CONTRAST Noun compounds like (benim) alma-m-a ramen, (onun) gitme-si/n/e ramen structures are used in Turkish in place of although + sentence in English. Ben-im al-ma-m, senin gel-me-in, bizim konu-ma-mz compounds are noun + infinitive compounds, whose second parts are made of infinitives. The [e, a] allomorphs are the allomorphs that are attached to nouns, pronouns and noun compounds, which help them to be used as adverbs in sentences. Ramen is a postposition used after a noun ending with either an [e] or [a] allomorph: (Kendi-/s/i-/n/in) al-ma-/s/-/n/a ramen (o) (onu) baaramad
noun + infinitive compound - [E] postpositional phrase of concession postp NP NP VP V

Note: The /s/ and /n/ are glides. "Kendisinin", "o" and "onu" are put here to help the learners understand the deleted parts of the compounds. They are not used in current Turkish because "kendisinin", "o" and "onu" are deleted as they are understood from the personal suffixes. The mental production of this sentence is as follows: (O) ok alt + ramen (onun) ok alma-/s/-/n/a ramen He studied hard + although although he studied hard (O) ok al-ma-/s/-/n/a ramen baaramad.
NP adv noun comp - [E] + postp postp phrs of concession VP V

He couldnt succeed although he studied hard

NP V synt adv of concession VP adv

(Ahmet'in) otomobili olma-s-/n/a ramen Ahmet okula otobsle gelir.

noun compound - /n/[a] postp postpositional phrase of concession NP adv adv VP V

Although Ahmet has got a car, he comes to school by bus. Yorgun ol-ma-m-a ramen almaya devam etmeliyim. (yor*gun / ol*ma*ma / ra*men / a*l*ma*ya / de*va:*met*me*li*yim) I must go on working although I am tired.

284

TURKISH GRAMMAR
ki kez oku-ma-m-a ramen dersi anlayamadm. (i*ki / kez / o*ku*ma*ma / ra*men / der*si / an*la*ya*ma*dm) I couldnt understand the lesson although I read twice. iman ol-ma-/s/-/n/a ramen hzl koabiliyor. (i*man / ol*ma*s*na / ra*men / hz*l / ko*a*bi*li*yor) Although he is fat, he can run fast. Ayn otelde kal-ma-m-z-a ramen birbirimize rastlamadk. (ay*n / o*tel*de / kal*ma*m*za / ra*men~ / bir*bi*ri*mi*ze / rast*la*ma*dk) Although we were staying in the same hotel, we didnt meet. On ya-/n/-da olmasna ramen okuyup yazamyor. (on / ya*n*da / ol*ma*s*na / ra*men / o*ku*yup / ya*za*m*yor) Although he is ten years old, he cant read and write. Byk annem ok yal ol-ma-/s/-/n/a ramen ev iini kendisi yapar. (b*y*kan*nem / ok / ya*l / ol*ma*s*na / ra*men~ / e*vi*i*ni / ken*di*si / ya*par) Although my grandmother is very old, she does her housework herself. Yoksul ol-ma-lar--/n/a ramen mutludurlar. (yok*sul / ol*ma*la*r*na / ra*men / mut*lu*dur*lar) Although they are poor, they are happy. One can use a V - [DK]-possessed personal morpheme + halde structure as an alternative to the above postpositional phrase of concession: al-tk-m halde baaramadm. (a*l*t*m / hal*de / ba*a*ra*ma*dm) Although I studied hard, I couldnt succeed. Gr-e-me-dik-i halde piyano alabiliyordu. (g *re*me*di*i / hal*de / pi*ya*no / a*la*bi*li*yor*du) Although he wasnt able to see, he could play the piano. yi gr-e-me-dik-i halde gzlk takmak istemiyor. (i*yi / g*re*me*di*i / hal*de~/ gz*lk / tak*mak / is*te*mi*yor) Although he cant see well, he doesnt want to wear glasses. determiner + noun-[e, a] + ramen can be used like in spite of + determiner + noun English prepositional phrase: (Biz)
NP

iddetli saanak-a ramen konsere zamamnda yetitik.

determiner noun - [E] postp postp phrase of concession (adv) VP adverb adverb V

285

TURKISH GRAMMAR
We got to the concert on time in spite of the heavy rainfall.
NP V adverb adverb prep determiner noun prep phrase of concession

Tm glkler-e ramen dan doruuna trmanabildiler. (tm / g*lk*le*re / ra*men~ / da*n / do*ru*u*na / tr*ma*na*bil*di*ler) They were able to climb the peak of the mountain in spite of all difficulties. Tm kt hava art-lar--/n/a ramen pilot ua baaryla indirdi. The pilot landed the plane successfully in spite of all the unfavorable weather conditions. Kk gz-ler-i-/n/e ramen yakkldr. (k*k / gz*le*ri*ne / ra*men / ya*k*k*l*dr) He is handsome in spite of his small eyes. Note: Some speakers and writers tend to use "karn" in place of "ramen" to avoid this borrowed word: "Kk gzlerine karn (ramen) yakkldr". Ken can also be used like while to express contrast: Baz kimseler zengin-ken dier bazlar yoksuldur. (ba:*z / kim*se*ler / zen*gin*ken ~ / di*er / ba:*z*la*r / yok*sul*dur) While some people are wealthy, some others are poor. Karnca al-r-ken, austos bcei zamann ark syleyerek boa harcar. While the ant works, the cicada wastes time singing. Baz kimseler ay tercih ed-er-ken, dier bazlar kahveyi tercih eder. While some people prefer tea, some others prefer coffee. Baz renciler renmek iin istek-li/y/-ken, dier bazlar derslere kar kaytszdr. While some students are eager to learn, some others are indifferent to lessons. PURPOSE In order to compose a syntactic adverb of purpose, a simple sentence containing wish mood (dilek kipi) is used without being structurally transformed, and by doing so the wish simple sentence becomes a syntactic noun to be used preceding the postposition diye to compose a postpositional phrase of purpose: eri gir-e-/y/im. eri gir-e-sin. eri gir-sin. eri gir-e-lim. eri gir-e-siniz. eri gir-sin-ler. Let me go in. I wish you to go in Let him go in. Let us go in. I wish you to go in. Let them go in.

286

TURKISH GRAMMAR
eri gir-e-/y/im diye kapy at. He opened the door to let me go in.
sentence (noun) postp postp phrase of purpose sentence sentence infinitive of purpose

eri gir-e-bil-e-/y/im. eri gir-e-bil-e-sin. eri gir-e-bil-sin. eri gir-e-bil-e-lim. eri gir-e-bil-e-siniz. eri gir-e-bil-sin-ler.

Let me be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish him to be able to go in. Let us be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish you to let them be able to go in.

1. V - [e-bil, a-bil]-[e-/y/im, e-/s/in, /s/in, e-lim, e-/s/i-/n/iz, /s/in-ler] + diye 2. V - [e-/y/im, a-/y/m], [e-/s/in, a-/s/n], [/s/in, /s/n, /s/n, /s/un], [e-/s/i/n/iz, a-/s/-/n/z], [/s/in-ler, /s//n-lar] + diye Follow the examples: (Ben) ieri gir-e-bil-e-/y/im diye (o) kapy at.
NP NP sentence V nominalized sentence postp postpositional phrase of purpose

eri gir-eyim diye kapy at.

sentence + postp postp phrs of purpose sentence

retmen beni daha iyi gr-e-bil-sin diye gzlklerini takt. (*ret*men / be*ni / da*ha / i*yi / g*re*bil*sin / di*ye / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*t) The teacher put on her glasses so that she could see me better. Herkes gr-e-bil-/s/in diye onu daha byk iz. (her*kes / g*re*bil*sin / di*ye / o*nu / da*ha / b*yk / iz) Draw it larger so that everybody can see it. eri gir-e-bil-/s/in diye kenara ekildim. eri gir-/s/in diye kenara ekildim. (i*e*ri / gir*sin / di*ye / ke*na*ra / e*kil*dim) I stepped aside so that she might come in. Kimse bul-a-ma-/s/n diye para-/s/-/n/ dikkatle saklad. (kim*se / bu*la*ma*sn / di*ye / pa*ra*s*n / dik*kat*le / sak*la*d) (In negatives [e-me, a-ma] are used in place of [e-bil, a-bil]) He hid his money carefully so that nobody could find it. Bir szlk al-a-bil-/s/in diye ona biraz para verdim. (bir / sz*lk / a*la*bil*sin / di*ye~ / o*na / bi*raz / pa*ra / ver*dim) I gave her some money so that she could buy a dictionary. Ahmet, snav ge-e-bil-/s/in diye ok alyor. (ah*met ~/ s*na*v / ge*e*bil*sin / di*ye / ok / a*l**yor) Ahmet is studying hard so that he can pass the examination.

287

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Erken kalk-a-bil-/s/in diye ona bir alar saat satnaldm. (er*ken / kal*ka*bil*sin / di*ye / o*na / bir / a*lar / sa*at / sa*t*nal*dm) I bought an alarm clock for him so that he could get up early. The postposition "diye" can also be used after some other simple sentences used as nouns without being structurally changed. Consider the following: (Ben) (o) gelecek diye bekledim.
NP NP V sent (noun) + postp postp phrase of purpose V

(ge*le*cek / di*ye / bek*le*dim) I waited hoping that he would come. (He didnt come.) Herkes anlamtr diye szme devam ettim. (her*kes / an*la*m*tr / di*ye / s*z*me / de*va:*met*tim) I went on talking thinking that everybody must have understood me. Ertesi gn Pazar diye ge vakte kadar oturduk. (er*te*si / gn / pa*zar / di*ye / ge / vak*te / ka*dar / o*tur*duk) We sat up late knowing that the following day was Sunday. Otobs kalabalk diye binmedim. (o*to*bs / ka*la*ba*lk / di*ye / bin*me*dim) Seeing that the bus was crowded, I didn't get on. Kedi dar k-/s/n diye kapy atm. I opened the door to let the cat go out. (I opened the door so that the cat might go out.) All the underlined parts of the sentences above are wish sentences that are used as nouns. If the concept of ability is ignored, the [ebil, abil] are omitted, and the second type of the above chain is used following the vowel and consonant harmony rules. The underlined parts of the sentences below are sentences of wish that are used as nouns: Hi yanllk yap-ma-/s/n diye onu dikkatle yazd. (hi / yan*l*lk / yap*ma*sn / di*ye~ / o*nu / dik*kat*le / yaz*d) He wrote it carefully so that he shouldnt make a mistake. Gzel gr-n-/s/n diye yeni elbisesini giydi. (g*zel / g*rn*sn / di*ye / ye*ni / el*bi*se*si*ni / giy*di) She put her new dress on so that she might (should) look beautiful.

288

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ka-ma-sn diye atm bir aaca baladm. (ka*ma*sn / di*ye / a*t*m / bir / a*a*ca / ba*la*dm) I fastened my horse to a tree so that it shouldnt escape. Hi parmak izi brak-ma-sn diye hrsz eldiven takmt. (hi / par*mak / i*zi / b*rak*ma*sn / di*ye / hr*sz / el*di*ven / tak*m*t) The thief wore gloves so that he shouldnt leave any fingerprints. ngilizcemi uygula-/y/m diye babam beni ngiltereye gtrecek. (in*gi*liz*ce*mi / uy*gu*la*ym / di*ye / ba*bam / be*ni / in*gil*te*re*ye / g*t*re*cek) My father will take me to London so that I may practice my English. If the subject of the main clause and that of the syntactic adverb are the same, an infinitive + iin postpositional phrase can be used: Gzel gr-n-mek iin yeni elbisesini giydi. (g*zel / g*rn*mek / i* in / ye*ni / el*bi*se*si*ni / giy*di) She put on her new dress to look beautiful. Hrsz parmak izi brak-ma-mak iin eldiven takmt. (hr*sz / par*mak / i*zi / b*rak*ma*mak / i*in / el*di*ven / tak*mi*t) The thief wore gloves not to leave any fingerprints. Snav--/n/ ge-mek iin Ahmet ok alyor. (s*na*v*n / ge*me*ki*in~ / ah*met / ok / a*l**yor) Ahmet is studying hard to pass his examination. Kpee atmak iin yerden bir ta ald. (k*pe*e / at*ma*ki*in~/ yer*den / bir / ta*al*d) He picked up a stone to throw at the dog. Islan-ma-mak iin emsiyemi aldm. (s*lan*ma*ma*ki*in~ / em*si*ye*mi / al*dm) I took my umbrella not to get wet. ngilizcesini ilerlet-mek iin zel dersler alyor. She is taking private lessons to improve her English. Beni iyi (iyice) anla-mak iin dikkatle dinle. (be*ni / i*yi / an*la*mak / i*in / dik*kat*le / din*le) Listen to me carefully to understand me well. Bu kitab anlamak iin ok dikkatli oku. (bu / ki*ta*b / an*la*mak / i*in / dik*kat*le / o*ku) Read very carefully to understand this book.

289

TURKISH GRAMMAR
PLACE To produce an adverbial concept of place in Turkish, one can use istedik-in yer-e (to the place where you wish), or nere-/y/e istersen (where you wish) expressions. (Sen) istedik-in yer-e gidebilirsin. You can go (to the place) where you wish.
NP determiner noun -[e] adv V NP V prep phrase determiner syntactic adv

(Sen) kitab (senin) bul-duk-un

NP NP noun comp (deter) Adv

yer-e koy.
V

+ noun-e

(You) put the book (in the place) where you found it.
NP V NP prep phrs (adv) determiner syntactic adverb of place

(Her)nereye gid-er-sen (git) ngilizce konuabilen birisini bulabilirsin. (her*ne*re*ye / gi*der*sen / git ~/ in*gi*liz*ce / ko*nu*a*bi*len / bi*ri*ni / bu*la*bi*lir*sin) You can find someone who can speak English wherever you go. Nasrettin Hoca eeini kaybet-tik-i yerde buldu ve bu onu ok mutlu etti. Nasrettin Hoca found his donkey where he had lost it, which made him very happy. Beendiin (herhangi bir) yere oturabilirsin. (be*en*di*in / ye*re / o*tu*ra*bi*lir*sin) You can sit wherever you like. MANNER To transform a simple sentence into a syntactic adverb of manner, the conjunction as is put in the beginning of a simple English sentence. In Turkish gibi postposition is used after a noun + infinitive compound: AS The mental process of a syntactic adverb of manner is as follows: Ben sana dyledim + gibi benim sana dyledik-im gibi" I told you + as "as I told you" (Sen) onu, (benim) sana syle-dik-im gibi yap.
NP NP noun compound + postp postpositional phrase of manner synt adv of manner V

(You) do it as I told you (to do).

NP V NP

290

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) (ben-im) konu-tuk-um gibi yazarm. I write as I talk.
NP postpositional phrase of manner. VP NP noun compound postp postpositional phrs of manner V V

(Sen) onu (o-/n/un) ol-duk-u gibi brak. Leave it as it is.

NP

Geldikleri gibi giderler. (gel*dik*le*ri / gi*bi / gi*der*ler) (Mustafa Kemal Atatrk) They will go as they came. Onu, (onun) bize sylendii gibi yaptk. (o*nu~ / bi*ze / sy*len*di*i / gi*bi / yap*tk) We did it as we had been told The words in brackets are used to make the meaning understandable for the learners. They are not necessary in current Turkish. For instance, instead of saying "Sen benim kardeimi grdn m?" people say "Kardeimi grdn m?" because the [im] in "karde-im" and the [n] in gr-d-n are enough to express both sen and "benim" in this sentence. This is because there may be two personal morphemes in a Turkish sentence; one in the beginning of a sentence as a pronoun, the other one at the end as a suffix. Besides them, there are also two personal morphemes in noun compounds such as [im] in ben-im, and [im] in eker-im`; ben-im eker-im (my sugar). If the speaker does not want to stress the pronoun or the possessor morpheme intentionally, he uses only the personal or the possessed personal suffix in a sentence. For instance, instead of Ben yarn Ankaraya gideceim you should say Yarn Ankaraya gideceim. Likewise, you may say kalem-im in place of ben-im kalem-im. (Ben) gelecek hafta Ankara'ya gidiyor-um
subj NP pronoun subj NP suffix

AS IF (AS THOUGH)

V - [time] - [mi, m, m, mu] - (pers) + gibi verb structure is used to express as if in Turkish. The mental procedure of "as if" is as follows: "Sen bir soru soracaksn" + gibi "sen bir soru sor-acak-m-(sn) gibi" "You are going to ask a question" + as if "as if you are going to ask a question" (Sen) bir soru sor-acak-m-(sn) gibi grnyorsun.
sentence used as a noun postp postpositional phrase of manner V

( bir / so*ru / so*ra*cak*m / gi*bi / g*r*n*yor*sun) You look as if you are going to ask a question. (It seems that you are going to ask a question.)

291

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bana kzm (gibi) grnyorsun. (ba*na / kz*m / g*r*n*yor*sun) You look as if you are angry with me. (It seems that you are angry with me.) Bu kuma pamuktan yaplm hissi veriyor. (bu / ku*ma ~ / pa*muk*tan / ya*pl*m / his*si / ve*ri*yor) This material feels as if it is made of cotton. Komudan bir parti veriyorlarm gibi ses(ler) geliyor. (kom*u*dan~ / bir / par*ti / ve*ri*yor*lar*m / gi*bi / ses*ler / ge*li*yor) It sounds as if the neighbors are giving a party. (I hear that the neighbors are giving a party.) Bir ey yanyormu gibi bir koku alyorum. (bi*ey / ya*n*yor*mu / gi*bi / bir / ko*ku / a*l*yo*rum) I smell as if something is burning. (Something is burning.) The same mi gibi is also used for the unreal past time, but in the following sentences, nouns, determiner + noun compounds, or noun compounds are used. The mental development of such sentences may be as follows: Ben ocuk-um + gibi ben ocuk-mu-um gibi I am a child + as if as if I were a child (Sen) (ben) bir ocuk-mu-um gibi benimle konuma.
NP sentence (noun) + postp adverb postpositional phrase of manner V

Dont talk to me as if I were a child. (I am not a child.) (Onun) koca-/s/-/y/-m-m gibi bana baryor. (ko*ca*sy*m*m / gi*bi / ba*na / ba**r*yor) She shouts at me as if I were her husband. (I am not her husband.) (complaint) (Onun) hizmeti-/s/i/y/-mi-im gibi bana emir veriyor. (hiz*met*i*siy*mi*im / gi*bi / ba*na / e*mir / ve*ri*yor) She orders me round as if I were her servant. (I am not her servant.) Hibir ey ol-ma-m gibi almaya devam etti. (hi / bir / ey / ol*ma*m / gi*bi / a*l*ma*ya / de*va:* met*ti) He went on working as if nothing had happened. (Something had happened, but he didnt mind.)

292

TURKISH GRAMMAR
ocuklar yapacaklar bir ey yok-mu gibi bahede oynuyorlar. (o*cuk*lar / ya*pa*cak*la*r / bir / ey / yok*mu / gi*bi / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yor*lar ) The children are playing in the garden as if they had nothing to do. Karm (ben) bir superman-mi-im gibi hereyi (ben-im) yapmam istiyor. (ka*rm ~/ bir / s*per*men*mi*im / gi*bi~ / her*e*yi / yap*ma*m / is*ti*yor) My wife wants me to do everything as if I were a superman. (I am not a superman.) Salak-m-m gibi bana bakp durma. (sa*lak*m*m / gi*bi / ba*na / ba*kp / dur*ma) Dont stare at me as if I were a fool. (I am not a fool.) Bana kle-in-mi-im gibi davranma. (ba*na / k*len*mi*im / gi*bi / dav*ran*ma) Dont treat me as if I were your slave. RESULT In place of so or therefore, bylece, bu yzden , bu nedenle, bu sa:yede or bu ekilde conjunctions may be used to supply a simple sentence with a result concept: Sabahleyin erken kalktm, ve bylece ev devimi bitirebildim. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*tm ~/ ve / by*le*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim) I got up early, and so I was able to finish my homework. ok am, bu yzden sandvi bile yiyebilirim. I am very hungry, therefore I can eat even three sandwiches. Yamur ok iddetli yayordu, bu nedenle bir yere snmak zorunda kaldk. It was raining heavily, therefore we had to shelter somewhere. Gneli bir pazar sabahyd, bu yzden krda yrye kmaya karar verdik. It was a sunny Sunday morning, so we decided to go for a walk in the country. Sanrm tren tehirli, bu yzden beklemek zorundayz. I think the train is late, so we have to wait. Elektrik kesildi, bu yzden ev devimi yapamadm. The electricity went off, therefore I couldnt do my homework.

293

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ge oluyor, bu yzden eve dnsek iyi olur. Its getting late, so wed better go back home. Kz kardein ev devini yapyor, bu yzden televizyonu kapatsan iyi olur. Your sister is doing her homework, therefore youd better turn off the TV. SO THAT SUCH THAT

Such result clauses are formed by an o kadar + adjective (adverb) - [time] + ki + sentence structure in Turkish as it is used in English. Consider the following: Sorular o kadar g-t ki sadece birka renci cevap verebildi
NP adv VP V conj adv adj NP noun NP VP sentence of result V

The questions were so difficult that only few students were able to answer.
NP VP conj adv adj NP noun V NP (inf) VP sentence of result

Yk o kadar ar-d ki, iki at bile arabay ekemedi. (yk / o*ka*dar / a*r*d / ki ~/ i*ki / at / bi*le / a*ra*ba*y / e*ke*me*di) The load was so heavy that even two horses could not pull the cart. O kadar hzl konu-ur ki onu anlayamazsn. (o*ka*dar / hz*l / ko*nu*ur / ki~ / o*nu / an*l*ya*maz*sn) She speaks so fast that you cant understand her. Otobs ofr o kadar hzl sr-yor-du ki btn yolcular korktu. (o*to*bs / o*f*r / o*ka*dar / hz*l / s*r*yor*du / ki ~ / b*tn / yol*cu*lar / kork*tu) The bus driver was driving so fast that all the passengers were frightened. Sokaklar o kadar kaygan ki kayp debilirsin. (so*kak*lar / o*ka*dar / kay*gan / ki ~/ ka*yp / d*e*bi*lir*sin) The streets are so slippery that you may slip and fall down. Oda o kadar karanlkt ki birbirlerini gremediler. (o*da / o*ka*dar / ka*ran*lk*t / ki ~/ bir*bir*le*ri*ni / g*re*me*di*ler) The room was so dark that they couldnt see each other. If a determiner + noun compound such as an interesting book is used as a predicate with the intensifier ok in a simple sentence such as kitap ok ilginti, this intensifier is changed into o kadar implying that a main close will be following the subordinate clause beginning with the ki conjunction:

294

TURKISH GRAMMAR o kadar + adjective + noun - [time] + ki

ok ilgin bir kitapt. o kadar ilgin bir kitapt O kadar ilgin bir kitapt ki (onu) bir gnde bitirdim. (o*ka*dar / il*in / bir / ki*tap*t / ki ~/ o*nu / bir / gn*de / bi*tir*dim) It was such an interesting book that I finished it in one day Arkadalarm ok hzl kouyordu. arkadalarm o kadar hzl kouyodu Arkadalarm o kadar hzl kouyordu ki onlara yetiemedim. My friends were running so fast that I couldnt catch up with them. O kadar kalabalk bir otobst ki binemedim. It was such a crowded bus that I couldnt get on. O kadar ok kitab var-d ki hangisini okuyacana karar veremiyordu. He had such a lot of books that he couldnt decide which to read. O kadar uzun salar vard ki herkes onu kz sanyordu. (o*ka*dar / u*zun / sa*la*r / var*d / ki ~/ her*kes / o*nu / kz / sa*n*yor*du) He had such long hair that everybody thought he was a girl. yle (o kadar) gl bir rzgr vard ki futbol oynayamadk. (y*le / g*l / bir / rz*gr / var*d / ki ~/ fut*bol / oy*n*ya*ma*dk) There was such a strong wind that we couldnt play football.

too + adjective + to + V and adjective + enough + to + V

To form a Turkish chain that can be used in place of the above first pattern, V - [mek, mak] + iin + ok + adjective - [time] - [pers] structure is used: Ben basketbol oyna-mak iin
NP

ok yalym.
V

noun infinitive postp intens postpositional phrs of reason

I am too old to play basketball. Kzm araba sr-mek iin ok gen-ti. (k*zm / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / gen*ti) My daughter was too young to drive. Olum araba srmek iin ok yal olduumu sylyor. (o*lum~ / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / ya*l / ol*du*u*mu / sy*l*yor) My son says that I am too old to drive. As an alternative to the above sentences oyna-/y/a-ma-/y/a-cak kadar, sr-e-me-/y/e-cek kadar expressions may also be used:

295

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Hava dar k-a-ma-/y/a-cak kadar souk. (ha*va / d*a*r / *ka*m*ya*cak / ka*dar / so*uk) It is too cold to go out. Sorular cevap ver-il-e-me-/y/e-cek kadar g. (so*ru*la r / ce*vap / ve*ri*le*mi*ye*cek / ka*dar / g) The questions are too difficult to answer. Sen beni anla-/y/a-ma-/y/a-cak kadar gensin. (sen ~/ be*ni / an*l*ya*m*ya*cak / ka*dar / gen*sin) You are too young to understand me. Bu araba satn al-n-a-ma-/y/a-cak kadar eski. (bu / a*ra*ba / sa*t*na*l*na*m*ya*cak / ka*dar / es*ki) This car is too old to be bought (to buy). almaya devam ed-e-me-/y/e-cek kadar yorgunum. I am too tired to go on working. When the verb is positive, V - [ecek, acak] + kadar + adjective (ad-verb) + V- [pers] composition is used in place of adjective + enough + V composition of the English language: Sorular hepsine cevap verecek kadar kolayd. (so*ru*lar~ / hep*si*ne / ce*vap / ve*re*cek / ka*dar ~/ ko*lay*d) The questions were easy enough to answer all of them. Sen hereyi anlayacak yatasn. (sen / her*e*yi / an*l*ya*cak / ya*ta*sn) You are old enough to understand everything. Olum, basketbol oynayabilecek kadar uzun boylu. (o*lum ~/ bas*ket*bol / oy*n*ya*bi*le*cek / ka*dar / u*zun / boy*lu) My son is tall enough to play basketball. Sen bu cmleleri anlayabilecek kadar akllsn. (sen~ / bu / cm*le*le*ri / an*la*ya*bi*le*cek / ka*dar / a*kl*l*sn) You are clever enough to understand these sentences.

DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE (COMPARISON OF INEQUALITY) To compare something with another, at least two nouns should exist in a sentence. These nouns may be either nouns, pronouns, infinitives or noun compounds. To add comparison to a sentence noun / noun - [den, dan, ten, tan] + daha (az) + adjective (adverb) + V structure is used. Follow the example sentences:

296

TURKISH GRAMMAR
(Ben) sen-den (daha) yal-/y/m.
NP adv of comparison VP V

I am old - er than you.

NP V adj adv of comparison VP

(Ben) sen-den (daha) hzl ko-ar-m. I run fast - er than you.

NP adv of comparison VP V NP V adv adv of comparison VP

Trke ngilizce-den (daha) karmaktr.

NP adv of comparison VP V adv predicate adj

Turkish is more complicated than English.

NP predicate adj adv of comparison VP

Besides nouns and pronouns, noun compounds, infinitives. and noun+ Infinitive compounds can be compared: Otobsle seyahat etmek uakla seyahat etmek-ten (daha) ucuzdur.
infinitive (noun) NP infinitive + [DEN] = adverb VP adv pred adj

Traveling by bus is cheaper than traveling by air. Benim arabam senin araban-dan (daha) iyi. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / se*nin / a*ra*ban*dan / da*ha / i*yi) My car is better than your car. Benim tadm senin tadndan daha ard. (be*nim / ta**d*m~ / se*nin / ta**d*n*dan / da*ha / a*r*d) What I carried was heavier than what you did. Daha salkl grnyorsun. (da*ha / sa*lk*l / g*r*n*yor*sun) You look healthier. (then you were before) As the expression in parentheses is already in the minds of both the speaker and the listener, it is not generally put into words. (deletion) (Sen) ben-den daha salkl grnyorsun. (ben*den / da*ha / sa*lk*l / g*r*n*yor*sun) You look healthier than I. (Sen) bugn daha erken kalktn. (bu*gn / da*ha / er*ken / kalk*tn) You got up earlier today (than before). Kz kardein senden daha ok alyor. (kz*kar*de*in / sen*den / da*ha / ok / a*l**yor) Your sister works harder than you (work).

297

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bizim rnlerimiz ithl rnlerden daha ucuzdur. (bi*zim / *rn*le*ri*miz~/ it*hl / *rn*ler*den / da*ha / u*cuz*dur) Our products are cheaper than imported ones. Beklediimden daha abuk reniyorsun. (bek*le*di*im*den / da*ha / a*buk / *re*ni*yor*sun) You are learning faster than I expected. Sen grndnden daha akllsn. (sen~ / g*rn*d*n*den / da*ha / a*kl*l*sn) You are cleverer than you look. Filmi umduumdan daha ilgin buldum. (fil*mi / um*du*um*dan / da*ha / il*gin / bul*dum ) I found the film more interesting than I expected. Bu marka ayakkablar teki-ler-den daha az dayankldr. (bu / mar*ka / a*yak*ka*b*lar ~/ *te*ki*ler*den / da*ha / az / da*ya*nk*l*dr) This brand of shoes is less durable than those. Benim arabam seninkinden daha az konforlu. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / se*nin*kin*den / da*ha / az / kon*for*lu) My car is less comfortable than yours. Kendisini herkesten daha akll sanyor. (ken*di*si*ni~ / her*kes*ten / da*ha / a*kl*l / sa*n*yor) She thinks herself to be cleverer than everybody. Kzlar erkek ocuklardan daha alkandr. (kz*lar ~ / er*kek / o*cuk*lar*dan / da*ha / a*l*kan*dr) Girls are more hardworking than boys. Sen benden daha az akll deilsin. (sen~ / ben*den / da*ha / az / a*kl*l / de*il*sin) You are not less clever then me (I am). Ucuz rnler pahal rnlerden daha az dayankldr. (u*cuz / *rn*ler~ / pa*ha*l / *rn*ler*den / da*ha / az / da*ya*nk*l*dr) Inexpensive products are less durable than the expensive ones. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE The superlative degree of an adjective or an adverb is made by putting the adverb en before an adjective or an adverb: Benim arabam ehirdeki en ekonomik arabadr. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / e*hir*de*ki / en / e*ko*no*mik / a*ra*ba*dr) My car is the most economical car in town.

298

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Fatma dnyann en gzel kadndr. (fat*ma ~/ dn*ya:*nn / en / g*zel / ka*d*n*dr) Fatma is the most beautiful woman of the world. ita dnyadaki en hzl hayvandr. (i*ta~ / dn*ya:*da*ki / en / hz*l / hay*van*dr) The cheetah is the swiftest animal in the world. ita en hzl koar. (i*ta / en / hz*l / ko*ar) The cheetah runs the swiftest. (Benim) karm hep en iyisini seer. (ka*rm / hep / en / i*yi*si*ni / se*er) My wife always chooses the best. Jack okuldaki en yakkl ocuktur. (jack / o*kul*da*ki / en / ya*k*k*l / o*cuk*tur) Jack is the most handsome boy in school. POSITIVE and NEGATIVE EQUALITY All intensifiers are adverbs that either intensify or weaken adjectives or adverbs. To build up an adjectival or adverbial equality, NP + NP + kadar + adverb (adjective) + V chain is used. Consider the following sentences: Karm
NP

ok
intens

hzl
adv VP

yzebilir. My wife can swim very fast.

V NP V intens adv VP

Bir kedi bir kpek kadar hzl koabilir.

NP NP postp adv postp phrs of comp VP V

A cat can run as fast as a dog. Karm ben-im (yz-dk-m) kadar hzl yzebilir.
NP noun compound + postp postpositional phrase of comparison adv V

My wife can swim as fast as I can. As all noun compounds are nominal phrases NP, the last sentence above can be written as NP + NP + kadar + adv + V. Jack kz kardei kadar aklldr.
NP noun comp + postp postp phrs of comparison V

Jack is as clever as her sister is. Ben senin sandn kadar akll deilim.
NP NP (noun comp) postp postp phrs of comparison V

299

TURKISH GRAMMAR
I am not so (as) clever as you think. Bir Jeep kullanmak normal bir araba kullanmak kadar ekonomik deil. Driving a Jeep is not as economical as driving an ordinary car. Bir masal kitab okumak bir ansiklopedi okumak kadar retici deildir. Reading a story book is not so instructive as reading an encyclopedia. (Sen) sorulara (sen-in) elinden geldik-i kadar dikkatli cevap vermelisin. You must answer the questions as carefully as you can. Araban baban kadar dikkatli srmelisin. (a*ra*ba*n ~ / ba*ban / ka*dar / dik*kat*li / sr*me*li*sin) You must drive your car as carefully as your father does. . O bir katr kadar inatdr.
NP NP postp postp phrs of comp V

He is as obstinate as a mule. Hava dnk kadar souk deil. (ha*va~ / dn*k / ka*dar / so*uk / de*il) It is not as cold as it was yesterday. Kz ocuklar, erkek ocuklardan daha fazla anne ve babalarna dkndr. Daughters are more devoted to their parents than sons. PARALLEL PROPORTION (NE KADAR O KADAR) A parallel proportion can be built up using the following sentence structure: ne + kadar + adverb (adjective) + V - [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar, ] - [se, sa][pers] o + kadar + adverb (adjective) + V Compare and consider the following sentences: (Sen) ne kadar erken kalk-ar-sa-n, o kadar iyi (dir)
NP intens (adv) adv verb (cond) adverb of condition intes (adv) pred adj predicate

Ne kadar erken kalkarsan o kadar iyi. (ne*ka*dar / er*ken / kal*kar*san ~/ o*ka*dar / i*yi) The earlier you get up, the better. Insanlar ne kadar kolay yksel-ir-ler-se, o kadar kt derler. (in*san*lar / ne*ka*dar / ko*lay / yk*se*lir*ler*se~ / o*ka*dar / k*t / d*er*ler) The easier they (the people) rise, the harder they fall.

300

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Ne kadar ok alrsan, o kadar iyi sonular alrsn. (ne*ka*dar / ok / a*l*r*san ~/ o*ka*dar / i*yi / so*nu*lar / a*lr*sn) The harder you work, the better results you get. Ne kadar erken yola karlarsa o kadar erken varrlar. (ne*ka*dar / er*ken / yo*la / *kar*lar*sa ~/ o*ka*dar / er*ken / va*rr*lar) The earlier they leave, the sooner they will arrive. Telefonla ne kadar uzun konuursan, o kadar fazla demek zorunda kalsn. The longer you talk on the telephone, the more you will have to pay. Ne kadar hesapl olursa, o kadar iyi. (ne*ka*dar / he*sap*l / o*lur*sa ~ / o*ka*dar / i*yi) The more economical, the better. Ne kadar yetki, o kadar sorumluluk. (ne*ka*dar / yet*ki~ / o*ka*dar / so*rum*lu*luk) The more authority, the more responsibility.

WISH
WISH + WOULD The above expression is used when the speaker wishes something to happen, or he is complaining about the present situation. I wish is generally translated into Turkish as keke, which may sometimes be misleading when it is used with would. In Turkish, this sort of expression is called dilek kipi, which means wish mood". The structure of this expression is V-([me, ma])-[se, sa]- [pers] or V - [ebil, abil] - [se, sa]-[pers] Compare and consider the following sentences: Ah u adam eki grltsn bir durdur-sa! (ah / u / a*dam / e*ki / g*rl*t*s*n / bir / dur*dur*sa~) I wish that man would stop hammering. Ah birisi u televizyonun sesini bir ks-sa! (ah / bi*ri*si / u / te*le*viz*yo*nun / se*si*ni / bir / ks*sa~) I wish someone would turn down that TV. Birisi u telefona cevap ver-se! (bi*ri*si / u / te*le*fo*na / ce*vap / ver*se~) I wish someone would answer this telephone call. Biri bana yardm et-se! I wish somebody would help me.

301

TURKISH GRAMMAR
u sigaray bir brak-abil-se-im! ( u / si*ga*ra*y / bir / b*ra*ka*bil*sem~) I wish I could stop smoking. u arabay bu kadar hzl sr-me-sen olmaz m? (u / a*ra*ba*y / bu *ka*dar / hz*l / sr*me*sen / ol*maz / m) I wish you wouldnt drive the car so fast. nsanlar keke piknie gidince etrafa p at-ma-sa-lar. I wish people wouldnt throw litter all around when they go for a picnic. WISH + PAST SUBJUNCTIVE People use wish and past tense in English when they regret something at present. In place of wish, Turkish people use keke and V-[se/y/-di], [sa/y/-d]-[pers] verb chain. This chain is also used when somebody is sorry about a past fact or event: Keke daha gen ol-sa-/y/d-m. (ke*ke~ / da*ha / gen / ol*say*dm) I wish I were younger. (But I am not young now.) Keke senin yerinde ol-sa/y/-d-m. (ke*ke ~/ se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*say*dm) I wish I were you. Keke herey o kadar kolay ol-sa/y/-d. (ke*ke~ / her*ey / o*ka*dar / ko*lay / ol*say*d) I wish everything were so easy. (They arent so easy.) Keke btn gn hava gneli ol-sa/y/-d. (ke*ke~ / b*tn / gn / ha*va / g*ne*li / ol*say*d) I wish it were sunny all day long. (Unfortunately, it isnt.) Jack daha yakkl olmay arzu ederdi. Jack wishes he were more handsome. (But he isnt.) pek masmavi gzleri olmasn arzu ederdi. (i*pek / mas*ma:*vi / gz*le*ri / ol*ma*s*n / ar*zu: / e*der*di) pek wishes she had deep blue eyes. Herkes zengin olmay arzu eder. Everybody wishes they were wealthy. (But they aren't.) Keke karm bu kadar inat olmasayd. (ke*ke~ / ka*rm / bu*ka*dar / i*nat* / ol*ma*say*d) I wish my wife werent so obstinate. (But she is.)

302

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Keke sana yardm ed-ebil-se/y/-di-im. (ke*ke / sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*bil*sey*dim) I wish I could help you. (Unfortunately I cant.) Keke yarn okula gitmek zorunda ol-ma-sa/y/-d-m. (ke*ke / ya*rn / o*ku*la / git*mek / zo*run*da / ol*ma*say*dm) I wish I wouldnt have to go to school tomorrow. (But I will have to go.) Keke bir spor arabam ol-sa/y/-d. (ke*ke / bir / spor / a*ra*bam / ol*say*d) I wish I had a sports car. (But I dont have.) Daha byk bir evim olmasn arzu ederdim. (da*ha / b*yk / bir / e*vim / ol*ma*s*n / ar*zu / e*der*dim) I wished I had a larger house. Yabanc bir dil renmek keke daha kolay olsayd. (ya*ban*c / bir / dil / *ren*mek~ / ke*ke / da*ha / ko*lay / ol*say*d) I wish learning a second language were easier. Keke retmenler daha dost davranl olsalard. (ke*ke / *ret*men*ler / da*ha / dost / dav*ra*n*l / ol*sa*lar*d) I wish teachers were more friendly. WISH + PAST PERFECT or PERFECT MODAL In Turkish, the present, the future and the past wish concepts are all reflected into sentences by using the previous verb chain. When somebody is sorry about a past fact or event, The Past Perfect Tense or a Perfect Modal is used in English: Keke geen pazar konsere git-se/y/-di-im. (ke*ke / ge*en / pa*zar / kon*se*re / git*sey*dim) I wish I had gone to the concert last Sunday. (I wished but I couldnt.) Keke dn sorulara daha dikkatli cevap ver-se/y/-di-im. (ke*ke / dn / so*ru*la*ra / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ce*vap / ver*sey*dim) I wish I had answered the questions more carefully. (I regret to say that I didnt answer the questions carefully.) Keke o spor arabay satn al-a-bil-se/y/-di-im. (ke*ke / o / spor / a*ra*ba*y / sa*t*na*la*bil*sey*dim) I wish I could have bought that sports car. Keke dn ma kazan-abil-se/y/di-ik. (ke*ke / dn / ma* / ka*za*na*bil*sey*dik) I wish we could have won the game.

303

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Keke onu geen hafta bitir-ebil-se/y/-di-im. (ke*ke / o*nu / ge*en / haf*ta / bi*ti*re*bil*sey*dim) I wish I could have finished it last week.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are two parts in a conditional sentence; if clause and the main clause. In an if clause, the supposition is either real or unreal. These real and unreal suppositions in Turkish are also classified according to their times: 1 (a): present real supposition. 1(b): present unreal supposition. 2 (a): past real supposition. 2 (b): past unreal supposition. 1 (a): If the supposition is real at present, V - [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar]-[se, sa]-[pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and The Simple Present (Geni Zaman) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 1 (b): If the supposition is unreal at present , V -[se] or [sa]-[pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (Geni Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 2 (a): If the supposition is real in the past, V-[di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]/y/[se, sa]-[pers] is used in the condition part, and V - [mi, m, m, mu] -[tir, tr, tr, tur] verb composition is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 2 (b): If the supposition is unreal in the past, V - [se, sa]- /y/ [di, d] [pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (imdiki Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 1 (a): PRESENT REAL SUPPOSITION Kapy ak brak-r-sa-n, kedi dar k-ar. If you leave the door open, the cat will go out. In Turkish, if someone says dar kacak(tr) instead of dar kar, the sentence will mean The cat will certainly go out. If The Simple Present Tense is preferred, it means as a natural result of the if clause. Yamur ya-ar-sa evde otur-ur-uz. (ya*mur / ya*ar*sa ~ / ev*de / o*tu*ru*ruz) If it rains, we will stay at home. We will stay at home if it rains. al-r-sa-n snav ge-er-/s/in. (a*l*r*san ~ / s*na*v / ge*er*sin) If you study, you will pass the exam.

304

TURKISH GRAMMAR
ok al-r-sa-n baar-a-bil-ir-/s/in. (ok / a*l*r*san ~ / ba*a*ra*bi*lir*sin If you work hard, you can succeed. Onu dr-r-se-in krl-r. (o*nu / d**rr*sen ~ / k*r*lr) If you drop it, it will break. Onu tekrar yap-ar-sa-n tokad yer-/s/in. (o*nu / tek*rar / ya*par*san ~ / to*ka*d / yer*sin) If you do that again, I will slap you. Bulaklar yka-ar-sa-n sana ev devinde yardm et-er-im. (bu*la*k*la*r / y*kar*san ~/ sa*na / ev / *de*vin*de / yar*dm / e*de*rim) If you wash the dishes, I will help you with your homework. Yava sr-er-se-in kaza yap-maz-sn. (ya*va / s*rer*sen~ / ka*za: / yap*maz*sn) If you drive carefully, you wont have an accident. Hazr-sa-n dar k-a-bil-ir-iz. (ha*zr*san~ / d*a*r / *ka*bi*li*riz) We can go out if you are ready. Seyret-me-iyor-sa-n televizyonu kapat. (sey*ret*mi*yor*san ~/ te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat) Turn it off if you are not watching television. Onlar gel-ir-ler-se memnun ol-ur-uz. (Not *gelirseler.) (on*lar / ge*lir*ler*se ~/ mem*nun / o*lu*ruz) We will be happy if they come. (In the third person plural [se] and [ler] allomorphs change places.) Bu dmeye bas-ar-sa-n asansr aa gel-ir. (bu / d*me*ye / ba*sar*san ~ / a*san*sr / a*a* / ge*lir) If you press this button, the elevator will come down. retmen bana bak-ar-sa onun bana bir soru soracan tahmin ederim. If the teacher looks at me, I guess that he is going to ask me a question. Sokaklar slak-sa dn gece yamur ya-m-tr. (so*kak*lar / s*lak*sa ~/ dn / ge*ce / ya*mur / ya*m*tr) If the streets are wet, it must have rained last night. (Kendini) yorgun hissed-iyor-sa-n, dn gece ge yat-m-sn-dr. (yor*gun / his*se*di*yor*san~ / dn / ge*ce / ge / yat*m*sn*dr) If you feel tired, you must have gone to bed late last night. (I am sure you went to bed late, that is why you are tired now.)

305

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Biraz ngilizce biliyorsan, bu cmleleri anlamsndr. (bi*raz / in*gi*liz*ce / bi*li*yor*san ~/ bu / cm*le*le*ri / an*la*m*sn*dr) If you know some English, you must have understood these sentences. In English, there are some conditional sentences whose both parts are Simple Present Tense. These sentences are formed in Turkish as follows: Buzu st-r-sa-n suya dn-r. (bu*zu / *s*tr*san ~ / su*ya / d*n*r) If you heat ice, it turns to water. A-sa-k birsey yer-iz. (a*sak~ / bir*sey / ye*riz) If we are hungry, we eat something. Yourul-ur-sa-k dinlen-ir-iz. (yo*ru*lur*sak ~ / din*le*ni*riz) If we get tired, we rest. 1 (b): PRESENT UNREAL (CONTRARY TO FACT) SUPPOSITION In the present unreal supposition, the V - [se, sa] - [pers] verb chain is used in the condition part, and "used to" (imdiki zaman'n hikyesi) is used in the second part of a conditional sentence: Evde ol-sa kapy a-ar-d. (ev*de / ol*sa ~ / ka*p*y / a*ar*d) If he were at home, he would open the door. (He is not at home now.) Cevab bil-se-im sana syle-ir-di-im. (ce*va:*b / bil*sem ~/sa*na / sy*ler*dim) If I knew the answer, I would tell you. (I don't know the answer.) Senin yerinde ol-sa-m byle davran-maz-d-m. (se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam ~ / by*le / dav*ran*maz*dm) If I were you, I wouldnt behave like that. (advice) Yapacak bir sr iim ol-ma-sa seninle dar k-ar-d-m. (ya*pa*cak / bir*s*r / i*im / ol*ma*sa ~/ se*nin*le / d*a*r / *kar*dm) If I didnt have a lot of things to do, I would go out with you. (Sorry, I have a lot of things to do.) Babann yerinde ol-sa-m, araba kullanmana izin ver-mez-di-im. (ba*ba*nn / ye*rin*de / ol*sam ~ / a*ra*ba / kul*lan*ma*na / i*zin / ver*mez*dim) If I were your father, I wouldnt let you drive.) The present unreal suppositions can also be used to express future regret:

306

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yarn tatil ol-sa piknie gider-di-ik. (ya*rn / ta:*til / ol*sa ~/ pik*ni*e / gi*der*dik) If tomorrow were a holiday, we would go for a picnic. 2 (a): PAST REAL SUPPOSITION In the past real supposition, the if clause is thought to be true and the main clause is based on this real supposition. The structure of this type if clause is V - [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, t] /y/-[se, sa]-[pers]. The main clause is in The Simple Past form: Parise git-ti-/y/se Eyfel Kulesini gr-d. (pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se ~/ ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gr*d) If he went to Paris, he saw The Eiffel Tower. In such sentences, the main clause is generally strengthened as gr-mtr (must have seen): Parise git-ti/y/-se, Eyfel Kulesini gr-m-tr. (pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se ~ / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gr*m*tr) If he went to Paris, he must have seen the Eiffel Tower. (I think he went to Paris and certainly he saw The Eiffel Tower.) Yeterince ok al-t/y/-sa, baar-m-tr. (ye*te*rin*ce / a*l*ty*sa / ba*ar*m*tr) If he worked hard enough, he must have succeeded. (I believe he worked hard enough and consequently he succeeded.) Syledikleri doru idi/y/-se, cezalandrlm olamaz. (sy*le*dik*le*ri / do*ru / i*diy*se ~ / ce*za:*lan*d*rl*m / o*la*maz) If what he said was true, he cant have been punished. Kafesi ak brak-t/y/-sa-n, ku uup gitmitir. (ka*fe*si / a*k / b*rak*ty*san ~ / ku / u*up / git*mi*tir) If you left the cage open, the bird must have flown away. 2 (b): PAST UNREAL (CONTRARY TO FACT) SUPPOSITION To form an unreal past supposition, V - [se, sa]/y/-[di, d]-[pers] verb chain is used in the if part of a sentence, and the (imdiki Zaman'n Hikyesi) used to is used in the second part of a conditional sentence. Compare the following: Kapy aldnda evde ol-sa/y/-d a-ar-d. (ka*p*y / al*d*n*da / ev*de / ol*say*d ~ / a*ar*d) If he had been at home when you knocked at the door, he would have opened it. (He was not at home, so he didnt open the door.)

307

TURKISH GRAMMAR
Yarn tatil olsa sinemaya giderdik. (ya*rn / ta:*til / ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik) If tomorrow were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal) Bugn tatil olsa sinemaya giderdik. (bu*gn / ta:*til /ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik) If today were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal) Dn tatil olsayd sinemaya giderdik. (dn / ta:*til / ol*say*d~ / si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik) (unreal) If yesterday had been a holiday, we would have gone to the cinema. (Yesterday was not a holiday, so we didnt go.) Dn onu gr-se/y/-di-im, onunla konu-ur-du-um. (dn / o*nu / gr*sey*dim / o*nun*la / ko*nu*ur*dum) If I had seen him yesterday, I would have talked to him. (I didnt see him, so I didnt talk to him.) Kafesi ak brak-ma-sa/y/-d-n, ku uup git-mez-di. (ka*fe*si / a*k / b*rak*ma*say*dn ~ / ku / u*up / git*mez*di) If you hadnt left the cage open, the bird wouldnt have flown away. (You left the cage open, so the bird flew away.) Birka tane daha problem z-se/y/-di-im, daha iyi bir not al-r-d-m. (bir*ka / ta:*ne / da*ha / prob*lem / z*sey*dim~/ da*ha / i*yi / bir / not / a*lr*dm) If I had solved a few more problems, I would have got a better grade. (I couldnt solve some more problems, and so I couldnt get a better grade.) abucak dur-ma-sa/y/-d-m, adam fena halde yaralan-a-bil-ir-di. (a*bu*cak / dur*ma*say*dm~ / a*dam / fe*na: / hal*de / ya*ra*la*na*bi*lir*di) If I hadnt stopped suddenly, the man might have been badly injured. Bizim kaleci daha dikkatli oyna-sa/y-/d, ma kaybet-mez-di-ik. (bi*zim / ka*le*ci ~/ da*ha / dik*kat*li / oy*na*say*d ~/ ma* / kay*bet*mez*dik) If our goalkeeper had played more carefully, we wouldnt have lost the match. (I regret to say that we lost the match.) O araba o kadar pahal ol-ma-sa/y/-d, satn al-r-d-m. ( o / a*ra*ba / o / ka*dar / pa*ha*l / ol*ma*say*d ~/ o*nu / a*lr*dm) If that car hadnt been so expensive, I would have bought it. svirede o kadar ok saanaa yakalan-ma-sa/y/-d-k, muhteem manzarann zevkne var-r-d-k. (is*vi*re*de / o / ka*dar / ok / sa*a*na*a / ya*ka*lan*ma*say*dk ~/ muh*te*em / man*za*ra*nn / zev*ki*ne / va*rr*dk)

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
If we hadnt had so many thunder storms in Switzerland, we would have enjoyed the wonderful scenery. Sometimes the if part of a conditional sentence may begin with an unreal past supposition, but the main clause ends with an unreal present tense. Dn mektuplar daktilo etmeyi bitir-se-/y/di-in, bugn onlar postala/y/a-bil-ir/di-ik. (dn / mek*tup*la*r / dak*ti*lo / et*me*yi / bi*tir*sey*din~ / bu*gn / on*la*r / pos*ta*la*ya*bi*lir*dik) If you had finished typing the letters yesterday, we could post them today.

ORDERS and REQUESTS

The speech intention of a speaker is decided and shaped in his mind just before he begins speaking or writing something, and as he considers the feelings of the hearer, he chooses the most suitable sentence and intonation pattern to produce in his speech. The intonation of a speaker generally reflects his feelings and intentions much more than the words that he uses in his speech. Therefore, even a politest request sentence pattern may turn into a strict order if someones intonation is not soft and tentative enough to persuade the hearer without injuring his or her feelings. PLAIN ORDERS AND REQUESTS The numbers below start from the strictest order and goes onto the softest and kindest request: 1. Kapy a. (ka*p*y / a) Open the door. Televizyonu kapat. (te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat) Turn the TV off. Sylediimi yap. (sy*le*di*mi / yap) Do what I tell you. (Benim) bilgisayarma dokunma. (bil*gi*sa*ya*r*ma / do*kun*ma) Dont touch my computer. Eve ge gelme. (e*ve / ge / gel*me) Dont come home late. Kalbimi krma. ( kl*bi*mi / kr*ma) Dont break my heart. 2. Lutfen kapy a. (lut*fen / ka*p*y / a) Open the door, please.

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Lutfen televizyonu kapat. Please turn the TV off. Lutfen beni dinle. Listen to me, please. Lutfen sylediimi dinle. (lut*fen / sy*le*di*i*mi / din*le) Listen to what I tell you, please. POLITE REQUESTS 3. Kapy a, olur mu? ( ka*p*y / a / o*lur / mu) Open the door, will you? Televizyonu kapat, olur mu? ( te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat / o*lur / mu) Turn the TV off, will you? Sylediimi yap, olur mu? (sy*le*di*mi / yap / o*lur / mu) Do what I tell you, will you? Eve ge gelme, olur mu ? (e*ve / ge / gel*me / o*lur / mu) Dont come home late, will you? 4. Lutfen kapy aar msn? (lut*fen / ka*p*y / a*ar / m*sn ) Will you open the door, please? Lutfen bana yardm eder misin? (lut*fen / ba*na / yar*dm / e*der / mi*sin) Will you help me, please? Lutfen radyoyu ksar msn? (lut*fen / rad*yo*yu / k*sar / m*sn) Will you turn down the radio, please? Lutfen bana bir fincan kahve yapar msn? (lut*fen / ba*na / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / ya*par / m*sn) Will you please make me a cup of coffee? 5. Televizyonu kapatma-m-n sizce bir sakncas var m? (te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat*ma*mn / siz*ce / bir / sa*kn*ca*s / var / m) Do (would) you mind my turning the TV off?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Bir saat sonra gelmemin sizce bir sakncas var n? (bir / sa*at / son*ra / gel*me*min / siz*ce / bir / sa*kn*ca*s / var / m) Would you mind if I came two hours later? (somewhat formal) Sizi bir saat sonra arasam olur mu? (si*zi / bir / sa*at / son*ra / a*ra*sam / o*lur*mu) Would you mind if I called you two hours later? (somewhat formal) 6. (more friendly) Hadi bana bir fincan kahve yapver. (ha*di / ba*na / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / ya*p*ver / o*lur mu) Just make me a cup of coffee, will you? u televizyonu kapatver, olur mu? ( u / te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pa*t*ver / o*lur mu) Just turn off the TV, will you? Benimle bir fincan kahve iiver, olur nu? (be*nim*le / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / i*i*ver / o*lur mu ) Jast have a cup of coffee with me, will you? POLITE REFUSALS To accept an offer or a request is easy. You may just say Evet, memnuniyetle. (Yes, with pleasure.), Baylrm. (Yes, Id love to.), or Elbette. (Certainly). When you have to refuse a request or an offer, however, you have to be politer than ever in order not to offend the person who has asked for permission: Televizyonu aabilir miyim? Can I turn on the TV? Amasan iyi olur; nk bir i mektubu zerinde odaklanmaya alyorum. Youd better not, because Im trying to concentrate on a business letter. Odanz imdi temizleyebilir miyim? Can I clean your room now? Temizlemesen (yapmasan) iyi olur, nk bu odada yapacak bir sr iim var. Id rather you didnt because I have got a lot of things to do in this room. stersen maa gidelim. Lets go to the match, if you wish. Korkarm gidemem; ev devimi bitirmek zorundaym. Im afraid I cant because I have to finish my homework.

OFFERS
To make an offer in Turkish V - [e-li, a-l] - [pers] verb composition is used:

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Konsere git-e-li-im. (kon*se*re / gi*de*lim) Lets go to the concert. Televizyon seyret-e-li-im. (te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*lim) Lets watch television. If someone wishes, he can put question tags after the above expressions: Konsere gidelim mi, ne dersin? (kon*se*re / gi*de*lim / mi / ne / der*sin) Lets go to the concert, shall we? Shall we go to the concert? V - [me, ma] - [/y/e, /y/a] + ne dersin verb chain can also be used as an alternative to the above expression. The [me, ma] allomorphs are the infinitive allomorphs: Konsere git-me-/y/e ne dersin? (kon*se*re / git*me*ye / ne / der* sin ) What (how) about going to the concert? Evde oturup al-ma-/y/a ne dersin? (ev*de / o*tu*rup / a*l*ma*ya / ne / der*sin ) What about staying at home and studying? Futbol mana gitmeye ne dersin? (fut*bol / ma**na / git*me*ye / ne / der*sin) How about going to a football match?

V - [P]
When two actions are carried out one after the other, the first verb stem is suffixed with one of the [ip, p, p, up] allomorphs before the final verb composition is used in all tenses: Otur-up dn-d-m. (o*tu*rup / d*n*dm) I sat down and thought. Bekle-/y/ip greceiz. (bek*le*yip / g*re*ce*iz) Well wait and see al-p baarabilirsin. (a*l*p / ba*a*ra*bi*lir*sin) You can work and succeed.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
ocuklar bahede ko-up oynuyorlard. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*up ~/ oy*nu*yor*lar*d) The children were running and playing in the garden. Hayaleti gr-p bayld. (ha*ya:*le*ti / g*rp / ba*yl*d) She saw the ghost and fainted.

QUESTION TAGS: (DEL M?)

Deil mi? is used in Turkish in place of all question tags of the English language: Pop mzik sev-iyor-/s/un, deil mi? (pop / m*zik / se*vi*yor*sun/ de*il / mi ) You like pop music, dont you? Pop mzik sev-me-iyor-/s/un, deil mi? (pop / m*zik / sev*mi*yor*sun / de*il / mi) You dont like pop music, do you? Daha karar ver-me-di-in, deil mi? (da*ha / ka*rar / ver*me*din/ de*il / mi) You havent decided yet, have you? Yorgun-sun, deil mi? (yor*gun*sun / de*il / mi) You are tired, arent you? Konserden memnun oldun, deil mi? (kon*ser*den / mem*nun / ol*dun/ de*il / mi) You enjoyed the concert, didnt you? Sigara imiyorsun, deil mi? (si*ga*ra / i*mi*yor*sun / de*il / mi) You dont smoke, do you? Yarn Ankaraya gidiyorsun, deil mi? (ya*rn / an*ka*ra*ya / gi*di*yor*sun/ de*il / mi) You are going to Ankara tomorrow, arent you? Trke biliyorsun, deil mi? (trk*e / bi*li*yor*sun / de*il / mi) You know Turkish, dont you? aka yapyorsun, deil mi? (a*ka / ya*p*yor*sun / de*il / mi) You are joking, arent you?

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
(SO DO I) (NEITHER DO I) BEN DE, O DA, ANNEM DE. In response to a positive or a negative statement, a listener may answer in agreement or disagreement using the words so or neither followed by an inverted sentence type in English. In Turkish, however, there is only one response pattern to use in such situations such as Ben de, O da Ahmet de, Annem de etc. Consider and compare the following sentences: "Ben pop mzik seviyorum." "Ben de." (ben / pop / m*zik / se*vi*yo*rum) ( ben / de) "I like pop music." "So do I." (I do, too.) (Me too.) Ben pop mzik sev-me-iyor-um." Ben de." (ben / pop / m*zik / sev*mi*yo*rum) (ben / de) "I dont like pop music." "Neither do I." (I dont, either.) "Annem yemek yapmay sevmiyor." Benim annem de." "Mother doesnt like cooking." "Neither does my mother." "ok yorgunum." "Ben de." "Im very tired." "So am I." ( I am, too.) "Babam bir jeep satn ald." "Benim babam da." "My father has bought a jeep." "So has my father." "Sen delisin." "Sen de." "You are crazy." "So are you." (You are, too.) "Fatma gzel deil." "Kz kardei de." "Fatma isnt beautiful." "Neither is her sister." "Yarn sabah erken kalkmak zorundaym." "Ben de." "I have to get up early tomorrow morning." "So do I." "Muzlar ok pahal." "Elmalar da." "Bananas are very expensive." " So are the apples. "Benim babam kel." "Benim babam da." "My father is bald." "So is my father."

CONJUNCTIONS and TRANSITIONAL PHRASES

Conjunctions are the words that join sentences, clauses and words. There are two kinds of conjunctions in English: Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. The coordinating conjunctions are words like "and", "but", "or", "for" or "yet". The subordinating conjunctions are the words that are used preceding simple sentences to form syntactic adverbs (adverb clauses) in English such as "although", "until", "before", "after", "while", "when", etc., all of which have been explained in the previous chapters.

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Transitional words and phrases, however, link sentences and paragraphs by carrying over a thought coherently from one sentence or paragraph to another. Some of the most frequently used Turkish coordinating conjunctions and transitional adverbs and phrases are as follows: akas : in plain words, in short, frankly speaking

Bann ardn ve evde bir sr yapacak ii olduunu sylyor. Akas, bizimle gezmeye gitmek istemiyor. She says she has a headache and has so many things to do at home. In plain words, she doesnt want to go for a walk with us. aksi takdirde : otherwise

u televizyonu kapat. Aksi takdirde, ne yapacam biliyorsun. Turn the TV off; otherwise you know what Ill do. aksine, bilakis : on the contrary Ben televizyonda futbol seyretmeyi seviyorum. Aksine, lum ma seyretmekten nefret ediyor. I like watching football on television. On the contrary, my son hates watching football matches. ama : but, yet, still, really, truly

Aklldr ama biraz tembeldir. She is clever, but rather lazy. ancak : but, however, yet

ok gzel bir kz, ancak baarl deil. She is a beautiful girl; yet, she is not successful. Jack Marye ak. Ancak, Mary Jacke ak deil. Jack is in love with Mary; however, Mary is not in love with him. aslnda : in fact

Mary ev iini kendisinin yaptn syyor. Ama aslnda, iin ounu kocas yapyor. Mary says that she does the housework herself. In fact, her husband does most of the housework. ayn biimde : likewise

teki sorulara ayn ekilde cevap verebilirsin. You can answer the other questions likewise.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
baka bir deyile: in other words, bilhassa bir yandan bu amala : in particular, particularly, specifically, above all : on the one hand : for this purpose

bu dorultuda : accordingly retmen rencilere sessiz olmalarn syledi ve onlar da bu dorultuda davrandlar. The teacher told the students to be quiet and the students acted accordingly. bu durumda, yleyse : in that case Sabahleyin sana ev devinde yardm etmemi istiyorsun. yleyse sabahleyin daha erken kalk. You want me to help you with your homework in the morning. In that case get up earlier. bu srada : meanwhile

Sen mutfakta yemek yapmaya devam et. Bu srada ben de oturma odasnda biraz uyurum. You go on cooking in the kitchen. Meanwhile Ill have a nap in the sitting room. bunun iin : because of this, for this reason, therefore

Onun ok kez yalan syledigini duydum. Bunun iin ona artk inanmyorum. I have heard him tell lies so many times; for this reason, I dont believe him any more. bunun yerine : instead Adam bana cevap vermedi. Bunun yerine salakmm gibi yzme bakt durdu. The man did not answer; instead, he stared at me as if I were a fool. bu yzden : therefore, for that reason, so, that is why

Hindistana hi gitmedim; bu yzden sana akl veremem. I have never been to India; therefore, I cant advise you. Yrye kmak iin sokaa ktmda yamur yamaya balad. Bu yzden, ben de sinemaya gitmeye karar verdim.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
When I left home to go for a walk, it began to rain; so I decided to go to the cinema. bu artlar altnda : under these circumstances nk : because

Televizyonu kapatsan iyi olur, nk iime devam edemiyorum. You had better turn off the TV because I cant go on with my work. -den baka : except for

Snf iki istekli renciden baka (iki renciyi saymazsak) botu. The classroom was empty except for two eager students. dier bir deyile: in other words, to put it differently Evde yemek yapacak kimse yok. Baka bir deyile, ben yemek yapmak zorunda kalacaim. There is nobody to cook at home. In other words, I will have to cook. doal olarak : naturally

Bu blgedeki baz gller kurudu. Bu yizden, doal olarak baz kular lkenin deiik yrelerine g edecekler. Some lakes have dried up in this area. Some birds, naturally, will migrate to different parts of the country. -e nazaran : in comparison to (with), compared to

Erkek ocuklar kzlara nazaran matematikte daha iyidirler. Boys are better at mathematics compared to girls. en nihayet esasen fakat : after all : in fact, as a matter of fact : but, yet, however

Btn yl alt, fakat bir araba satn almak iin yeterince para biriktiremedi. He worked hard all the year long, but he couldnt save enough money to buy a car. farzet ki : supposing

Farzet ki isizim, benimle evlenir miydin? Supposing I were unemployed, would you marry me? garip belki ama: strange to say, strangely enough

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Garip belki ama peri onu kurbaaya dntrd. Strange to say, the fairy changed him into a frog. genel anlamda : generally speaking genel hatlar ile: in general terms genellikle : as a rule, on the whole gsterildii gibi: as has been indicated, as has been noted halbuki, oysa : whereas, but, however Ben oturup kitap okumay severim; oysa eim seyahat etmeyi tercih eder. I like sitting and reading books; whereas, my wife prefers traveling. hari hatta : excluding : even, moreover, besides, even more, furthermore

Kzm be yl nce evlendi; hatta (stelik) iki olu bile var. My daughter got married five years ago; besides, she has got two sons. hem hem (de): both . and Hem kadnlar hem erkekler ailelerini geindirmek iin almaldr. Both men and women must work to support their families. Hem Ahmet hem Mehmet ayn brada alyorlar. Both Ahmet and Mehmet work in the same office. Her ey gz nne alnd takdirde : all things considered ile (le, la) : and

Ahmetle Mehmet ayn brada alyorlar. Ahmet and Mehmet work in the same office. ilknce kh kh : to begin with : sometimes sometimes

Kh gleriz kh alarz ackl kaderimize. Sometimes we laugh sometimes we cry for our miserable faith. ki : that

Korkarm (ki) pastan kedi yedi. Im afraid (that) the cat has eaten up your cake. nanrm (ki) haklsn. I believe (that) you are right.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
ksaca madem (ki) : in short, in brief : since, seeing that, considering that, as

Madem (ki) ok altn, snav geebilirsin. Seeing that you have studied hard, you can pass the exam. meer : it seems that, apparently

Meer evliymi. It seemed that he was married. mesel : for example, for instance

Baz hayvanlar insanlara sadktr; mesel, kpeklerle kediler. Some animals are loyal to human beings; for example cats and dogs. ne... ne (de) : neither . nor

Ne sen, ne ben ince anlyoruz Neither you nor I can understand Chinese. Mutfakta ne domates ne soan var. There are neither tomatoes nor onions in the kitchen. Onu ne grdm, ne de onunla konutum. I have neither seen nor talked to him. Neyse : anyway, in any case, at any rate

Neyse, biz almaya devam edelim. Anyway, lets go on working. o kadar ki : so + adj (adv) + that

Bu gnlerde fiyatlar o kadar yksek ki, kimse bir ey satn almak istemiyor. Nowadays, the prices are so high that nobody wants to buy anything. olsun olsun : whether or Zengin olsun fakir olsun herkes kanuna uymak zorundadr. Whether rich or poor everybody has to obey laws. Oysa : but, yet, however, whereas

Hereyden bktn sylyorsun. Oysa, ben inanyorum ki sen btn glklerin stesinden gelebilirsin. You say you are tired of everything, but I believe, you can overcome all difficulties. rnein : for example, for instance

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
te yandan : on the other hand

yle bile olsa : even so yleyse : in that case, if so, then

Uykulu hissettiini sylyorsun. yleyse, git bir fincan kahve i. You say you are feeling sleepy; If so, go and have a cup of coffee. zellikle, bilhassa: in particular, particularly zetliyecek olursak: to sum up sanki : as if

Habire bana emir verip duruyor; sanki benim patronum! He is always ordering me around as if he were my boss. Sonra : then

Eve geldi, sonra mutfaa dald ve yemek hazrlamaya balad. She came home, then hurried into the kitchen and started preparing dinner. sonu olarak sonuta stelik : as a result, as a consequence : in conclusion

: furthermore, in addition, what is more, even, besides, moreover En kolay problemleri bile zemiyor; stelik kendini bir dh sanyor. He cant solve even the simplest problems; besides, he thinks he is a genius. phesiz ki tam aksine tam tersine : undoubtedly : in contrast : on the contrary

tm bunlara ramen: for all that tmyle ve velhasl ve saire veya ya ya (da) : on the whole : and : after all, in conclusion : etc. : or : either or

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Ya beni dinle, ya da snf terket. Either listen to me, or leave the classroom. yalnz : but, however

Seni affediyorum. Yalnz, bana bir daha yalan sylemeyeceine sz ver. Ill forgive you now; but promise me, you wont tell any lies any more. yani : that is why, I mean, in other words, that is to say

Hastaym gibi rol yapyor; yani, okula gitmek istemiyor. He pretends as if he were ill; that is to say, he doesnt want to go to school. yeter ki : provided that, providing

Sana bir bisiklet alacam; yeter ki sen snavlarn ge. Ill buy a bicycle for you; provided that you pass your examinations. yoksa : otherwise, or else, if not, or

Ko, yoksa otobs karacaz. Run, or else well miss the bus.

zaten

: anyway INTENSIFIERS

Intensifiers are adverbs that are used before adjectives or adverbs to strengthen or weaken their meanings. Besides these words, there are some prefixes, which are the only ones in Turkish that are attached to adjectives and adverbs to strengthen their meanings: St ok scak. (st / ok / s*cak) The milk is very hot. Sorular biraz gt. (so*ru*lar / bi*raz / g*t) The questions were rather difficult. Sen tamamen haklsn. (sen / ta*ma:*men / hak*l*sn) You are quite right. Baz kelebekler son derece gzeldir. (ba:*z / ke*le*bek*ler / son / de*re*ce / g*zel*dir) Some butterflies are extremely beautiful.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
renciler sorulara ok dikkatli cevap verdiler. (*ren*ci*ler / so*ru*la*ra / ok / dik*kat*li / ce*vap / ver*di*ler) The students answered the questions very carefully. Ev olduka iyi. (ev / ol*duk*a / i*yi) The house is pretty good. Cevaplarn hepsi tamamen yanl. (ce*vap*la*rn / hep*si / ta*ma:*men / yan*l) All the answers are completely wrong. Burada sigara imek kesinlikle yasaktr. (bu*ra*da / si*ga*ra / i*mek~ / ke*sin*lik*le / ya*sak*tr ) Smoking here is strictly forbidden. O ciddi bir ekilde hasta. (o / cid*di: / bir / e*kil*de / has*ta) He is seriously ill. yi bir i bulmak onun iin yaamsal derecede nemliydi. (i*yi / bir / i / bul*mak ~/ o*nun / i*in / ya*am*sal / de*re*ce*de / *nem*liy*di) To find a good job was vitally important for him. Yabanc bir dil renmek fevkalde zordur. (ya*ban*c / bir / dil / *ren*mek~ / fev*ka*l:*de / zor*dur ) Learning a foreign language is extremely difficult. Arabas yepyeniydi. (a*ra*ba*s / yep*ye*niy*di) His car was brand new. Hava buz gibi souktu. (ha*va / buz / gi*bi / so*uk*tu) It was icy cold. ok fena bam aryordu. (ok / fe*na: / ba*m / a*r*yor*du) I had an awful headache. Uyandmda her yer gnlk gnelikti. (u*yan*d*m*da / her / yer / gn*lk / g*ne*lik*ti) When I woke up, it was broad daylight. Annem bana gcr gcr bir elli dolar verdi. (an*nem / ba*na / g*cr / g*cr / bir / el*li / do*lar / ver*di) Mother gave me a crisp new fifty dollar bill.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Sorular srpriz bir ekilde kolayd. (so*ru*lar / srp*riz / bir / e*kil*de / ko*lay*d) The questions were surprisingly easy. O beni olduka dzenli ziyaret eder. (be*ni / ol*duk*a / d*zen*li / zi*ya:*ret / e*der) He visits me quite regularly. Konser gerekten iyiydi. (kon*ser / ger*ek*ten / i*yiy*di) The concert was really good. Baz diller dierleriyle karlatrldnda nispeten daha karmaktr. Some languages are relatively complicated when compared with others. Bugn biraz yorgunum. (bu / gn / bi*raz / yor*gu*num) I'm a little tired today. Tamamen haklsn. (ta*ma:*men / hak*l*sn) You're absolutely right. Fena halde yorgunum. (fe*na: / hal*de / yor*gu*num) I'm awfully tired. Bizim sorularmz sizin sorularnzdan ok daha gt. (bi*zim / so*ru*la*r*mz / si*zin / so*ru*la*r*nz*dan ~/ ok / da*ha / g*t) Our questions were far more difficult than yours. Bugn gerekten yorgunum. (bu*gn / ger*ek*ten / yor*gu*num) I am really tired today. Sana deli gibi am. (sa*na / de*li / gi*bi / a:**m) I am madly in love with you. Kn bu daa trmanmak fevkalde tehlikelidir. Climbing this mountain in winter is extremely dangerous. Olduka az renci snav geti. Quite a few students passed the exam. Zerre kadar ilgilenmiyorum. (zer*re / ka*dar / il*gi*len*mi*yo*rum) I am not interested in the least.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Araba tertemizdi. (a*ra*ba / ter*te*miz*di) The car was spotlessly clean. Dosdoru yr. (dos*do*ru / y*r) Walk straight ahead. Yal adamn bembeyaz sakal vard. (ya*l / a*da*mn / bem*be*yaz / sa*ka*l / var*d) The old man had snow white beard. Marynin masmavi gzleri var. (me*ri*nin / mas*ma*vi / gz*le*ri / var) Mary has deep blue eyes. Ev tamtakrd. (ev / tam*ta*kr*d) The house was absolutely empty. Onun evinde smscak bir odas vard. (o*nun / e*vin*de / sm*s*cak / bir / o*da*s / var*d) She had a cozy room in her house. Sorun apak. (so*run / a*pa*k) The problem is obvious, (beyond dispute, clear) Sebzeler taptazeydi. (seb*ze*ler / tap*ta*zey*di) The vegetables were as fresh as daisies. Korkudan kaskat kesildiler. (kor*ku*dan / kas*ka*t / ke*sil*di*ler ) They became rigid with fear. Iklar snnce her yer kapkaranlk oldu. (*k*lar / s*nn*ce / her*yer / kap*ka*ran*lk / ol*du) Everywhere became pitch dark when the lights went off. Dosdoru yr. (dos*do*ru / y*r) Walk straight ahead. Bunlar apayr kavramlar. (bun*lar / a*pay*r / kav*ram*lar ) These are quite different concepts.

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TURKISH GRAMMAR
Oda karmakarkt. (o*da / kar*ma*ka*r*k*t) The room was in a mess. Kuraklkta tarlalar kupkuruydu. (ku*rak*lk*ta / tar*la*lar / kup*ku*ruy*du) During the draft (draught) the fields were as dry as a bone. O bizden apayr dnyor. (o / biz*den / a*pay*r / d**n*yor.) He thinks quite differently from us. Onlarn amac besbelliydi. (on*la*rn / a*ma*c / bes*bel*liy*di ) Their aim was obvious. Kk kz yapayalnzd. (k*k / kz / ya*pa*yal*nz*d) The little girl was all alone. Senin gzel vazon parampara oldu. (se*nin / g*zel / va*zon / pa*ram*par*a / ol*du) Your beautiful vase has been broken to pieces.

REPORTED SPEECH
itilen Szn Bakasna letilmesi When a speaker or writer wants to report what he or she heard to someone, he or she can use two sorts of structures both in English and Turkish: 1: In English and Turkish one can convey what one heard without transforming it: Mary said, I dislike boring people. NP V (sentence) NP Mary Ben skc kimselerden holanmam de-di.
NP (sentence) NP V

Do you enjoy making fun of me? Jack said to Mary.

(sentence) NP NP adv NP V prep phrs V

Jack, Maryye Benimle alay etmekten zevk mi alyorsun? dedi.

(sentence) NP

"Come back home before it gets dark," Mary's father said to her.
(sentence) NP NP adv NP (sentence) NP V prep phrs V

Mary'nin babas Mart'ye, "Hava kararmadan eve dn" dedi.

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2: Both in English and Turkish, one can report what one (has) heard by transforming it: Mary said that she disliked boring people.
NP NP V noun clause NP (infinitive) NP (obj of syle) V

Mary skc kimselerden holan-ma-dk--/n/ syledi.

Jack asked Mary if she enjoyed making fun of him.

NP NP V adv ind obj adv (noun clause) NP (obj of ask) (infinitive) NP (obj of sor) V

Jack Maryye onunla alay etmekten zevk alp al-ma-dk--/n/ sordu.

Jack asked Mary why she was crying.

NP NP V adv adv (noun clause) NP (inf) NP (obj of sor) V

Jack Maryye niin ala-dk--/n/ sordu.

Mary's father warned her to come back home before it gets dark.
NP NP V NP prep phrs of reason syntactic adv of time NP V

Mary'nin babas (Mary'nin) hava kararmadan eve dnmesi iin Mary'yi uyard.
noun compound postp postpositional phrs of reason

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SYMBOLS and ABBREVIATIONS Asterisks: Asterisks (*) are used to separate syllables: (a*l**yor*duk) Brackets: Brackets ( ) are used to show optional elements: (benim) Brackets: Some brackets ( ) are used to give further explanation. Brackets: Some other brackets are used to give alternative words, phrases, or sentences. Colon: A colon (:) is used to show a long vowel: (te*da:*vi:) Hyphens: Hyphens (-) are used to separate suffixes (allomorphs): (gel-iyor-lar) Double underlined vowels: These vowels (u) show that they are dropped. Sign of transformation: () This sign shows that the previous simple sentence is transformed into the following syntactic form. Monosyllabic: The words that have only one syllable: (gel), (gr), (mor) Polysyllabic: The words that have two or more syllables: (y*r), (kr*m*z) [D] : morpheme [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]: The allomorphs (phonemic variants) of the morpheme [D]. The allomorphs printed in bold type follow the stems or allomorphs ending with vowels or voiced consonants; the others, printed in normal type follow the stems or allomorphs ending with unvoiced consonants. [pers] : Any one of the personal allomorphs ( im, m, sin, sn, ik, k, etc.) representing personal suffixes.
adj adv comp D inf intens intr tran obj subj pers phrs prep postp S : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : adjective adverb compound determiner infinitive intensifier intransitive transitive object subject personal allomorph phrase preposition (English) postposition (Turkish) sentence synt phrs VP NP pred sent deter V V V
c v

: : : : : : : :

:
:

syntactic phrase Verbal Phrase Nominal Phrase predicate sentence determiner verb stem, verb frame, verb composition a verb that ends with a consonant a verb that ends with a vowel

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REFERENCES Allen Harold B., Applied English Linguistics, 1958 Allen J.B.P and Buren Paul Van, Chomsky: Selected Readings, 1971 Aydn zgr kinci Dil Olarak Trke retiminde Trke Dilbilgisi Betimlemelerinin Grnm Bakan zcan, Lengistik Metodu, 1967 Beach, Emmon, An Introduction to Transformational Grammars. Holt, Rinchart and Winston, Inc. Bloomfield Leonard, Language, 1933 Bolinger Dwight, Aspects of Language 1981 Harper and Row, Publishers, New York Bruce L. Liles, An introductory Transformational Grammar Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1971 Chomsky Noam, Language and Mind, 2006 Chomsky Noam, Syntactic Structures, 1957 Chomsky Noam, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1969 Chomsky Noam and Halle Morris, The Sound Pattern of English 1968 Ediskun Haydar, Yeni Trk Dilbilgisi, 1996 Ergin Muharrem, Trk Dil Bilgisi, 1972 Fries Carl Carpenter, The Structure of English, 1952

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Gatenby, Hornby and Wakefield; The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, 1952 Gencan Tahir Nejat, Dilbilgisi, Kanaat Yaynlar, stanbul Gknel Yksel, English Workbook, Ahmet Sait Matbaas stanbul 1976 Gknel Yksel, Modern Trke Dilbilgisi, 1974 Esen Kitabevi, Kemeralt No. P. 30 ZMR Gknel Yksel, retici Dnml Dilbilgisi ve Trke Szdizimi 1976, Trk Dili XXXIII / 295 Gksel Asl, Celia Kerslake, Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar, 2005 Hengirmen Mehmet, Trke Dilbilgisi, 2005 Hornby A.S., A Guide to Patterns and Usage in English 1954 Oxford Unversty Press Liles Robert B., An introductory Transformational Grammar, 1971 Max Black, Frederick A. Praeger Longman Dictionary Of Contemporary English R. A. Close, A Reference Grammar for Students of English. Longman 1982 Sezer Ayhan, retimsel-Dnml Dilbilgisinin Trkeye Uygulanmas zerine Bir Gzlem Thomas Owen, Transformational Grammar and the Teacher of English, 1974 Tureng Szlk, www.tureng.com Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language, 1957

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