Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Pumps _________________________________________________________________ 43
Pump Capacities _______________________________________________________________ 43 Power consumption ____________________________________________________________ 43
Biofilms________________________________________________________________ 48
What are Biofilms? _____________________________________________________________ Where do Biofilms Form? ________________________________________________________ How do Biofilms Form? __________________________________________________________ How Strong are Biofilms? ________________________________________________________ Biofilm and Flow Rate ___________________________________________________________ Biofilm Development ___________________________________________________________ Complexity of Biofilms __________________________________________________________ 48 48 48 49 49 49 50
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Flotation _______________________________________________________________ 57 Surface Skimmers _______________________________________________________ 57 Design Parameters for Filters ______________________________________________ 58
Biofilters _______________________________________________________________ 60
Nitrifying Bacteria ______________________________________________________________ 60 Heterotrophic Bacteria __________________________________________________________ 61 Starting up Biofilters ____________________________________________________________ 61 Seeding Filters _________________________________________________________________ 62 Open Biofilters (Open media systems) ______________________________________________ 62 Trickle Filters __________________________________________________________________ 62 Bakki Showers _________________________________________________________________ 63 Fluidized Bed Filters ____________________________________________________________ 64 In Pond Filters _________________________________________________________________ 64 Closed Biofilters (close or pressurized systems) ______________________________________ 65 Floating Bead Biofilter __________________________________________________________ 65 Sinking Media Biofilter __________________________________________________________ 65 Combination Biofilters __________________________________________________________ 65
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Water Changes ________________________________________________________________ 75 Chlorine and Chloramines _______________________________________________________ 75 Fresh Water Caution ____________________________________________________________ 76
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AUTHORS SYNOPSIS
"Koi keeping is a peculiar mix of hobby, art, science, and commerce" (Professor Dominique P. Bureau of the University of Guelph) Filtration on Koi ponds can be a somewhat controversial subject often full of emotion. There are, however, basic principles that apply to all variations of the filter systems hobbyists may encounter. There are basic principles to water keeping that apply to all ponds. By adhering to these basic principles we will successfully maintain the healthy water environment our koi need. When it comes to making a plan the ingenuity of koi keepers and koi dealers never ceases to amaze me. Various things have been successfully adapted from other applications for use on Koi ponds. It is often in this adaptation that certain water quality parameters applicable to Koi ponds are overlooked and so some systems do not work properly. Koi Health begins with successful water-keeping and ends with successful water-keeping. Aquatic life has existed for hundreds of millions of years on this planet. Under aquatic conditions that can be considered "normal and healthy, Koi should live a long, healthy life, free from disease. We should therefore, strive to replicate nature in our ponds in terms of a healthy water environment. A healthy pond environment is critical to the long term survival of Koi and it is not that difficult for the average Koi keeper to achieve. Becoming a successful water keeper and then becoming a successful Koi keeper is far easier for the average hobbyist if they have a clear understanding of Koi pond filtration. The terms filter and biofilter will be used to describe the devices that remove solid particles and dissolved impurities (ammonia), respectively, from pond water. A wide variety of filters and biofilters are available to the koi hobbyist. Many of these have been adapted and modified from existing commercially available aquaculture and water processing equipment. Koi hobbyists must look past advertising claims, past personal points of view and past system complexity to get a broad understanding of pond filtration. It is a fact that all filters and biofilters work. It is when the human element transgresses certain natural laws of limitation, that failure of the system results. Bioconversion is a simple and natural process in nature. Nature works its as simple as that. The number of living organisms (Koi stocking densities) that can be successfully accommodated in a limited volume of water (the pond) is determined by the amount of dissolved oxygen and the ability of the filtration system to remove toxic wastes from the water. Our ponds are a closed system and have a limited volume of water. In order to successfully maintain a healthy environment for our Koi, we have to clean and re-cycle the same water.
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The filter system has to remove the toxic waste (ammonia) from the water as fast as it is produced. The filter must also remove solids and organics (e.g., algae) as fast as they are produced in the pond. We simply have to add oxygen at a faster rate than it is removed. The purified water must return to the pond as fast as possible. This filtration module does not promote a specific biofilter or filter design idea above any other. All filter concepts are discussed as there are many solutions to the problems Koi keepers face. This Module is viewed as a dynamic lecture. New facts and ideas are continually emerging. As new information becomes available it will be incorporated into this module. A perfect pond can be described as one in which the fish are alive and healthy for some time, the pond is truly clear and the pond does not leak. The rest is robust debate at the edge of the pond on how to achieve this.
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A COMPARATIVE INTRODUCTION
Imagine a river..
There is a constant inflow of fresh water from far away where there is plenty of rain. There are waterfalls tumbling over rocks introducing oxygen into the water. The input = fresh (free of toxic substances) water with a constant input of oxygen.
There are a host of life forms growing in the water from microscopic organisms to macro organisms to larger animals such as fish. There is an abundance of food and although the animal life forms remove oxygen whilst breathing this is continually replaced. Further any excretion of ammonia (for example) is diluted by the influx of fresh water as well as bacterial activity found on the floor and sides of the river. There are a limited number of fish relative to the amount of fresh water. Now imagine you have cut a piece of this river out and placed this bit of paradise in your garden. What are the consequences of your action ?
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Pond
Limited fresh water - what is available in the pond Limited oxygen supply Large number of fish No Food source
You have a pond, you add Koi. The life forms in the pond will need oxygen immediately. This in turn leads to metabolic activity. Food will have to be supplied and the by-product of metabolism & food is ammonia. Ammonia is toxic in minute quantities and will have to be removed as soon as possible.
You remove impurities and add oxygen by moving the water through pipes to a filtration/bioconversion system and back to the pond. Thats the basics of Koi pond filtration now comes the interesting part getting it right and this is the art of Koi pond filtration.
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Pond filtration is remarkably simple. It is not difficult to imagine the pond, the piping, the filters, the biofilter and returning the water to the pond being compared to the human body. Our lungs introduce air (oxygen) to our system and cells making gaseous exchange possible. The oxygen allows chemical processes to occur in the cells. The liver is a filter removing toxins and impurities from the blood. The kidneys, colon and skin excrete harmful by-products to waste. There is one golden thread that enables all the functions to work the circulation of fluids / blood within the body. These fluids carry a host of vital substances from oxygen to white and red blood cells to hormones to cell waste products such as carbon dioxide to nutrition etc. No matter how large and strong the heart is (or a pump on a pond) it is useless unless the veins and arteries (pipes) are free of restrictions and open for the circulation of blood (water). The blood that carries nutrition and oxygen into the cells also carries waste products away. Within the blood, a host of cells circulate to assist with the immune system, the nutrition and the oxygenation of the body cells. It is an effective circulation system that ensures the health of the organism. It is an effective circulation system that will ensure the health of your pond and ultimately the health of your Koi. A failure of any one of several organs could result in the death of the whole organism. Liver failure will result in the body being unable to filter and remove impurities from the bloodstream. The body will then die. With kidney or bowel failure the same thing - impurities in the body will reach toxic levels within a remarkably short time and the organism will die. A healthy circulation system with strong heart, open veins and open arteries, is the key to a healthy body. The volume of water in the pond is the total living environment for our fish. The pond water is piped (analogous to the blood vessels) to a pump (the heart) and through various filters (equated to the liver, kidneys etc. of the body) for purification and rejuvenation. The pond water is brought into contact with the atmosphere via waterfalls, streams, air stones with air blowers and/or venturies where oxygen is dissolved into the water and unwanted gasses are released or de-gassed into the atmosphere just like the lungs.
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Failure of any one of these systems will result in the death of the pond. When the pond dies, the fish will die. The purpose of any filtration on a Koi pond is to remove unwanted substances from the water continuously and quickly. Just as removing the sugar and the tea leaves from a cup of tea would need two different approaches, so too in a Koi pond different approaches are needed for different problems. Impurities that are dissolved in the water need chemical removal by bacterial action (bioconversion) or with charcoal or zeolite. Impurities in the form of solids need mechanical removal (filtration). A biofilter is a remarkably simple concept. This involves providing enough area where there is enough space (surface area) for naturally occurring bacteria to grow on and in sufficient numbers. These beneficial bacteria the nitrifying bacteria - do a vital job in the pond by chemically changing toxic fish waste, in the presence of oxygen, to less toxic substances. Its as easy as that. Fascinatingly the biofilter is not only home to nitrifying bacteria but home to countless other varieties of bacteria, fungi and micro organisms. This incredible diversity of microscopic life works in synergy and plays a vital role in the success of your pond. Losses caused by restrictions in unhealthy veins and arteries in the body compromise the circulation and the health of the person. Exactly the same occurs in a pond. Piping that is clogged or piping that is too small or even piping with numerous bends will restrict and reduce the flow rate, no matter how large the pump. These losses can be substantial to the point of compromising the design of the system.
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The only way oxygen can be dissolved into the water is through contact with the atmosphere. Once the system is active and free of chlorine and chloramines, fish can be introduced. As soon as the fish are introduced they will begin to excrete impurities into the water as a natural part of metabolism. The combination of oxygen and excretion from the fish results in the growth of naturally occurring nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria will grow on all surfaces within the pond. There they begin their job of using the ammonia as a food source and convert the fish impurities to less toxic substances. Bacteria take time to reach large enough numbers to convert all the ammonia to nitrite and, at a later stage, to nitrate. It is as easy as that. It is also a fact that ponds generate enormous amounts of organic matter in the form of algae. Various other pollutants such as leaves, dust and debris, contribute to the build-up of unwanted substances in the pond. The organic matter ends up in the filter system and must be removed regularly to ensure a healthy environment. Organics not removed from the pond biodegrade. This process uses oxygen therefore, the available oxygen levels are reduced and there is competition with our Koi for the critical oxygen. The by-product of rotting organic material is ammonia so the ammonia levels rise. You can have a pond with no Koi, low levels of dissolved oxygen and a high ammonia level! Any area with large amounts of organic material build-up will have layers forming. The deeper layers will be cut off from the passing oxygen in the water and become anaerobic. A by-product of anaerobic bacteria is hydrogen sulphide which is highly toxic to Koi even in minute quantities. The maintenance of a pond system is absolutely critical to the longterm health of the fish. Arm yourself with knowledge and always keep to the KISS principle Keep It Simple Stupid
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Nitrifying Bacteria
The nitrifying bacteria found in the places we encourage them to grow (i.e., the biofilters or any wet surface in our Koi ponds, for that matter) move through a dynamic range of abilities. As they grow in the biofilters and on all the parts of the pond, they become stronger. Their collective ability to convert ammonia to nitrite then nitrate increases as their populations increase, fuelled by an adequate food source and a good supply of oxygen. As temperatures drop in the winter months, (below about 50F / 10C), these bacteria do not die off but become dormant. In periods when their food supply is reduced they also become dormant. When the Koi population is increased and / or the feed to the existing fish population is increased, the ammonia in the water increases. With the increase in the food supply (ammonia) the population of bacteria will increase, provided sufficient surface area (usually in the biofilter) and oxygen are available. As these factors vary, so do the nitrifying bacteria populations. The nitrifying bacteria are dynamic and ever adapting in the pond situation.
pH
In the morning the pH will be lower compared to a test done in the late afternoon. The buffering capacity of the water will play a major role in
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the fluctuation of pH during the course of a day. The pH you record is unique to your pond. Don't be influenced by "perfect situations". Your pond may be slightly alkaline with a pH of around 7.8 - 8.2. It may be that your particular pond has a pH range of 7.2 - 7.6. Or there may even be greater fluctuations. This is the natural, daily, pH cycle of your pond. I strongly advise against attempting to adjust the pH to a perceived perfect figure of say 7.2. When measuring the pH in the late afternoon, you will inevitably find it is on the high (alkaline) side. The addition of acid to pond water to lower the high pH can be disastrous at this point in time. The acid will lower the pH and so will the natural pond cycle during the night. The result could be - a pH crash. Sudden substantial fluctuations in pH values will stress Koi and possibly kill them. Fish do not tolerate sudden substantial changes in water quality very well. If they do not die outright, the stress they suffer may become a contributing factor to a lowered resistance to pathogens and a possible disease, infestation or infection. Measuring pH should be done in conjunction with measuring alkalinity. The alkalinity will give you an indication as to the buffering capacity of the water against pH variations. The amount of algae in the pond (mostly free floating, single cell algae that makes the pond water green) can have a dramatic effect on pH, raising it to very high levels in the evening after a full day of photosynthesis. The opposite effect is observed by a lowering of the pH in the early morning after a full night of respiration. Not only the Koi but also the toxicity of ammonia as well as the bacteria in the filter are affected by pH. Ammonia toxicity increases as pH increases. The nitrifying bacteria have a pH range that they can survive in. If your pH fluctuates through a narrow range, your water is well buffered. Should there be large fluctuations you may need to buffer the water. The pH of your pond should not rise much above 8.5 at its maximum reading. Koi have adapted the ability to survive in a pH range of 6.5 - 9. However, the fluctuation within this pH range should not be large and the pH change cannot be sudden.
Temperature
On most occasions temperature will be lowest in the morning just before sunrise and the highest at sunset, (unless your pond is built on a nuclear waste dump, which generates its own heat). Temperature is influenced by the amount of sun, the intensity of the sun the pond receives and other factors such as the wind speed during the day or night. Evaporation cools the water. Generally speaking, Koi should not be subjected to more than a 5C (9F) change in water temperature over a 24 hour period and the change should not be sudden. Always adjust the temperature gradually when moving Koi around. An upward movement is tolerated better than a downward movement in temperature. Most ponds will have a 1 - 3C (1.8 - 5.4F) variation in temperature in a 24 hour day / night cycle. Koi are more affected by temperature variations at lower water temperatures. And, you will notice Koi are more affected by a sudden lowering of water temperature than a sudden rising of water temperature.
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Certain areas in the country can experience a 10 - 15C (18 - 27F) atmospheric drop in temperature in a day when low temperatures are accompanied by high winds. The temperature in a smaller volume pond can drop significantly under these circumstances. The Koi will suffer from stress and disease problems can occur later.
Oxygen
Oxygen is possibly the single most important element in pond water - and the most neglected aspect of Koi keeping. For life to exist in water there must be oxygen dissolved in it. The fish, the bio-filter, organic decomposition, etc., all extract oxygen from the system. Oxygen is introduced into the water through gaseous exchange between the atmosphere and water molecules. Oxygen is introduced into the pond via contact with the atmosphere through design considerations such as streams, waterfalls and apparatuses such as venturies and air blowers. High turnover rates will promote higher oxygen levels. Photosynthesis by algae during the day introduces additional oxygen, but removes it at night. Air under pressure through venturies can cause gas imbalances in the water and need careful consideration as to their placement in the pond. Oxygen levels can fluctuate dramatically during the day and night as well as during periods of high and low temperature. There can be significant oxygen variations in ponds with poor circulation or in ponds which do not move the water away from the bottom of the pond, i.e., the point furthermost from the atmosphere. There is less oxygen in pond water at higher altitudes (6000 ft / 1600 m above sea level) - about 18 - 20% less than at the coast (sea level). There is continual competition in the pond for the limited amount of oxygen available at any given time. The fish, the plants, the micro organisms all need oxygen rich water - all the time. Algae and submerged plants have a dramatic influence on oxygen levels in a pond during a 24 hour day / night cycle. The photosynthesis process during sunlight may rocket oxygen levels to saturation point and beyond. However, a dramatic plunge in oxygen with the reversal of the photosynthesis process (respiration) at night can spell disaster, even to the point of fish suffocating in ponds at dawn. It has been found that if the oxygen levels are 25% below optimum levels first thing in the morning, growth rates are reduced. The turn-over rate will have a direct bearing on oxygen levels as will the stocking densities of fish. The faster the turnover rate the more water will come into contact with the atmosphere and the more gaseous exchange will take place. The more fish there are in the pond, the less oxygen there is in the water as they are all respiring, all the time. Higher water temperatures in summer mean there is less oxygen that can be dissolved into the water. Higher water temperatures result in faster metabolism, which in turn means that the oxygen dissolved in the water is needed in greater quantities by the fish and other life forms when the water is able to hold less dissolved oxygen due to the higher temperature. A shortage of oxygen will be noticed by observing the Koi collection first thing in the morning. If the Koi are moving lethargically and hovering near the surface you may well have an oxygen deficiency. Oxygen shortages have been measured in ponds with fancy pumps and
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filters - but with a lack of adequately exposing the water molecules to the atmosphere. A shortage of oxygen can also be observed by watching the respiration of the fish. If the fish are respiring heavily, or "piping", they could be, stressed, have a gill problem, the pond water could be low in oxygen or, the fish could be exhausted for some reason.
Ammonia
The levels of ammonia and toxicity of ammonia are never constant. A few hours after feeding the ammonia level will rise as the nitrogen wastes of the fish are excreted. This can actually be measured. A measurement just before feeding should produce the lowest or no ammonia reading (if everything is working). However, an hour or two after feeding a high ammonia level will be recorded as the fish are now excreting their metabolic waste products. Interestingly, a corresponding drop in oxygen levels at this time has also been measured in ponds as the Koi consume more oxygen for the metabolism of the food. The higher the temperature, the faster the metabolic rate and the quicker ammonia will be released into the surrounding water. However, there is another dynamic related to ammonia - the toxicity of ammonia (NH3) is not constant during the course of a single day. Ammonia is found in two forms in the pond. The toxicity of ammonia is pH dependant. Ammonia changes from ammonia to ammonium (NH4+) as pH drops, i.e., it becomes less toxic. As pH rises (naturally during the day) the ammonium (or a percentage of the ammonium) converts back to toxic ammonia. Whilst very high pH, above 9, makes a higher percentage of ammonia more toxic and has certain negative effects on Koi, low pH has other effects on the pond system. The bacteria in the biofilter are oxygen and pH dependent. The nitrifying bacteria that oxidise ammonia to nitrite have an optimum pH range of 7.8 - 8.5. The lower limit for the reasonable growth of nitrifying bacteria is given as a pH of 7.0 - 7.6. The upper limit is a pH of 9.4. Around pH 6.5 nitrifying bacteria virtually cease to function.
So what now?
Into this dynamic pond system we introduce two critical factors - fish and man. How can our Koi possibly survive in an environment that can become 100 - 200 times more alkaline / acidic, have a temperature change of more than 40F (5C), have oxygen levels that can drop and rise dramatically, and have a shifting ammonia / ammonium percentage in a single day? How can our fish possibly survive the bombardment of toxic chemicals that are added to the pond in the name of medications? The average enthusiast does not have the money to spend on equipment to monitor the water continuously. How can they possibly monitor all these IFs (Influencing Factors) continuously and make daily adjustments in order to provide the perfect environment for their Koi? The answer is simple - if your Koi are alive and healthy and growing well you are doing it right. Your Koi are the best test kits you have. It may be a joke amongst Koi collectors that when a new pond is built they always suggest placing a few "testers" into the new pond to "test" the water. A
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joke yes - but it is an excellent way of testing the water for your new arrivals and new pond system. The ancestors of Koi, the common carp, have been living successfully in freshwater rivers for millions of years. There are ancient fossilised remains of the ancestors of carp. It is a scientific fact that whilst a pH of 7 - 7.5 is advocated as "ideal" for keeping Koi, they will live comfortably in a pH range of 6.5 - 8.5. A temperature range of 22C - 28C (72F to 82F) is ideal for keeping Koi, however, they winter well down to 10C (50F) and, provided the temperature is not below 8C (46F) for too long a period of time, they suffer no adverse affects after winter. Some reports give the lower temperature limit for winter survival as 35F. The critical factor is that these fluctuations must be gradual. Actually, the less often or more gradual the temperature fluctuates, the less stressful the environment will be. Oxygen levels are maintained by circulating the water correctly in the pond and by bringing the water into contact with the atmosphere continuously. The faster the turn-over rate of the whole system, the higher the oxygen level will be in the pond. Ammonia levels can be controlled successfully by providing adequate surface area for bacterial growth. Additional surface area is provided by the media housed in the biofilter. The high oxygen levels provided by high turn-over rates will activate the bacteria and the metabolism of the fish. The natural immune system and osmoregulation of the fishs body has adapted over millions of years to counteract natural fluctuations in the water and attacks from the outside world. Provided the fluctuations are not too great or too sudden, the fish has the ability to adjust and survive the daily, monthly and annual bio-rhythms of the pond.
Stocking Densities
Quick Info
Stocking densities have a direct influence on the overall health of your Koi and the quality of the pond environment. Heavily stocked ponds have a higher chance of disease outbreaks. Heavily stocked ponds are stressful to Koi. The higher the stocking densities the faster you have to remove the impurities and the faster the clean water should be returned to the pond. As Koi grow they take up much more space, consume much more oxygen and add much more ammonia to the system.
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Higher stocking densities run a greater risk of the collection suffocating in the event of the pump being off for some time.
Decision Time
After a year or two, if your Koi have doubled in length, it may be decision time
Less Koi
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Length of Koi in cm
The larger the mass of a Koi, the greater the oxygen consumption, the greater the amount of ammonia excreted into the water. Weight increases disproportionably with body length. A doubling in body length does not produce a doubling in mass. Note the 7 - 8 fold mass increase as the length doubles from 20cm to 40cm. Each Koi can double in length in about two years. This would mean a 7 - 8 fold increase in the load on the biofilter and the oxygen demand. - plan ahead -
20 cm koi
When these 10 x 10 cm koi have doubled in length to 20 cm there is the equivalent of 80 x 10 cm koi in the pond.
40 cm koi
These same 10 koi grow to 40 cm the koi keeper now has the equivalent of 640 x 10 cm koi in the same pond - with the same filtration etc
Would you have originally stocked your pond with 640 x 10 cm Koi?
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CHAPTER 1: DEFINITIONS
A ER O BI C
Living or occurring in the presence of oxygen. For example aerobic bacteria, require oxygen to live. The opposite of aerobic is anaerobic.
A I R L I FT
Air lift is a contained column of bubbles and water used to provide a vertical flow or current. The air lift uses a bubble source, usually some sort of diffuser, to supply bubbles to the bottom of a column which is often a pipe or similar containment device. As the bubbles mix with the water, they create a mix which is less dense than water alone. Gravity then has less effect on the water in the contained column and this water rises higher than the more dense water on the outside of the column. An opening at the top of the column allows the water/air mixture to escape. The head and amount of water that an air lift can pump is a function of the ratio of air to water, the amount of air pumped in, the depth of the diffuser, the ratio of the submerged part of the column to the part of the column that protrudes form the water and the diameter of the pipe.
A M BI E NT A M M O NI A
Ambient ammonia is the background level of ammonia in the pond water and will likely vary over the course of a day. There can never be zero ammonia in the pond as the Koi are continuously excreting ammonia in the pond whilst the biofilter is continuously removing the ammonia from the water.
A M M O NI A
Ammonia is toxic to fish in minute quantities. It is the unionised form of ammonia, (NH3), that is the toxic form, although sometimes the term ammonia is used to express the total ammonia (i.e., unionised and ionised). The amount of ammonia produced by the fish is approximately 0.03 x feed. Therefore for every 1000g of high protein feed that is fed, about 30g of total ammonia is produced. This is excreted by the fish in the urine and from the gills. The ammonia production will vary throughout the day
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with the 0.03 x feed value being the average. In ponds where koi are fed a few large feedings per day, the maximum ammonia production at any time may be twice this amount with corresponding periods of very low ammonia output.
B A C K F L U S H I N G /B A C K W A S H I N G
Back flushing is the general term used to describe the process where filters are cleaned. It is also called back-washing. It is usually achieved by the flow in the filters being reversed and the water used to flush being discharged to waste.
B A FF L E
A device, such as a plate or screen, installed to alter / reduce the velocity of water.
B I O FI L T E R /BIO-CONVERTER
A biofilter is a specialized or dedicated area of the pond system designed to provide the proper environment for large colonies of beneficial bacterial (nitrifying bacteria, chemolithotrophs and heterotrophs) to grow. These dedicated areas are referred to as biological filters, biofilters or bio-converters.
B I OL O G I C A L F I L T R A T I O N
Biological filtration is the process of converting ammonia, through oxidation or reduction, in the presence of oxygen, to less toxic nitrite and then nitrate. The ammonia is converted to nitrite by a group of bacteria called nitrosomonas. The nitrite is converted to relatively harmless nitrate by a group of bacteria called nitrospira. The level of ammonia in the pond is used as one indicator that biofiltration is taking place. Should the nitrite level be zero, this would be an indication that full bioconversion is taking place. Another type of biological filtration which is sometimes used in aquaculture, especially in high rate re-circulation systems, is denitrification. De-nitrification filters convert nitrate to nitrogen gas. The bacteria responsible for this conversion are anaerobic.
BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by all of the aerobic biological organisms in the entire pond system. This includes the oxygen needs of the fish, the bio-filter and the plants, (at night), as well as the oxygen needed to biodegrade the organic waste such as fish faeces and plant material.
CANISTER
F I L T ER
Enclosed housing usually containing a fine mesh basket, into which filtration or other media can be put. Canister filters are often used to house activated carbon or zeolite. Generally they are small and are designed for low flow rates, although larger units are sometimes custom built.
C A R BO N D I O XI D E
Carbon dioxide is produced as a result of respiration by fish and other aerobic organisms such as plants. The amount of carbon dioxide
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produced is directly proportionate to the oxygen consumed. For every 1g of oxygen that is consumed, 1.4g of carbon dioxide is produced. Carbon dioxide has the effect of increasing the acidity of the water. It is present in three different forms; CO2 (free carbon dioxide, which is the toxic form), HCO3- (bicarbonate ion), and CO3-- (carbonate ion). The concentration of each is dependent on the pH of the water. Good oxygenation of Koi ponds will control and eliminate carbon dioxide.
C A R R Y I N G C A PA C I T Y
Carrying capacity is the amount (either expressed in weight or number) of Koi that a given system is capable of supporting. (see stocking densities).
C A R T R I D G E F I L T ER S
Cartridge filters are enclosed vessels which house a replaceable filter membrane. The filter membrane is generally of a pleated or a woven material. Cartridge filters are used primarily for the filtration of particles 20 microns and smaller in size, i.e., very fine filtration and not always practical on Koi ponds.
CHAMBER
An area or enclosure where media is housed or settlement takes place.
C H EM I C A L F I L T ER
Zeolite and Activated Carbon are geological materials that will adsorb ammonia and other substances directly from the pond water.
D E -G A S S I NG
A process which removes undesirable gasses or undesirable gas levels, e.g., supersaturated gasses. The main function of a de-gasser is to create a large interface between the water and the atmosphere. Waterfalls, streams or heavy aeration via diffusers increase the interface between the atmosphere and the water. These are the de-gassers of the Koi pond.
D E - NI T R I F I C A T I O N
De-nitrification is the process where bacteria convert nitrate into nitrogen gas. The de-nitrification process is an anaerobic process and requires a carbon source for the bacteria to perform their task properly.
D E NI T R I FY I NG B A C T E R I A
De-nitrifying bacteria are free-living bacteria that convert nitrates to gaseous nitrogen and nitrous oxide. These are anaerobic bacteria. Their cellular respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
D I S S O L V ED
OXY G EN
Dissolved oxygen is the oxygen gas which is dissolved in water (i.e., oxygen that is attached to the water molecule not that which is present in bubbles).
D I S S O L V ED S O L I D S
Dissolved Solids or Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances in a body of
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water in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal) suspended form. Many people define Total Dissolved Solids as solids that must be small enough to survive filtration through a sieve the size of two micrometers. The amount of TDS present in the water affects its clarity.
F I L T ER
A physical process (i.e. one not reliant on chemicals or biological organisms) designed to separate/remove solid particles from water.
F I L T ER S
IN
PARALLEL
When the water to the filter chambers is divided into two or more portions and each portion travels through only one of the filter chambers, the filter chambers are said to be in parallel.
F I L T ER S
IN
S E QU E NC E /S E R I ES
When the water moves from the first chamber or container to the second chamber to the third chamber etc., the filters are in sequence or series.
FLOW RATE
Flow rate is critical for the pond as it determines the rate at which excretory products such as faeces, carbon dioxide and ammonia are removed from the pond and brought into the filtration system for purification i.e. removal from the system.
F L O W R A T E & S P EC I F I C F L O W R A T E
Flow rate is the volume of water that flows past a given plane or through a filter system in chamber of a given surface area over a given length of time. It is usually expressed in terms of volume/time, (e.g. Gallons per Minute (GPM) or Litres per Minute (LPM). Specific flow rate is the flow rate divided by the projected area across which the flow takes place and is given in: volume/time/area. If the specific length, units of volume and area are the same, e.g., feet as in cubic feet and square feet or cubic meters or square meters, it can be an expression of velocity, but only if no media is involved (water only).
F OA M F R A C T I O NA T OR
A narrow device with a rising column of air bubbles and a descending volume of water. A foam fractionator is used to remove DOC (dissolved organic carbon or scum) from the pond water.
F R I C T I O N L OS S
Friction loss is the reduction in velocity and pressure of water flowing through a pipe caused by the drag effect from the inner surface of the pipe. The more rough and more profiled (shaped) the surface, the greater the friction loss it imposes. The calculation of friction loss is important, when designing systems, to ensure that a pipe is large enough for sufficient water to flow through it. Friction loss is also sometimes called head-loss or pressure loss, as it has the effect of reducing the amount of head (or pressure) of the water.
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G A S B U B BL E D I S EA S E
Gas bubble disease is caused when supersaturated gases in the water are absorbed from the water into the body fluids of the fish. Gasses in supersaturated water will try to escape from the water into any medium where the gas saturation level is lower (e.g., into the air, or in the case of gas bubble disease, into the blood and other fluids of the fish). It is most commonly seen in the yolk sacs (of newly hatched fry), gills, eyes and occasionally the fins as these are the areas of the body which have the most gas permeable membranes. The gas then causes bubbles to form inside capillaries and under the skin, restricting the blood flow causing haemorrhages and clots. Fish often show signs of swimming upside down or vertically, sometimes looking as if they are gasping for air at the surface.
H ET ER OT R O PH I C B A C T ER I A
Heterotrophic bacteria are a species of bacteria that digest or break down organic material to obtain their energy. Heterotrophic bacteria grow alongside the nitrifying bacteria in biofilters.
H Y D R A U L I C L OA D
The relationship of flow rate to the available media surface area is called the hydraulic load on the media bed. The first objective of hydraulic load is to encourage the water to move through the filter bed evenly at all points of contact between the media and the water.
H Y D R OG E N S U L PH I D E
Hydrogen sulphide is produced by anaerobic bacteria in anoxic water (water depleted of dissolved oxygen), silt and mud, especially where organic loading is high and in heavily stocked ponds. Hydrogen sulphide exists in two forms in the water, HS- (ionised sulphide ion) and H2S (unionised, hydrogen sulphide). Hydrogen sulphide (the H2S form) is highly toxic to fish. In well oxygenated water, hydrogen sulphide is rapidly oxidised to sulphate. The best way to stop hydrogen sulphide from being formed is to maintain a clean, well oxygenated and mixed system with no layering of the pond water. Most fish species are extremely sensitive to hydrogen sulphide gas. As low a concentration as 0.002 mg/l can have a sub-lethal effect, causing prolonged stress and gill damage. A level of 0.01 - 5.3 mg/l is lethal.
ION
EXC H A NG E
Ion exchange is the exchange of ions from one medium, (the pond water), to another medium, (usually a solid such as zeolite). There are two types of ion exchange material, anionic and cationic. The former will exchange positive ions (as it has negative ions built into its structure) and the latter will exchange negative ions (as it has positive ions built into its structure). The most commonly used ion exchange in aquaculture is with the use of zeolite in which positive ions are held within a silicate lattice.
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LOGARITHMIC SCALE
A logarithmic scale is one which increases in real terms by a factor of 10, for every increase in the scale of 1. For example a logarithmic scale of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in fact represents values of 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000. An example of a logarithmic scale is the pH scale, where an increase of 1 represents a 10 fold rise in real terms, so a rise of 2.0 in pH (e.g. from 6.0 - 8.0) actually means a 100 fold increase.
M EC H A NI C A L F I L T ER
Mechanical Filters will be referred to as filters. These are areas where suspended and settled solids are collected or trapped for removal from the pond system.
M EC H A NI C A L F I L T R A T I O N
Term used to describe a physical process (i.e., one not reliant on chemicals or biological organisms) to remove solid particles from the water.
M ED I A
Media is any substrate used to support living organisms, (e.g., contained in a bio-filter), and / or any substrate used to filter solid material from the water.
NITRATE
Chemical symbol NO3 - Nitrate is formed as a result of the breakdown of ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. (see nitrification) Nitrate, along with phosphate, form two of the critical elements that all plants require. Nitrate is relatively harmless to koi which can tolerate a nitrate level of up to 200mg/l. However, it is recommended that to maintain pristine water quality, koi keepers should limit the nitrate level in the pond to 20 mg/l. For every 1g of ammonia converted to nitrate, 4.57g of nitrate are produced.
NITRIFICATION
Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia by bacteria into nitrite followed by the oxidation of these nitrites into nitrates.
N I T R I FY I N G B A C T E R I A
Bacterial species found in nature that oxidise ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate. These are chemolithotroph species of bacteria that live in an oxygen rich environment. They utilize mostly inorganic (without carbon) compounds as their energy source, and require carbon dioxide (CO2) for their source of carbon.
NITRITE
Chemical symbol NO2 Nitrite is the first step in the oxidation of ammonia by bacteria to nitrate. (see nitrification) When a biofilter has matured the conversion of ammonia to nitrite and the conversion of nitrite to nitrate occurs before the water exits the filter. There will
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however be a residual amount of nitrite left in the water that will usually be converted to nitrate once the water re-enters the biological filter on the following re-circulating cycle. The general guide line for a toxic concentration of nitrite is a level above 0.1mg/l.
N I T R O BA C T ER
A nitrobacter is a species of aerobic bacteria that converts nitrite to nitrate in soil. It was originally thought to be one of the critical bacteria in biological filtration. Later work showed nitrospira to be the species that is most responsible for conversion of nitrite to nitrate. (see also biological filtration, nitrification)
N I T R OS PI R A
Nitrospira is the species of aerobic bacteria most responsible for converting nitrite to nitrate in water.
ORGANICS
Organics is the term used when referring to any material that consists of live or dead cells, or any carbon containing material that is capable of being broken down by biological means. It is any material containing carbon that is derived from a life form. Examples algae, leaves, fish faeces.
OZONE
Ozone (O3) is an unstable molecule, a "free radical" of oxygen which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms.
S A ND F I L T E R S
Sand Filters on Koi ponds are an adaptation of pressurised filters for swimming pools. Modification for use on Koi ponds include coarse gravel in place of the very fine sand used in swimming pool applications. The openings in the arms at the bottom are widened slightly to increase flow rates. Sand filters can be used for mechanical as well as biological filtration. Basic pressurised containers can also be adapted for use in fluidised sand bed filters.
S ET T L E D S OL I D S
Settled solids are the non-dissolved pollutants that settle towards the bottom of the pond, tank or chamber. Some examples of settled solids are; heavier particles of dust, sand, water logged organic material and leaves. One of the prime pollutants, in terms of the water quantity in ponds is dead algae. Algae accounts for as much as 60 70% of the organic material found in ponds. However, in some heavily loaded ponds, it may be as high as 90% of the organic material which clogs up the filter system.
S P E ED ( O F
WA T E R F L O W )
See velocity
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S T OC K I NG D ENS I T Y
The weight or number of Koi held per unit of water volume. The effects of overstocking can be alleviated to some extent by attention to the water quality and also the feeding regimes. There is an accumulative effect of stress on the Koi as stocking densities increase.
S T R A T I FI C A T I ON
Stratification is the separation into different "layers" of water by distinct boundaries. This can relate to thermal layers and/or dissolved oxygen layers. The use of simple aeration devices as well as water movement (circulation) can prevent the occurrence of stratification and guard against its potentially harmful effects.
S U P ER S A T U R A T I O N
The term given to a body of water that contains more than the "natural" amount of a particular gas or gases. The sum of all the gasses dissolved in the water is called the total gas pressure of the water. Under normal conditions the total gas pressure is 100%. Under some conditions however, the gas pressure can increase above 100% (super saturation) and it can then cause problems to fish (such as gas bubble disease). As nitrogen and oxygen form over 99% of the earth's atmosphere, these are the gasses that we are primarily concerned with. Nitrogen can cause fish health problems at anything greater than 100%, whereas oxygen can be safe up to and over 200%. When pressurised, by a pump for example, water can hold more than its capacity under normal atmospheric pressure. This is not a problem unless there is air being sucked into a pipeline, which then readily dissolves. When water leaves a pressurised pipe and enters the pond, it is suddenly returned to normal atmospheric pressure. All the extra gas in the water is now more than the natural amount that the water can hold and the water becomes supersaturated. Oxygen is rarely a problem as the fish have the ability to withstand supersaturated oxygen concentrations of up to 200%. The fish will immediately begin to reduce the amount of oxygen in the water. Nitrogen however can only escape out of the water through contact with the atmosphere, and a reduction from 110% to 100% can take up to several hours.
S U S P E ND E D S OL I D S
These are solids that remain in suspension in moving water. The individual particles are generally invisible to the naked eye. They cannot pass through a sieve of 1 2 micrometers.
T U R BI D I T Y
Turbidity is the cloudiness in pond water. It can be a combination of several suspended organic and inorganic materials.
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UV L I G H T S
Ultra-Violet Lights are a type of light that has a specific band of wavelengths primarily used for controlling algae. UV lights are often referred to as Ultra-Violet clarifiers by manufacturers in the hobby. Clarifiers, as the name implies, clear the water of algae. This can be accomplished with 20 - 30 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre. Many bacteria die out at 15 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre. If you want to kill off protozoan parasites, you will need 90 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre or more. Most people buy these devices to kill algae, i.e., they are using them as clarifiers.
V EG ET A BL E F I L T E R
A vegetable filter is an area in the pond system, usually away from the Koi, where plants are contained and encouraged to grow. The pond water is run through and over the plants and/or the plants roots in this area (such as a stream bed). Plant filters are primarily used to remove nitrates from the water.
V EL OC I T Y
Velocity is the speed at which a fluid travels. In our case the speed at which the pond water travels through any part of the system. The velocity or speed of the water is less in a bigger tank than it is in a smaller tank (given the same flow rate through the tank).
V EN T U R I
A venturi is a device for adding air under pressure to pond water. As the water passes through a restriction in a pipe, it forms a vacuum at the end of the restriction. A hole bored into the pipe at the point where this vacuum occurs will cause air to be drawn into the flow of water.
V OI D S PA C E
Void space is the open space between the pieces of media in filters.
V OR T E X
A vortex is a mass of water moving in a circular motion, where solid particles are drawn into the centre. The circular movement of the water is dependent on the tangent angle of the water entering the chamber or container.
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CHAPTER 2: OXYGEN
Dissolving Oxygen into the Water
The only way oxygen can dissolve in water is through contact with the atmosphere. This is accomplished by diffusion between molecules of water in contact with the oxygen in the atmosphere. At the same time as oxygen is entering into the water, carbon dioxide is released or de-gassed into the atmosphere. Some interesting deductions can be made from this fact. a. All the water's molecules should be brought into contact with the atmosphere at some time during a complete circulation cycle. b. The water should ideally be brought into contact with the atmosphere as much as possible (surface area and turnover rates) to assist with the diffusion of oxygen into the water and the release of unwanted gasses into the atmosphere. If the water was drawn exclusively from the surface of the pond and returned to its surface, the oxygen levels in the lower levels of the pond will become critically low. Unless supplemental circulation within the pond is provided (like air stones) the water will take on a "dead" look. This statement is difficult to quantify. Experience will guide Koi enthusiasts to be able to identify water low in oxygen. This is similar to koi judges gaining experience and being able to appreciate different shades of white or what is called lustre when judging koi. In areas of low or no oxygen, anaerobic bacteria will flourish. The settled organics and solids will decompose and produce deadly Hydrogen Sulphide, gradually poisoning the system and fish.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is critical for the success of the pond and fish. High levels of dissolved oxygen will ensure good growth, health, lustre and colour. The aim is to get and keep dissolved oxygen levels as close to saturation levels as possible.
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Temperature temperature governs the metabolic rate of life in the pond and temperature also affects the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved into the pond water. The higher the water temperature, the less dissolved oxygen it can hold.
The following chart demonstrates dissolved oxygen levels at different temperatures and different altitudes. Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Graph
14 13 12 11 10
ppm Mg/L Pond water oxygen saturation at sea level Pond water oxygen saturation at 6000ft/1600m Danger levels of low oxygen detrimental to koi health
Temperature in C
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Pollutants
Pollutants seem to be a catchall word used in Koi keeping for anything that is not wanted in the Koi pond! This can range from fertilizer run-off from the garden, insecticide spray, dust, leaves, grass cuttings, etc. The various pollutants found in Koi ponds are discussed within this document.
Inorganic Solids
Inorganic solids are introduced into the pond water from atmospheric dust, run-off from the garden or overhangs (roofs, bridges and pergolas), the wash-off from trees and the vegetation around the pond as well as by rain. If you have ducks on your Koi pond you have a problem with solids in your water. The ducks swim then walk in the garden and in their food and then swim again bringing large amounts of solids into the pond. Solids can build up and begin to cloud the water. The mechanical filtration part of your filtration system is designed to trap and remove (by flushing the chamber/chambers) solids from the pond.
Suspended Solids
These are solids that remain in suspension in moving water. The individual particles are generally invisible to the naked eye. Suspended solids consist of an inorganic fraction (silts, soil, dust, etc.) and an organic fraction (live and dead algae, zooplankton, bacteria, and detritus). Both inorganic and organic solids contribute to the turbidity or cloudiness of the water. Decomposing organic material consumes large amounts of oxygen and contributes to the bio-fouling of the water. Many suspended solids can be trapped in the filter systems but not all. When the fine suspended particles find a place to settle in pockets or areas of slow moving or stagnant water they become sediments or silts.
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This sediment can increase in depth over time and the deeper layers will be cut off from the oxygen in the passing water creating anaerobic areas that will produce toxic hydrogen sulphide. Larger solids such as leaves will settle out rapidly on the pond floor or in the bottom drains or in the settlement tanks outside the pond. These organic materials must be removed regularly from the pond system as they are biodegrading, adding to the ammonia load and removing oxygen from the pond water. Suspended solids can be very fine particles of minerals and dead algae cells. Because of their very small size they are difficult to remove from the pond water. Algae cells will not all be trapped in the filters. Most will pass through back to the pond. Bentonite clay can be added to the pond water to increase the flocculation of these fine particles making them easier to filter from the water. Bentonite is sold as Bentonite or montmorillonite clay. The Bentonite comes in two forms calcium Bentonite and sodium bentonite. The sodium Bentonite clumps more vigorously than the calcium Bentonite. Although Bentonite is found in many clumping cat litters and Koi keepers are often tempted to use them in ponds, these are best avoided. Cat litters are in granular form. The granules clump (which is what they are supposed to do!) and can block bottom drains and piping. Using a powered Bentonite is far better in Koi ponds. Manufactures of clumping cat litters often add chemicals to introduce a fragrance to the cat litters. Some cat litters are sprayed with a plastic compound to reduce the dust associated with the clay. Other cat litters have colorants added for commercial appeal. As many of the cat litter additives are not declared, it is best and safest to avoid clay cat litters in Koi ponds. Pots with soil and plants inside the Koi pond will be a target for the Koi. They will love the new roots or plant growth and they will dislodge the soil. This will become a major source of turbidity. There will be solids that will settle and fine suspended silts which are difficult to eliminate from the pond water and can be identified as a brownish colour to the water as opposed to the greenish colour of algae. Water changes are the best way to eliminate soil/silt from the pond. A good mechanical filter can also eliminate this pollution. Suspended solids can also refer to small solid particles which remain in suspension as a colloid or possibly due to the motion of the water. Colloids are very fine particles that are dispersed within the pond water in a manner that prevents them from being filtered easily or settled rapidly.
Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Solids or Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances suspended in a body of water in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal) form. Many people define Total Dissolved Solids as solids that are small enough to survive filtration through a sieve the size of two micrometers. A micrometer, also called a micron, is one thousand times smaller than a
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millimetre. It is equal to 1/1,000,000th (or one millionth) of meter. Things on this scale usually can't be seen with the naked eye. Most of the dissolved solids are a broad array of chemical contaminants such as calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium and chloride. Other harmful total dissolved solids can be pesticides. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are differentiated from Total Suspended Solids in that the TSS cannot pass through a sieve of two micrometers and yet are indefinitely suspended in solution.
Organics
Organic pollutants take two major forms in Koi ponds plant matter (in the form of algae, leaves, grass clippings, flowers, etc.) and fish faeces. Organics in the form of algae and fish faeces can be the major cause of turbidity and pollution in our ponds that our filters have to contend with. The organic load will vary from pond to pond, from region to region and from season to season. The success of organic pollution control lies in the design AND maintenance of the system. (see page 71) Removing solids is significantly more difficult than bioconversion of ammonia and nitrite. Provision must be made in designing mechanical filters that are large enough to cope and easy enough to clean. A pond that is clear and free of sediments would be a good way to determine if the organics and solids are under control.
Controlling Algae
Algae can be controlled using various chemicals or naturally using barley straw or barley straw extract. Caution should be used when using chemicals to control algae as some have high copper contents. These chemicals will also affect plants in the system and plants in your garden when back washing filters. Suspended algae can also be controlled to some extent with UV lights. Numerous studies have found that barley straw can control algae when used correctly. For the barley straw to work, aerobic conditions are necessary. Therefore, how the barley straw is placed in the system is important. Do not over fill the bags so that the barley straw goes anaerobic and starts to smell. After a time our ponds form a natural eco system. The string algae growing on the sides of the pond tend to predominate, the suspended single cell algae that turns water green recedes and the result is clear water. There are seasonal algae blooms and the water may turn cloudy in spring but clear a month or two later. So do not over react. Over feeding can contribute to excess nutrients ending up in the water that algae can utilise for growth.
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Chapter 4: CIRCULATION
Water Circulation
Importance of Internal Water Circulation
The greatest effect of water circulation is that it prevents thermal and chemical stratification. (Boyd). Water circulation within the pond plays a vital part in successful Koi keeping. In our Koi ponds water circulation is critical for moving solid and chemical pollutants to the filters and biofilters. The water should circulate gently around the pond as well as vertically either from top to bottom or bottom to top. The internal circulation does not have to be at a velocity that will over exercise and exhaust the Koi. Circulating pond water: Ponds will have concentrations of ammonia and low oxygen levels in areas where the water is still. Circulating or moving pond water establishes a uniform dissolved oxygen profile within the water body. The total dissolved oxygen content of the pond can be increased with circulation. Ammonia is diluted throughout the pond volume. Solids can be directed to drains and removed helping to clear the water and keep the organic load down.
To get a concept of how the water should be circulated within a pond, look at a tropical fish or marine fish aquarium through the side and see how the water moves and circulates.
outlet
An outlet directly opposite the inlet will create dead areas in the corners. By directing the inlet water along one of the walls of the pond a circular motion can easily be created.
inlet outlet
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An inlet at the surface and an outlet at the surface will create a large body of stagnant water at the bottom of the pond as well as temperature stratification.
Generating Circulation
Circulation, (moving the water around the pond in a circular motion), can be created by directing the returns from pumps, filter chambers or even by directing the water from a water fall or stream to create circulation. Removing water from the floor of the pond via gravity fed pipes or by suction to the pump generates vertical movement of the pond water.
By-Passing Filters
By-passing filters, for any reason, will present problems of its own and should be avoided. It is very important that all the pond water is fed through the filter system at all times. The "dilution factor" can be significant. Filters that only process a portion of the water circulated because a portion of the water circulated bypasses the filtration system need a re-think in terms of design. The pump may be too large for the filtration system. This is especially true when purchasing preformed filters. Check that the pump output matches the flow rate through the filter that is recommended by the manufacturer. You must also check if this flow rate is appropriate for the pond volume you want to move through the filter system. Water that is never truly clear or ponds where the ammonia levels are continually high are often the result of the polluted water returning to the pond before being filtered bypassing reduces the efficiency of the filtration system.
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Stagnant Water
Stagnant water or stagnant areas in a pond pose a great health risk for our koi. Stagnant areas are formed when there is a lack of circulation in an area of the pond or filter system and organic sludge build-up which results in oxygen depletion in that area. As the solids and organics build up deeper layers will be formed. The deeper layers will be cut off from the oxygen available in the passing water. Anaerobic bacteria grow in the absence of oxygen and will multiply in these areas of sediment. Anaerobic bacteria produce a highly toxic compound called hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is measured in parts per billion and is toxic to Koi in minute amounts. Hydrogen sulfide is affected by pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen. A pH below 7 will increase the toxicity of hydrogen sulphide. High temperatures will also increase hydrogen sulphide toxicity. High levels of dissolved oxygen will prevent the escape of hydrogen sulphide from the sludge unless it is disturbed. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide can be relatively harmless in winter but can become very toxic in the summer months. Large amounts of hydrogen sulphide can be released when sediments are disturbed on the bottom of ponds, in areas of the filters or during plant maintenance. Hydrogen sulphide is considered to be as toxic as Cyanide. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide will produce high stress levels which can cause organ failure and slow deaths. Symptoms of low levels of H2S (hydrogen sulphide) poisoning are gill damage, skin problems, poor feeding and fish becoming thin. Fish also become more susceptible to common diseases and parasites. Weaker fish will succumb to the high stress levels and die randomly. High levels of H2S poisoning will be seen by a rapid, high number of deaths. Hydrogen sulphide can be detected by the smell of rotten eggs emanating from the pond surface, the sludge itself or in that area. Anaerobic bacteria can convert nitrate back to nitrite and nitrogen gas. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide can be a silent killer of koi in our ponds. A constant lookout must be kept for possible areas where these conditions can gradually poison the pond and the Koi.
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The movement of water in a Koi pond is described as turnover rate and flow rate. Turnover rate is the number of times the total volume of a pond is circulated through the filtration system in a given time, usually expressed in number of times per hour. Flow rate is the amount of water that flows in a given time through pipes and filters, usually expressed in gallons or litres per hour.
Turnover Rate
Turnover rate is determined by the time it takes to move the pond volume through the filtration system and back to the Koi.
Pond Volume
Pump Capacity
= Turnover rate
Turnover rate is important as it determines the speed at which various pond pollutants are removed and the speed at which the regenerated water (oxygen rich and pollutant free) is returned to the pond. The turnover rate is determined by pump size, pond volume and is influenced by pipe size, pipe length & various bends that cause frictional loss. Calculating the speed of the turnover rate is influenced by stocking densities and daily feeding quantities (protein levels). Turnover Rates do not reflect how adequate the amount of flow is. Ponds are unique; they have a unique volume, number and size of fish, they vary in the amount of sunlight they are exposed to, temperature variations etc. Therefore, determining the correct turnover rate for a particular pond is unique as well.
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Turnover rates are often recommended as if a given turnover rate works on all ponds. The turnover rate of a pond can range from once every 15 minutes up to once every 3 hours. Every hour of the day, each day of the year our Koi are adding ammonia and faeces to the water. Single cell Algae can reproduce themselves up to 30 times an hour in the sun. Pollution from the atmosphere is being added. Koi are removing oxygen from the pond water via their efficient gills each and every moment they are alive. Plants remove oxygen from the water at night this includes algae. It stands to logic that the toxic pollutants + fish faeces + the algae have to be removed from the water. It also stands to logic that the oxygen removed by the fish through respiration has to be replaced. A small pond volume, a high feeding rate or even less effective mechanical and biological filtration will all require faster turnover rates. The faster the turnover rate, the better the water quality.
Koi
One of the ways of demonstrating the effects of turnover rates on a Koi pond is to look at the outcome of the turnover rates on ammonia levels in the pond water.
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this into account. The biofilter should be designed in such a way that the purified water is returned as quickly to the pond as is practical. From this explanation, it should be obvious that the greater the number of times the pond volume is moved through the filter each day, the lower the ambient (average daily background) ammonia level will be.
15
20
25
Cover 2010
There are a number of variables associated with Ambient Ammonia. Stocking Densities (higher stocking densities= more pollutants = more ammonia in the water) Feeding Rates (higher feeding rates = more protein = higher ammonia levels in the water) Temperature (higher temperatures = faster metabolism = more ammonia in the pond water)
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A higher turnover rate will have the additional benefit of solids, (organic and inorganic), being removed from the pond water faster. Consequently, the water will be clearer.
Frictional Losses
Friction losses in the Koi ponds will usually occur in the pipe work but can be found in the media and barriers in filter chambers. There are two kinds of friction in koi pond pipes, skin-friction and form friction. Skin Friction o The distance water has to travel o Pipe diameter smaller diameter = more friction o Skin friction - Internal surface finish (smoothness or roughness) Form Friction o Bends such as 90 elbows o Venturies o Filter beds restrictive media o Valves
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= Sediment accumulation
The following table assumes a system friction loss of 15 ft / 4.5 meters of head and drawdown to be about 1 inch / 25mm. pipe diameter 50mm 63mm 110mm gravity fed flow - litres per hour 2800 litres 5,100 litres 20,400 litres gravity fed flow litres per minute 47 litres 85 litres 340 litres
Flow rate is difficult to calculate accurately as there are many influencing factors. As a general rule of thumb, gravity fed pipes should be three to four times the diameter of pressure fed pipes to get the same amount of water through them.
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Flow Rate
The term flow rate is used to describe the volume of water passing through the filtration system of the pond in a given time. Flow rate is usually used to describe the movement of water through pipes and filters Flow rate refers to the speed or velocity at which the water moves through the piping and filtration system. Water moves when there is a pressure differential. This can be created with a pump or by utilising gravity to move water through different sections of the pond and filter systems on different levels.
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Higher turnover rates through mechanical filters will remove solids from the pond at a faster rate. If the turnover rate is faster or equal to that of the production and accumulation of solids, the water will be clear. In many cases this is the difference between murky water and clear water. Mechanical filters can use settlement or barriers to remove and trap solids. If the water moves too fast in the settlement chamber nothing settles out. Settlement chambers have to increase in size to slow the water down. True settlement chambers are impractical on Koi ponds. Chambers can have barriers to assist with the removal of solids. Examples of barriers are sand beds in open chambers, sand beds in pressurised filters, brushes, screens and plastic media of various shapes and sizes.
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biofilters can also scrub off some of the excess bacteria growing on the media. Conversely, the flow rate should not be so slow that water that has been purified is sitting in the biofilter chamber reducing the overall efficiently of the system. Mature biofilters with large masses of nitrifying bacteria will be able to convert almost all ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate on a single pass through the filter medium. The turnover rate of the whole pond should be as fast as possible, but the flow rate through the filter/biofilter system should be slow enough that the solids can be removed and efficient nitrification can take place.
Pumps
Pumps are the heart of the pond. The pump on a Koi pond must pump or suck the water from the pond, through the pipes, then the filtration system and return it to the pond. External pumps function better than submersible pumps. Submersible pumps clog regularly and need to be removed from the pond to be cleaned. Submersible pumps have the advantage of being very quiet when run. However, they may not be so quiet from the fishs point of view. External pumps can be placed anywhere and disguised in the garden. The placement of Koi pond pumps has as much to do with aesthetics as practicalities. A pump outside a bedroom window is not a good idea. Try to hide the pump but at the same time place it where it is most efficient. Self priming pumps are easier to place than those which need priming.
Pump Capacities
This is covered in another study module. Needless to say, it is important to match the pump capacity to the pond volume i.e., use the correct turnover rate so that your pond will work. It is also important when using pressurised sand filters to match the pump capacity to the size of the pressurised chamber.
Power consumption
This will vary for different pumps and also from country to country. Consult pump suppliers for these figures. Compare power consumption and pump efficiency to determine the best choice for you and your pond.
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CHAPTER 6: MEDIA
Definition
Media is the term used to describe a substratum of material that provides a large surface area for bacteria to grow on for the purpose of bioconversion as well as a substratum of material used in mechanical filters for trapping various solids.
Basic Principles
Media is used in the biofilter as well as in the filter. The term media applies to both utilisations. Used in a mechanical filter, the media is there primarily to provide a barrier to assists in trapping and removing solids from the passing water. The void space between the pieces of media is less than in a biofilter. In a biofilter the media is used to increase the available surface area for the beneficial bacteria to grow on. The void space in the media should be large enough to allow for even and unrestricted water flow.
Mechanical Filter Media size less than 5 mm Biofilter Media size more than 5 or 6mm
nitrifying bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria (sometimes referred to as V V organic munchers) are utilizingothe surface area provided o the media. by All of these need space. Heterotrophs multiply more quickly and so take i i up more surface area on media than the nitrifying bacteria. Therefore, d d the living space or surface area for nitrifying bacteria must also be taken into account when designing a biofilter. S S
Media
The material we use in the biofilters to provide a surface area for bacterial growth is called the media. The media is the heart of your filtration system. The success or failure of the whole system is dependant, to a large extent, on the media. (size, depth, type of material etc.) A huge variety of materials can be used as biofilter media, or for that matter mechanical filter media. It is critical that the media must be inert and not affect the water quality in any negative way. Always be sure that all materials are non-toxic and will not release chemicals that will be harmful to the fish. It is always a good idea to thoroughly wash the media before as a filter media. Examples of media used in both biofilters and mechanical filters: Stone Gravel
p a c e
p a c e
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Plastic of any description, shape and size (pre-shaped forms, nylon hair curlers, pot scourers, shade cloth netting, nylon shavings, etc.) Beads make excellent filter media material Lava rock Ceramic in various forms some look like coral, others are simply clay balls.
A media with a rough surface has a larger surface area and makes a more hospitable place for bacterial colonies to become established. Media with a rough surface area can withstand rinsing with less damage to the bacterial biofilm but can retain some detritus. Plastic in various forms has become a very popular media for use in Koi pond filtration. Plastic is convenient and light to work with. One drawback is that it can be very expensive. Another is that the microscopic surface provided by plastic for nitrifying bacteria is often very smooth. A settlement tank or mechanical filtration of some sort to remove the solids before the biofilter is necessary to prevent contamination of the media by debris.
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Water flow
Water flow
In an open trickle filter the as the water is sprayed over the top of media bed and dispersed. The water moves rapidly cascading and trickling evenly through the filter media as a thin film of water. Up flow biofilters must be designed in such a way as to ensure the water moves evenly upward through the media. This can be achieved with a simple design feature by suspending the media off the floor in an up-flow or down-flow chamber, (see diagram above). Packing the media evenly on the grid provides a large surface area for the water to flow through. The open chamber underneath the media makes flushing easier.
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toxic substances. Biofilters require and work better with high levels of oxygen. Koi are healthier in ponds with high levels of oxygen. Therefore, high levels of oxygen should be maintained throughout the system. The biofilter virtually becomes a living entity after it matures. It is home to millions upon millions of bacteria and micro-organisms that are working in our favour by purifying the passing water. Nitrifying bacteria growing in the biofilter co-inhabit the media with a host of other organisms such as heterotrophic bacteria, fungi, etc.
Biofilms
What are Biofilms?
Various bacteria occur naturally in pond water. Several species of bacteria are of utmost importance to re-circulating ponds such as koi ponds. They are the ammonia oxidizing bacteria or nitrifiers. Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosospira, Nitrosolobus and Nitrosovibrio are bacteria associated with the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite. Nitrobacter, Nitrococus and Nitrospira bacteria oxidise nitrite to nitrate. These Nitrifying bacteria require oxygen to oxidise the ammonia. They also use carbon dioxide as their primary inorganic carbon source. Nitrifying bacteria adhere to surfaces all surfaces and eventually form biofilms. These biofilms are very protective and are host to many other microscopic organisms. Individual bacteria are easily killed by antibiotics and chemicals. However, once bacteria cluster and form biofilms they become protected, are very resilient, often change and are virtually indestructible. Biofilms are very hardy and the slime they excrete accounts for the slippery effect on pond surfaces. The biofilms must be looked after at all times as they serve the vital function of eliminating toxins (ammonia) from the pond.
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Biofilm Development
Biofilms can develop in many ways:-
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Complexity of Biofilms
Biofilms are very complex structures that we are only just beginning to understand.
Slime Cities
Dr. Andy Coghlan in New Scientist, August 31, 1996, gave an excellent description of a biofilm In the past few years, scientists have learned how to observe the inner structures of biofilms or mucilages, which are built and populated by plain, humble bacteria such as E. Coli, salmonella and others. New findings about the genetics and biochemistry of biofilms are reported. The mature, fully functioning biofilm is like a living tissue on the pipe or wall surface. It is a complex, metabolically cooperative community made up of different species each living in a customized micro-niche. Biofilms are even considered to have primitive circulatory systems. "Different species live cheek-by-jowl in slime cities, helping each other to exploit food supplies and to resist antibiotics through neighbourly interactions. Toxic waste produced by one species might be hungrily devoured by its neighbour. And by pooling their biochemical resources to build a communal slime city, several species of bacteria, each armed with different enzymes, can break down food supplies that no single species could digest alone. The biofilms are permeated at all levels by a network of channels through which water, bacterial garbage, nutrients, enzymes, metabolites
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and oxygen travel to and fro. Gradients of chemicals and ions between microzones provide the power to shunt the substances around the biofilm." (Coghlan 1996) This biofilm structure was described by Andy Coghlan as a Slime City. Dr. Andy Coghlan describes Slime City - "In most cases, the base of the biofilm is a bed of dense, opaque slime 5 to 10 micrometers (197-394 microinch) thick. It is a sticky mix of polysaccharides, other polymeric substances and water, all produced by the bacteria. Soaring 100 to 200 micrometers (3940-7870 microinch) upwards are colonies of bacteria shaped like mushrooms or cones. Above street level comes more slime, this time of a more watery makeup and variable consistency with a network of channels through which water, bacterial garbage, nutrients, enzymes, metabolites and oxygen travel. "Slime City" (Coghlan 1996)
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CHAPTER 7: FILTRATION
There are three basic methods of removing solids from Koi ponds. Filtration Gravity separation Flotation
As we discover very early in our Koi and pond keeping careers, filtration that clears pond water - is a very important part of koi keeping. Filtration not only helps us to see our koi but keeps the solids and organics from overwhelming the biofilter. Biofilters which have high organic loads do not work well as the space the essential nitrifying bacteria need becomes limited because other types of bacteria (heterotrophic) grow faster and more vigorously. Any part of the filtration system that has a barrier of some sort becomes a mechanical filter that will trap solids. Finer materials used as a media have less void space between the pieces and consequently more solids are trapped in the filter. The set-up of mechanical filters is also very important. There should be no channelling or by-passing of the media. Filtration is the high maintenance area of the pond. Filtration design should take this factor into account and be easy to flush and clean. No matter how complex or how simple the filter and settlement areas are, they must be maintained and flushed regularly. This fact is critical for maintenance of water quality. Many problems with Koi collections can be traced to a lack of pond and filter maintenance and a the consequent deterioration of water quality. The mechanical filters should be placed before the biofilter to ensure the water is as free of solids as possible. This is to prevent the biofilter from clogging and becoming inefficient. All filters can be classified into two categories: Open filters and Closed or pressurised filters.
There are many adaptations and variations in each classification. Each filter has basic principles that apply to all the variations within each group.
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Filters
Mechanical filters are used primarily for the entrapment of the various solids and organic material found in Koi ponds. They can be incorporated almost anywhere in the filtration system but should be placed before the biofilter.
Settlement Chamber/Tank
Settlement takes place when the velocity or turbulence is greatly reduced. This implies large areas where the water moves very slowly so that settlement of the solids can take place. If you can see any turbulence there will not be any effective settlement. Settlement tanks on koi ponds can be impractical as they need a large space which the majority of Koi keepers do not have.
Screening
Screens or barriers made of a variety of materials are used in koi pond filters. Brushes and sieves are examples of screen filtration. Screens made of plastic piping and slotted into groves in chambers are also used.
Sand Filters
Sand filters utilized on swimming pools are often used on Koi ponds for removing solids and also as a bacterial biofilter. Sand filters make very efficient mechanical filters but in many cases have not been used correctly on koi ponds. High rate sand filters are designed for use with chemically treated water. In a chemically treated swimming pool the algae and micro organisms in the water are killed. This results in their cell structure collapses which
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takes up less space when trapped in the sand bed. Under these circumstances a single sand filter will be adequate for the average swimming pool. In Koi ponds the situation is totally different. Organic substances such as fish faeces, algae and micro organisms are produced continually. Therefore, we have to change the parameters for the use of high rate sand filters on Koi ponds from the way they are used on swimming pools. The most important limiting factor of sand filters on Koi ponds is that they are highly restrictive of flow rates. The fine sand or gravel in the bed, with its limited void space, restricts the flow rate. The multiport valve that is standard equipment on such filters also restricts flow rate. The rapid build up of organics and bacterial slime in the sand bed further restricts flow rate. One of the design parameters in Koi ponds is to maintain turnover rate and not have restrictions in the system. Taking this into account, we have to "redesign" high rate sand filters and how they are use on the Koi pond. A single high rate filter works very well on a small pond, but on a large pond they are effective only for a limited time. The larger the pond volume, the quicker a single sand filter will clog up. This in turn means frequent maintenance by backwashing and reduced flow or turnover rate. Daily backwashing of sand filters can be overcome by having two or more sand filters in parallel.
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Gravity Separation
Solids can be removed from the pond water through gravity separation by spinning the water.
Vortexes
Hydroclones are called vortexes in the Koi industry. These are usually a cylindrical tank with the water entering at a tangent. This causes the water to spin inside the tank or vortex. The solids settle towards the middle and can be removed from the bottom. The vortex action is dependent on the tangent of the incoming water and not the shape of the container. A square filter chamber can be converted into a vortex by moving the inlet to one side to create a circular movement of the water. Brushes are occasionally used inside the vortex tank to capture particles. In order to maintain the vortex circulation and aid in the settlement of solids the brushes should be placed around the perimeter of the tank.
The vortex tanks must be installed so that they can be isolated from the pond as well as from each other so that a complete flush of each tank can take place.
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Multi Cyclones
A multi cyclone is a device designed to remove very fine particles from swimming pool water and is placed before the sand filter. Koi Keepers have experimented with them and they work very well at removing fine solids from pond water. The fine solids settle into the bottom part of the multi-cyclone and can be discharge to waste by opening the valve. The same water remains in the basin at the bottom and needs to be flushed regularly with a small amount of water to prevent it from becoming anaerobic. There are no filters or parts that need to be cleaned.
Cutaway of a Multi-cyclone
Flotation
Flotation filtration is simply Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) removal with a foam fractionator. The foam or scum that forms sometimes in Koi ponds is difficult and unpredictable to remove. Scum floating on the surface of the pond can be easily removed by overflowing the pond with fresh water. The foam or scum is often seen around waterfalls as the proteins adhere to air bubbles. If your pond suddenly develops foam, begin by looking for dead fish. Dead fish slough an enormous amount of protein into the water. After adding salt the water quality changes and foam often develops. Foam is also generated by decomposing organics. Foam fractionation is more effective in sea water than fresh water as the surface tension is higher in sea water. Foam fractionation removes the very fine particles that adhere to air bubbles.
Surface Skimmers
Surface skimmers are a form of mechanical filtration. A surface skimmer skims the surface of the pond removing dust, leaves and other forms of pond pollution.
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The pollutants floating on the surface of the pond block our view of the Koi. A surface skimmer will go a long way in assisting the filtration system to make the pond water more clear. In order for a surface skimmer to work it needs to skim the water. This thin layer of water will literally pull the surface pollution into the skimmer using water tension. A pipe or hole in the side of the pond will not work as well as a skimmer. A pipe submerged half way down will draw a top layer of water slowly into the skimmer. The skimming action is dependent on water tension and a thin layer of moving water is needed for it to work. Swimming pool skimmers with a floating gate that self adjusts to the water level can be used on Koi ponds. There are other forms of surface skimmers available that work on an inlet. These are also self adjusting and can be added onto the system after it has been built. Add on surface skimmers can be incorporated easily and are very effective at skimming the surface of the pond.
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CHAPTER 8: BIOFILTERS
Basic Principles
While the function of a filter is to remove solids from the pond water, the primary function of a biofilter is to utilise natural organisms such as bacteria to complete the nitrogen cycle by converting ammonia (symbol NH3 - highly toxic to fish) to nitrite (symbol N02, also toxic to the fish), to nitrate (symbol N03, not toxic to Koi except at very high levels), to free nitrogen and nitrous oxide. This is called the nitrogen cycle. The bacteria completing the nitrogen cycle are generally referred to as the nitrifying bacteria. Ammonia is one of the end products of the metabolism of protein. Koi excrete unionised ammonia via the gills and urine as well as solid faeces. Ammonia is toxic to fish and has to be removed as quickly as possible. As the fish are excreting their bodys metabolic waste by-products throughout the day, the ammonia must be removed all the time by continuously running the pumps and moving the pond water through the filtration system. Ammonia is found in two forms in ponds, ionised and unionised. Ammonium NH4+ (the + denotes it's an ion) is the ionised form and ammonia NH3 is the unionised and toxic form. The concentration of each form of ammonia is governed by pH, temperature and to some extent salinity. The sum of the two forms of ammonia is called total ammonia or simply ammonia. As pH increases and as temperature increases the proportion of the toxic form unionised ammonia - increases. Unionised ammonia is toxic to fish at very low concentrations. As a general guideline for a water temperature of 21C (70 F), most Koi would be expected to tolerate an ammonia level of 1 ppm for a day or so if the pH is 7.0, or even as high as 10.0 ppm if the pH is 6.0. At a pH of 8.0 a very low level of ammonia - just 0.1 ppm can be dangerous. In the view of many fish health professionals, any detectable level of ammonia in a Koi pond is unacceptable
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blood, poisoning the fish. Fish can often be observed breathing much quicker or crowding around inlets, where the ammonia concentrations are less and oxygen concentrations highest, in an effort to get rid of the ammonia from their system. Koi keepers use bio-filtration to control ammonia in Koi ponds.
pH and Ammonia
An increase in the pH of a single unit increases the toxicity of ammonia (unionised ammonia) by a factor of 10. It is essentially logarithmic in this regard over the temperature and pH ranges we are involved with in Koi ponds.
Biofilters
Nitrifying bacteria grow where there is a food source and the availability of oxygen. Biofilters are areas where we deliver a food source (ammonia) and oxygen, via pond water, to a compact area with a media for bacteria to grow on. The biofilter virtually becomes a living entity after it matures. It is home to millions upon millions of bacteria and micro organisms that are working in our favour by purifying the passing water. Creating a successful, mature biofilter is the key to good water quality.
Nitrifying Bacteria
The bacterial species responsible for ammonia conversion are referred to as the Nitrifying Bacteria. These bacterial species found in nature are chemolithotrophic autotrophs. They oxidize ammonia and nitrite and require carbon dioxide (CO2) for their source of carbon. The nitrifying bacteria have an optimum pH range of 7.8 - 8.8. Below a pH of about 6.0 they do not function very well. The upper pH limit is 9.4. Nitrifying bacteria thrive in oxygen rich environments. Oxygen is of prime importance and the more oxygen available in the water body to these bacteria the faster they can convert ammonia to nitrite. It is presumed that as the koi population increases so does the nitrifying population. Scientists do not know if this is correct as it is possible that the bacterial population in the biofilter may level off but become more efficient at ammonia conversion. Historically, Nitrosomonas europaea & Nitrobacter were thought to be the bacteria suspected of converting ammonia to nitrite in our biofilters. Studies have proven that a newly discovered species of Nitrosomonas convert ammonia to nitrite and it is actually Nitrospira bacteria doing the conversion of nitrite to nitrate. A microbiologist in the 40's identified Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter as two types of bacteria responsible for nitrification in soil and stated that "probably the same were in the water environments". For the next 20 years or so, his original paper was continually referenced to and new authors stated that "probably" it was Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Then the reference and the terminology "probably" basically disappeared
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from the articles and it became a known "fact". This fact now seems to be being disproved. Nitrosomonas grow rapidly after start up of the system but Nitrospira is far slower at developing in significant numbers. It will take weeks before Nitrospira become established in any great numbers in biofilters. Nitrifying bacteria prefer a clean surface to adhere to a surface free of solids and organics. Nitrifying bacteria increase in number when the surface is clean and decrease in number when the media clogs. Their oxidation rate is directly tied to the temperature. The lower the temperature the slower the bacteria are functioning.
Heterotrophic Bacteria
Heterotrophic bacteria are the organic sludge degraders, (organic munchers as some koi keepers refer to them), and are responsible for the breakdown of organic material such as fish faeces, dead algae, leaves, grass cuttings, etc. Heterotrophic bacteria get their energy from the intake and digestion of organic substances. Heterotrophic bacteria multiply rapidly when there is a food source (organics) and can double every 20 minutes. They grow much faster than the nitrifying bacteria and can overwhelm and smother them. It is critical for the efficient functioning of a biofilter to keep solids and organics under control. Keep them away from the biofilter and remove them from the pond system. Heterotrophic bacteria are one of the prime producers of ammonia in a pond. They consume large amounts of oxygen whilst biodegrading organics. They can affect water clarity when there are high organic loads and there is an algae bloom. Ponds with high organic loads should be carefully monitored to see if the nitrification process is adequate. The heterotrophic bacteria appear when a food source is available (i.e. algae growth). They tend to disappear when the food source is consumed.
Starting up Biofilters
A new biofilter, no matter how large or complex, is not functioning when it is new. The various bacteria required to convert the impurities from the fish are simply not there. Some bacteria start growing immediately while others take weeks longer to begin their growth. But again, there are not sufficient numbers available when the biofilter is new.
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The start-up period of a new pond can be very tricky. The water is in, the pumps are running, you have spent a great deal of money on new Koi, the food is bought and the fish are fed. Immediately there will be a build up of ammonia. Each time the Koi are fed this level of ammonia will increase. Nothing is yet available in the pond / filter system that will remove this ammonia. Ammonia is not only toxic to Koi at high levels, it is also stressful to Koi at very low levels. Precautions must be taken in the start-up period of a pond. Therefore, it is a good idea to shorten the start-up time of biofilters.
Seeding Filters
One of the easiest methods of kick-starting a biofilter is to seed the media with some media from a reliable, established biofilter. Another method is to place some clean out from a good active biofilter into the inlet of the new filter. Each piece of media in a mature biofilter will have literally millions of bacteria growing on it. By placing some of this mature media, even a few hands full, in the new biofilter, you will seed the new filter media. By seeding the filter you will have placed colonies of the various types of nitrifying bacteria directly into the media. These will spread and multiply rapidly giving a rapid start-up of the biofilter.
Trickle Filters
A trickle biofilter is - a container / area / locality, where, by the nature of its design, the water flows openly (gravity fed) down-ward as a film over a media.
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Trickle filters are very efficient filters as they have massive amounts of oxygen available in the open media exposed to the atmosphere and there is a fast flow rate. Trickle filters also act as waterfalls that re-oxygenate the pond water.
Bakki Showers
Bakki Showers are simply a stacked or layered trickle filter with a very high flow rate. The oxygenation of the water takes place in exactly the same way as a trickle filter. The layers or stacks add to the water turbulence and increase the oxygenation of the water. The media used in Bakki showers is usually light to avoid having to make heavy supporting structures. Man made ceramic that is kiln fired to produce an extremely rough and porous surface is often used.
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A home-made Bakki Shower. Note the outlet at the bottom returns the water at an angle and generates circulation in the pond.
In Pond Filters
Biofilters and filters are occasionally incorporated inside the pond. Here, a gravel or stone bed is used on the floor of the pond or in a section of the floor area. A grid of pipes under the media bed is used to suck the water to the pump thus pulling the pond water through the filter bed. These filters/biofilters work in exactly the same way as other biological filters. However, as the media is at the bottom of the pond, all the organics are drawn directly into the bed and clogging will be rapid. The heterotrophic bacteria will grow rapidly because of the build up of organics drawn into the filter bed and they will overwhelm the nitrifying bacteria. In addition, the filter beds at the bottom of pond are very difficult to clean. Once the bed becomes clogged, it has to be cleaned or it will become anaerobic and poison the entire pond. The only way an in-pond filter can be cleaned properly is by draining the water and cleaning the media. Alternatively, the whole media bed can be shovelled out and cleaned with pond water. Although in-pond filters are still in use, they are impractical and are a danger to Koi when they crash.
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Combination Biofilters
Biofilters that contain both sinking and floating media are found in some designs. In one commercial embodiment, sinking beads are used as a fluidised bed for bioconversion and the floating beads are used as a mechanical filter. One of the unusual things about this combination is that the water enters the bottom of the filter and passes through the biofilter portion first. Because that bed is fluidised, no debris is collected there but rather it passes on through to the second stage of the unit where the floating beads trap the solids.
Biofilter Size
As the ammonia load increases, more bacteria are needed not more time for conversion. Flow rates are directly related to this. Therefore, the amount of functional surface area available to the nitrifying bacteria is of importance. Different media have different surface areas. Whilst small quantities of filter media with very large surface areas can be used, Koi ponds still need biofilters with enough volume of media to accommodate both the nitrifying and heterotrophic bacteria.
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If the pump is sucking at the end of a multi chambered system and chambers with different media are used, the chamber with the least void space may be pulled dry.
Damaging Biofilters
Bacteria attach themselves to all surfaces and as they multiply and grow they immediately form biofilms within a slime matrix called an extracellular polymeric substance or EPS. Within this protective EPS the bacteria are well protected from chemicals and medications administered to the koi pond. Although biofilms are extremely resistant to chemicals in the pond water, they can suffer damage. Some chemicals added to the pond water can damage the biomass but not destroy it and can shock the nitrifying bacteria. Antibiotics will not only kill the free floating bacteria in the pond, it will kill some of the bacteria in the biofilm as well. However, because the biofilm is not completely destroyed it will recover quickly. The pH of the water affects the nitrifying bacteria. A very low or acidic pH will inhibit the biomass from functioning properly. However, while processing the fish waste, the filter produces acid that tends to lower the pH of the system. If the pH drops below about 6.5 the bacteria stop working and the waste ammonia is unprocessed - this is known as a filter crash. To prevent filter crashes, keep the alkalinity up so the water is buffered against the acid that the biofilter bacteria constantly produce.
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release a small amount of ammonia gradually back into the water which will be proportional to the amount of salt added. This small amount of additional ammonia that is released will be taken care of by the nitrifying bacteria in the biofilter once it passes through the filter system. There is a vast difference between the level of salt used in a Koi pond (0.1% - 0.3% [1Kg 3Kg]), the amount that is present in sea water (3% salt [30 35Kg]) and the salt saturation needed to regenerate zeolite for reuse. If you have salt added to the water before you add zeolite, the salt will prevent the zeolite from adsorbing a small amount of ammonia. Again this is directly proportional to the amount of salt added to the pond water. In order to prevent zeolite from adsorbing any ammonia it would have to be placed in a saturated salt solution.
Activated carbon
Usually used in granule form. Removes negative ions such as ozone, chlorine and fluorides from the water. Heating to 900oC can recharge it. Very useful when used to filter municipal water where chlorine and other chemicals have been added to the water. It can be expensive and only certain types of activated carbon remove ammonia and chloramines.
UV Lights or UV Sterilizers
UV Lights have been adapted for use on koi ponds for a number of years. They are available to the average Koi Keeper in various designs and various strengths. They work well when controlling the suspended algae that make pond water pea green. A UV light will only affect those organisms passing near it and will not have any effect on those organisms in the pond itself. Ultraviolet light incapacitates microorganisms by deactivating their DNA, making multiplication impossible or killing the organism outright. It does this without significant change to the water chemistry as it only affects organisms that are directly exposed to the UV rays themselves. It is a very safe and clean process, especially compared to medication. UV Lights are used to clarify the water of algae and to some extent reduce waterborne pathogens such as bacteria. In order to kill bacteria UV light would have to be twice as powerful as the UV light used to kill algae. In order to kill protozoan parasites UV light would have to be 4 - 6 times as powerful as the UV light used to kill bacteria.
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It is not practical for Koi Keepers to try to control parasites with UV lights as parasites multiply in all areas of the pond and on Koi rather than inside a UV tube. The UV light would only sterilize that water passing through it. UV manufacturers provide suggested maximum flow rates for their models. However, there is broad disagreement among manufacturers on precisely how those rates should be calculated. The maximum or optimum suggested flow rate may not be a very useful factor for comparison. A better way of comparing models would be lamp output. UV units are rated in terms of the amount of power they consume, but what really does the job is output power. The output wattage is in the neighborhood of 1/3 of the rating - so a 25watt UV lamp may produce only about 8 watts of UV power. This percentage may vary by brand and model, and some manufacturers appear to be much more willing or able to share this information than others. UV lights have a limited life-span and as they get older their UV power becomes less and less.
Vegetable Filters
Plants in streams and in filter chambers can be utilised to remove certain substances from the water. Although plants do not remove ammonia from the water they do remove some nitrite and nitrate. The roots of plants that dangle in the water, such as water hyacinth, can hold large colonies of both nitrifying and heterotrophic bacteria. Any planted area must be continually maintained to prevent the root system clogging up and cutting off the passing water from lower regions. These regions will be become anaerobic and poison the system
Streams as Filters
Streams can be used as biological filters. The bed of a stream can be laid with gravel or stone. As the water passes over this bed nitrifying bacteria will grow. Streams as filters must be shallow to prevent anaerobic bacteria forming in the deeper regions of the gravel bed. The gravel or stone bed will be a wonderful trap for organic material. In other words this bed can clog up easily over time. Cleaning the stream regularly of organic material is critical to its success.
Foam Fractionation
Sometimes called foam floatation and protein skimming This is a process that removes organic matter and fine solids from water in the form of foam that is generated in a device. A foam fractionator consists of three parts, a vessel (usually a column) through which the water flows either up or down, a bubble source (such as a diffuser or venturi) and a foam collection point. Foam fractionators do not work nearly as well in fresh water as in marine environments. Fresh water implementations are much more difficult to control.
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The particulates that foam fractionation removes from the water are known as surfactants, and are comprised mainly of organic compounds (proteins). These compounds have one end that is attracted to water molecules (polar) and one end that repels water molecules (dipolar). As the bubbles rise through the column, the molecules collect around the bubble surface with the dipolar ends in contact with the air and the polar ends pointing out into the water. The molecules are therefore adsorbed into the surface of the bubble. Once the bubbles reach the water surface, the particles in the bubble surface prevent it from bursting and as more bubbles collect behind it, foam is formed. This foam rises steadily out of the water as more and more bubbles build up behind. The diameter of the column is gradually restricted at the foam outlet, which increases the velocity of the foam. It is then fed away from the column and sent to waste. The increase in velocity is important as it reduces the amount of time the bubbles have to stay intact before they are removed from the column. The amount of foam produced is a result of the air flow rate, the amount of surfactants in the water, and the time taken for the foam to be removed. Foam fractionators are often used in re-circulating systems to remove some of the fine solids and reduce the load on biological filters. Foam fractionation can be observed on a daily basis in the pond. Ponds with high organic loads or changing water quality often have foam developing at the base of a water fall where the air bubbles attract the DOC or dissolved organic carbons.
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bacteria. You may flush some of the excess biofilm but you will not damage it. Mechanical filtration will always require more attention than the biological filtration. Therefore, the mechanical filter must be easily accessible and designed for ease of maintenance. Any part of the pond system that has water/sediment standing must be flushed regularly to avoid anaerobic conditions developing. Lack of maintenance on a Koi pond may be the root of many health problems One of the major causes of fish disease problems is lack of pond maintenance by pond keepers. Nature is working 24 hours a day, every day of the year. Algae and fish faeces constitute the bulk of the solid and organic build-up in pond systems. These organic materials will decompose. If it is allowed to build up, the deeper layers will be cut off from the passing water and become anaerobic. Anaerobic bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide this is toxic to fish. Run your hand over a tabletop in the house for example, and every day there is a film of dust. Exactly the same continuous pollution, in various forms, is settling onto and into our ponds. Ponds are literally giant settlement chambers.
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The debate on the damage to the biofilm on the biofilter media when it is turned over a few times a year to rinse away the excess solids is often exaggerated. The benefits of having the filter bed clear of organic and solid material far outweighs the damage done by the occasional washing it requires. Most of the bacteria washed away will be the excess and/or dead bacteria. Provided the filter media is kept moist whilst back washing and turning, the damage is minimal. The bacteria remaining on the biofilter media will spread through the entire biofilter media very rapidly once the system is started up again. Koi keepers suggest that pond water not tap water should be used as tap water contains chlorine and other additives that will kill the bacteria it comes into contact with. This will be limited as the bacteria live within protective biofilms.
Air Blowers
An air blower system can be installed when building the filter box or it can be attached to pressurized filters. This is an excellent additional method for efficient, easy cleaning of all types of filters. In the filter chamber a network of perforated pipes rests under the grid that is supporting the filter media. There is an inlet for the blower to be connected to the network of pipes. A Jacuzzi air blower produces a large volume of air and is readily available. The large volume of air is forced into the chamber under the filter media. The air expands as it is pumped into the filter chamber thus bubbling up through the filter bed, dislodging the trapped material. The waste water must then be directed onto the garden or to waste not to the pond. There are ponds that use this method of cleaning biological and mechanical filters each week. Test results indicate that there is no appreciable damage to the biomass. The rewards in terms of water clarity and purity are excellent.
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biofilters and some of the excess biofilm may be removed, but it will not harm the nitrification process.
Water Changes
Irrespective of the size and complexity of the pond filtration system we cannot escape the fact that we have to add fresh water to our ponds. It is necessary to replace the water lost due to evaporation. This is referred to as topping off/up the pond and should not be considered a water change. Water changes are a normal and essential part of Koi keeping. Water changes should be done regularly in ponds as the environment is always deteriorating to some degree - no matter how large or complex the filter system is. Many enthusiasts advocate a 10% water change per week. The author considers this to be a minimum. Regular water changes have advantages: Various by-products of the pond system build-up such as nitrate and phosphate, DOC concentrations, pheromone levels etc. Water changes will dilute their concentrations. Solids (suspended and dissolved) will be removed. Essential trace elements and minerals will be replenished.
Changing water by removing some of the pond volume each week and replacing it with fresh water has many benefits. The pond system will be healthier and the Koi will grow better with regular water changes. Water changes dilute pollutants as well as adding minerals and trace elements which Koi can absorb directly from the water. The chlorine in tap (municipal) water used for water changes must be eliminated if the water change exceeds 20% of the total pond volume. Instead of simply pumping water to waste to effect water changes, consider that the water changes can be done each time you back wash or flush the filter system and then replace the water used in the process. Filters should be flushed regularly. Water can be saved by using the water from cleaning the filters or doing a water change to irrigate the garden. Water changes dilute pollutants such as pheromones. Partial water changes should be done after a chemical treatment for disease or parasite control.
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Water changes above about 20% should have the chlorine eliminated with Sodium Thiosulphate. Use at 5 grams (one level teaspoon) per 1000 litres (264.17 gallons) to bind the chlorine. Some municipalities add chloramines to the tap water. Chloramine is a more stable form of chlorine and is a combination of chlorine and ammonia. It is more dangerous than chlorine as it is more active in the water for a longer period of time. Chloramines can be eliminated with ChlorAm-X. Alternatively, using Sodium Thiosulphate with each water change will eliminate the toxic effects of the chlorine and the chloramines (unlocking the ammonia in the process). This will temporarily increase the ammonia in the pond water. So long as your biofilters are working, and you have a reasonable turnover rate, this additional ammonia will be taken care of.
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The Koi
Koi will be affected by medications and chemical treatments. They take longer to recover than we realise. Give them time to recover.
Filters
Technically speaking, filters will not suffer damage from treatments because their primary function is to trap solids.
Biofilters
Biofilters can suffer some limited damage to the biofilm and the micro organisms growing there. The stronger the medications and the stronger the chemicals used, the more damage will occur. Any substance that kills bacteria will very likely be harmful to the bacteria in the biofilters especially the individual cells in new ponds where the biofilm has not matured into a protective matrix. This would include antibiotics and powerful oxidizing agents such as potassium permanganate.
The Pond
Allow the pond and filter system time to recover after treatments. Monitor the ammonia and other pollutant levels during recovery. Try to treat koi away from the pond in a separate tank if possible.
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LOGIC Logic is a process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the premises presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true Build a time line of the events that led to the problem and when the problem occured. Construct a list of pertinent questions for the Koi keeper, even if it is in your head.
EXPERIENCE Experience is the knowledge or practical wisdom gained from what one has observed, encountered, undergone or learned from others Use your experience to make recomendations and offer solutions. Recommend lab analysis if KHV or bacterial diseases or suspected. Always return to basics, the solution is often found in the basics.
SOLUTION Solutions need not be complicated. Tailor the solution to the Koi keepers needs and budget. Give alternative suggestions to Koi keepers to increase their knowledge and understanding.
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INDEX
activated carbon, 21, 71 activated sludge, 19 aerobic, 19 air blower, 76 air lift, 19 air-bumping filters, 76 algae, 11, 13, 14, 25, 54, 75 algae reproduction rates, 37 controlling algae, 32 ammonia, 8, 11, 12, 15, 19, 37, 41, 43, 60, 61, 63, 66, 70 ambient ammonia, 19, 37 effects on koi, 60 toxicity, 13 anaerobic bacteria, 21, 55 antibiotics, 68 back flushing, 20 bacteria bacteria in the biofilter, 48 bakki showers, 64 bentonite, 31 biofilms, 49 and flow rates, 50 and organics, 51 development, 49 biofilter, 10, 20, 60, 61 floating bead biofilter, 66 frequency of cleaning, 76 in pond biofilters, 65 maintenance, 74 mature biofilters, 49 open biofilters, 63 oxygen requirements, 48 pressurised biofilters, 66 shutting down biofilters, 68 size, 66 starting up biofilters, 62 surface area of the biofilter, 67 trickle biofilters, 63 biological filtration, 20 carbon dioxide, 9, 20, 24, 61 cat litters, 31 chamber surface area, 67 chemolithotrophs, 24, 61 chloramines, 78 Chlor-Am-X, 78 chlorine, 77 circulation, 28, 33 clays, 31 degass, 21 Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC), 58 DOC dissolved organic carbon, 22 filter cleaning filter beds, 76 filter media various filter media materials, 46 filters frequency of cleaning, 76 granular media filters, 54 maintenance, 74 pressurised filters, 54 screens, 54 filtration, 9, 10, 46 three types of mechanical filters, 53 fish faeces, 37, 75 flotation filtration, 58 flow rate, 10, 22, 23, 41, 43, 55, 68, 73 and ammonia levels, 37 through biofilters, 43 through pipes, 41 fluidisation, 65 fluidized bed filters, 65
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foam, 58 foam fractionators, 72 free nitrogen, 60 fresh water, 7 friction loss, 22, 39 overcoming friction losses, 40 gas bubble disease, 23 gravel, 46, 55, 65, 67, 72 gravity fed pipes, 39 gravity seperation, 57 heavy metals removal from the water, 70 heterotrophic bacteria, 23, 62 heterotrophs, 45, 46 hydraulic load, 23 hydroclones, 57 hydrogen sulphide, 23, 28, 35, 47, 75 Hydrogen Sulphide, 11 ion exchange, 23 Koi length & body mass, 16 lava rock, 46 logarithmic scale, 24 mature filters, 43 mechanical filters, 54 media, 24, 43, 45, 54, 63, 65, 67, 68, 75, 76 and water flow, 47 depth, 48 filter media, 45 lay-out and packing, 47 sinking media, 66 surface area, 49 surface area, 46 total surface area, 46 metabolism, 8, 14, 15, 16 multi cyclone, 58 nitrate, 24, 60 nitrification, 21 nitrifying bacteria, 10, 11, 12, 15, 41, 43, 45, 46, 61, 63, 66, 68
nitrite, 25, 60 nitrobacter, 20, 61 nitrosomonas, 20, 61 nitrospira, 20, 61 nitrous oxide, 21, 60 odours removing odours from the pond, 70 open filters, 53 organics, 11, 25, 28, 30, 32 and biofilms, 51 and turnover rates, 38 oxygen, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 43, 55, 61 and altitude, 28 and altitude, 14 and turnover rates, 28 dissolved oxygen, 21 dissolving oxygen into water, 34 dissolving oxygen into water, 28 saturation levels, 29 ozone, 25 parallel, 22, 68 pH, 12, 13, 15, 16, 61, 69 and ammonia, 61 and Koi, 13 pollutants, 30 pond maintenance, 74 potassium permanganate, 79 pressurised filters, 53 pumps, 43 Salt, 70 sand filters, 54 and restrictions, 55 in parallel, 55 Sand Filters, 25 seeding biofilters, 63 sequence, 22 settled solids, 28 settlement, 54 sodium thiosulphate, 78
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solids, 30 dissolved solids, 31 removing solids, 42 settled solids, 24, 25 suspended solids, 26, 30 total dissolved solids
turbidity, 26 turn over rate, 41 turnover rate and dissolved oxygen, 39 calculating turnover rates, 36 of the whole pond, 43 turnover rates, 36 UV lights, 27, 32 UV Lights, 71 vegetable filters, 72 venturie, 27 venturies, 9, 14 vortex, 27, 57 water hardness, 70 water changes, 77 water circulation, 33 zeolite, 21, 70 and salt, 70
TDS, 21
specific flow rate, 22 stagnant water, 35 stocking density, 16, 26 stone, 67 stratification, 26 streams, 72 supersaturation, 26 nitrogen, 26 oxygen, 26 surface skimmers, 58 temperature, 12, 13, 15, 16 and dissolved oxygen, 29 trickle filters, 47, 64
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