Printy!!!

4BIB 5012x
SURVEY OF THE PENTATEUCH

FALL, 2008
Tuesdays, 1:20-3:10
Professor Benjamin D. Sommer
Goals of the course.

This course has two goals.
(1.) At the end of this course, you should be familiar with the contents of the Pentateuch -- its
plot, its overarching messages, its approaches to ethical, civil, criminal, and ritual issues. You
should know what types or genres of material it contains. You should know what material is
found in which book -- for example, you should know that Rachel shows up in Genesis and the
daughters of Tzelophchad in Numbers, that the architectural plans for the tabernacle are in
Exodus, that ritual laws appear especially in Leviticus and Numbers (but also show up here and
there in Exodus and Deuteronomy), that civil and criminal laws are found in Exodus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy (and only rarely in Leviticus, and never in Genesis).
(2.) You should learn how the Pentateuch does and does not function as a literary unit. You
should develop an understanding of how its five component parts (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy) add up to a whole. You should also have a sense of how each of
these five components works (or does not work) as a literary unit of its own in distinction from
the other four.
Primary source readings.

For each class, you will read a large amount of material -- twice:
Once in The Jewish Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). I will refer to
this book below as “JSB.” It uses the new Jewish Publication Society translation (which I
will refer to as “the NJPS translation”), to which it adds introductions for each book of the
Tanakh, a brief commentary for each book, and various essays.
Once in Everett Fox, The Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy; A New Translation with Introductions, Commentary, and Notes (New York:
Schocken, 1995). I refer to this book below simply as “Fox.”
Each week, you should first of all read either one of the translations without a commentary. Then
read the other along with both commentaries. Pay particular attention to how the commentators
divide the text into units.
Paperback copies of the JSB and Fox are available at the Barnes and Noble book store here at
JTS. Hardback editions also exist; these are of course more expensive and heavier to carry. If you
prefer the hardback editions, you can get them from any on-line bookseller.
Hebrew readings.
For some classes, you will prepare a short passage or several verses in Hebrew, using the normal
tools of biblical studies: viz., the Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old
Testament (known as BDB), Koehler-Baumgartner-Stamm-Richardson’s The Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT), the Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley Gesenius’
Hebrew Grammar (GKC), Joüon-Muraoka’s A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (JM), concordances
of the Bible (e.g., A. Even-Shoshan’s !"#$% !&'($)*+(*+, or concordance programs such as
BibleWorks [for PC’s] and Accordance [for Macs]).
Secondary readings.
For each class, you will have some secondary readings as well. Some are from the JSB and Fox;
other are from a variety of sources. The latter are available on the Blackboard site.
Questions to ask while reading.

For each class, I list several question to think about while reading. These will structure your tour
through a large amount of primary reading. You should come to class prepared to discuss these
questions in detail, with specific references to the primary texts to back up your answers. Our in-
class discussions will center around these questions.
Requirements.
Three response papers. You must write three response papers. Each paper will respond to
one or two of the questions I pose in the “Questions to ask while reading” sections of the
syllabus. (Please note that you are not expected to respond to all the questions.) You may
choose any three class sessions for this assignment; the papers must be turned in at the class
session for which you answer the question. Late papers won’t be accepted; once a class has
passed, you cannot write on that day’s reading. The papers should be four to five pages long.
You need not do any additional research beyond what’s on this syllabus for these papers.
Each paper is worth 131/3% of your final grade.
Active participation in class. You need to be ready to discuss each of the questions listed in
the “Questions to ask while reading” section for each session. How can you get a good grade
for participation? First of all, you must be present; yes -- attendance counts. Second, you
must speak up regularly and in a way that shows you have done the primary and secondary
readings. Third, say something insightful and intelligent that shows you not only did the
reading but though about it carefully. Class participation is worth 30% of the final grade for
the course.
Final exam. A final exam will cover facts and perspectives discussed in class and in the
primary and secondary readings, as well as the Hebrew verses assigned in the “Hebrew
readings” section of the syllabus (each of which you should be ready to translate on sight
without a dictionary). The final exam is worth 30% of your final grade.
1. Sept 2 Introduction.
2. Sept 9 The Book of Genesis (I).

Primary reading:
Genesis 1.1-25.18
Hebrew reading:
Genesis 1.1-4; 2.1-7. Also, read Genesis 1.1-3 in the King James
translation of the Bible (widely available on the internet).
Secondary readings:
Marc Brettler, “Torah - Introduction,” in JSB, 1-7
Jon Levenson, “Genesis - Introduction,” in JSB 8-11
Brevard Childs, “Introduction to the Pentateuch,” in Introduction to the
Old Testament as Scripture (1979), 109-135 (available on Blackboard)
Everett Fox, “On the Book of Genesis and Its Structure” and “The
Primeval History,” in Fox, 3-10
Questions to ask while reading:
How do you break these chapters into sub-units? How do your choices
compare to those of the various translators and commentators? What
criteria can you use to make your decisions?
Characterize the difference between the two translations you read.
What types of material, or genres, appear in today’s reading? Prepare a
chart that lists the genres in Genesis 1-25 and specifies which texts belong
to which one, and bring your chart to class.
3. Sept 16 The Book of Genesis (II).

Primary reading:
Genesis 25.19-50.26
Secondary readings:
Brevard Childs, “Genesis,” in Introduction to the Old Testament as
Scripture (1979), 136-160 (available on Blackboard)
The introductions by the translators of the NJPS version, in JSB, xiii-xvi
The “Translator’s Preface” in Fox, ix-xxvi
What themes recur in chapters 12-50? Give specific examples. What
vocabulary items are associated with these themes?
What, if anything, holds Genesis together as a book? Is it really a book at
all? Do chapters 1-11 and 12-50 really belong together as a single book,
thematically speaking, or are they really two separate books?
How do the goals of the two translations differ? If you were teaching in a
college, which would you use? What about if you were teaching in a high
school? If you were teaching a course for adults? Did you enjoy one
translation or the other more, and why?
4. Sept 23 The Book of Exodus.

Primary reading:
Exodus 1-40
Hebrew reading:
Exodus 39.32-33, 39.43, 40.9-13, and 40.33-38
Secondary readings:
Jeffrey Tigay, “Exodus,” in JSB, 102-107
Everett Fox, “On the Book of Exodus and its Structure,” 241-47
Moshe Greenberg, Understanding Exodus (1969), 1-17 (available on
Blackboard)
What types of material, or genres, appear in today’s reading? Prepare a
chart that lists the genres in Exodus and specifies which texts belong to
which one, and bring your chart to class.
Think about how a book or a poem or a short story ends. How would you
characterize the ending of Exodus? What makes it a strange ending? What
makes it an appropriate ending?
What, if anything, holds Exodus together as a book? Is it really a book at
all? If you had to give a thematic name to this book which sums up all its
contents, what would it be?
Who, or what, is the main character of the Book of Exodus. (The obvious
answer, it goes without saying, is God. But give me another answer, in
addition to God.)
- Sept 30 No class (!("#! "#,))
5. Oct 7 The Book of Leviticus (I).

Primary reading:
Leviticus 1-10
Hebrew reading:
Genesis 1.1-3; Exodus 1.1; Leviticus 1.1; Numbers 1.1; Deuteronomy 1.1;
Joshua 1.1; Judges 1.1; 1 Samuel 1.1; 1 Kings 1.1; Isaiah 1.1; Jeremiah 1.1;
Jonah 1.1; Obadiah 1.1; Esther 1.1; Daniel 1.1; Ezra 1.1
Secondary reading:
Baruch Schwartz, “Leviticus,” in JSB 203-206
Everett Fox, Introductory material on Leviticus, 497-508
Gary Anderson, “Sacrifice and Sacrificial Offerings (OT),” in The Anchor
Bible Dictionary (1992), 5:870-886 (available on Blackboard)
What is odd about how the Book of Leviticus starts? What does this oddity
imply?
What are the main types of sacrifices? Why are there so many different
types? What are the theological implication of the differences? For the
final. you will need to know the Hebrew names of the various categories of
sacrifices (-&./"#! %01 ,!/*2 ,$&.3 ,!%(. ,-"#, ,3,4%, etc.) and the basics of
how these categories differ from each other.
Some people consider today’s reading to be boring and irrelevant,
especially from a religious point of view. Why are those people completely
wrong?
What genres appear in today’s reading? Is there any overall genre to these
chapters? How does it relate to the genre at the end of the Book of
Exodus?
- Oct 14 No class (3*56)
- Oct 21 No class (3)'2 &(&."#)
6. Oct 28 Leviticus (II).

Primary reading:
Leviticus 11-27
Secondary reading:
Recommended: Mary Douglas, “The Abominations of Leviticus,” from
Purity and Danger (1966), 41-57 (available on Blackboard)
Ed Firmage, “The Biblical Dietary Laws and the Concept of Holiness,” in
Studies in the Pentateuch (Vetus Testamentum Supplements, 1990), edited
by J. Emerton, 177-208 (available on Blackboard). The appendices are
optional.
Jonathan Klawans, “Concepts of Purity in the Bible,” in JSB, 2041-2047
Tikva Frymer-Kensky, “Pollution, Purification, and Purgation in Biblical
Israel,” in The Word of the Lord Shall Go forth: Essays in Honor of David
Noel Freedman (1983), edited by Carol Meyers and Murphy O’Connor,
399-414 (available on Blackboard)
What is the purpose of the dietary laws? Whom do you find more
convincing, Douglas or Firmage? What one verse sums up the dietary laws
as Firmage understands them?
How do moral and ritual impurity differ? How do they intersect? What
does each type of purity affect, and how does it exercise this effect?
What do all the causes of ritual impurity have in common? What seems to
be the main idea behind ritual impurity? Why is it appropriate, according to
Leviticus, that Israelites are sometimes ritually impure? What one verse
sums up the purity laws as Klawans understands them? How does it relate
to the one verse that sums up dietary laws for Firmage?
According to Frymer-Kensky, what are the main differences between major
and minor pollution in terms of their causes and their effects?
Overall: What most surprises you about the idea of purity and impurity
based on the readings for today? Do you consider them more bizarre or
less bizarre, now that you have done today’s readings? Do you consider
them more religiously distasteful or less?
Chapters 17-26 are often considered a distinct sub-unit within the Book of
Leviticus. What elements set them apart from chapters 1-16?
7. Nov 4 The Book of Numbers (I).

Primary reading:
Numbers 1.1-22.1
Hebrew reading:
Exodus 28.36-38, 39.20-31; Numbers 15.37-41
Secondary reading:
Nili Fox, “Numbers,” in JSB, 281-84
Everett Fox, Introductory material on Numbers, 647-51
Jacob Milgrom, “The Encampment,” in The JPS Torah Commentary:
Numbers (1989), 340-41
Question to ask while reading:
What is the narrative framework of this material? How does the
literary/canonical unit that is Numbers relate to Exodus and Leviticus?
How do the passages you read in Hebrew relate to each other? What is the
theological implication of their juxtaposition?
How do the sections dealing with sacrificial law relate to the parallel
sections in Leviticus? Why are some laws apparently repeated?
The movement from chapter 10 to chapter 11 is abrupt in several ways.
How does chapter 10 differ from chapter (and, more generally, how do
chapters 1-10 differ from 11-21)? Throw around some abstract terms to
characterize the movement; what do each set of chapters represent or
embody? What is the effect of this abrupt change? Where else in the
Pentateuch do we see a similar movement?
What genres have we seen in Numbers? How are they organized? Why
does the book move from one genre to another? In particular, think about
chapters 13-16. Two narratives of rebellion are interrupted by an
assortment of ritual laws. At first the interruption seems random, but closer
examination reveals connections between the narratives and the laws.
These connections work both at the level of vocabulary and at the level of
theme. What are these connections, and what is their effect on our reading
of the book?
8. Nov 11 The Book of Numbers (II).

Primary reading:
Numbers 22.2-36.13
Secondary reading (optional):
Raymond Westbrook, “Biblical and Cuneiform Law Codes,” from Revue
Biblique 92 (1985) 247-64 (available on Blackboard)
Numbers 28-29 are reminiscent of Leviticus 23. In what ways are they the
same? How might you explain their similarity? In what ways are they
different? Do they actually disagree on anything? How might you explain
the differences? Why is the comparison of these fairly boring passages
theologically interesting?
What do the passages regarding daughters of Tzelophchad tell us about
ancient Israelite law? About revelation?
What genres have we seen in Numbers? How are they organized? Why
does the book move from one genre to another?
How do the laws in Numbers compare to those in Exodus 21-23 in form?
How do they compare in subject matter?
There are two censuses in the Book of Numbers, and lots of lists of names
throughout. Make a list of all the lists of names. (In terms of theme,
Numbers has a much better claim to the title “The Book of Names” than
Exodus does). Why the emphasis on names and numbers? What is ironic
about the careful listing of all these names? What is ironic about the careful
counting of Israelites at the beginning of the book, and why is it necessary
to have a second census towards the end?
Think about the end of the Book of Numbers. Does it feel like an ending,
or is it just a random place to stop the narrative? Was some other place a
better place to draw the book to a close with a sense of completion, and if
so, where? In that case, might the end be an appendix? What would the
point of such an appendix be?
Assume that Numbers as it stands really is a meaningful textual unit and
that its last chapters are an appropriate ending and not just a random place
to stop the narrative or an appendix. What might the point of such an
ending be?
9. Nov 18 The Book of Deuteronomy (I).

Primary reading:
Deuteronomy 1.1-11.32, 26.16-34.12
Secondary reading:
Bernard Levinson, “Deuteronomy,” 356-63
Everett Fox, Introductory material on Deuteronomy, 841-46
George Mendenhall, “Covenant Forms in Israelite Traditions,” Biblical
Archaeologist 17 (1954), 50-76 (available on Blackboard)
What is the overall structure of Deuteronomy? What genres does it
contain, and what is the genre of the whole?
Compare Exodus 19-20 and 24 with Deuteronomy 4-5. How does
Deuteronomy use its source material? To what ends?
Where, according to Deuteronomy, is God located? How does
Deuteronomy’s answer to this question compare to the answers we find in
the earlier books? Cite specific verses in answering these questions.
Especially relevant may be: Genesis 3.8, Genesis 18, Exodus 33-34,
Exodus 19.18, Exodus 24, Exodus 29.46, Exodus 40; Numbers 9.15-23,
Numbers 35.34.
To what nouns does Deuteronomy apply the adjective "#*$+? How does
Deuteronomy’s use of this adjective compare to that in previous books?
Use a concordance to answer this question.
10. Nov 25 The Book of Deuteronomy (II).

Primary reading:
Deuteronomy 12.1-26.15
Hebrew reading:
There is no Hebrew reading for this week. There is a larger than normal
amount for next week, however, so you may want to get started on that
reading.
Secondary reading:
Moshe Weinfeld, “Humanism,” in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic
School (1972), 282-97
How do the laws in Deuteronomy compare to those in Exodus 21-23,
Leviticus, and Numbers in form and in scope? How do they compare in
subject matter?
Compare the following laws, and note any patterns that emerge from the
comparisons:
Exodus 20.19-23 Deuteronomy 12.13-14
Exodus 22.16 Deuteronomy 22.28
Exodus 23.9 Deuteronomy 10.19-20
Leviticus 17.9,15-16; Exodus 22.31
Deuteronomy 14.21
Exodus 23.10-17, 34.18-25; Leviticus 23; Numbers 28-29
Deuteronomy 16.1-17
Exodus 25.10-22; Leviticus 16.1-14; 1 Kings 8.9
Deuteronomy 10.1-8, 31.12-26
Leviticus 7.28-36 Deuteronomy 18.1-3
Leviticus 17.1-14 Deuteronomy 12.13-16,20-27
11. Dec 2 The Pentateuch as a Literary and Canonical Unit.

Primary reading:
Read Joshua 1-24 in JSB, paying close attention to chapters 1 and 24.
Reread Deuteronomy 26.1-11.
Prepare in Hebrew:
Deuteronomy 34.10-12; Joshua 1.7-8; Malachi 3.22-24; Psalm 1.1-3
Rashi’s first comment on the first verse of Genesis
Secondary reading:
Carol Myers, “Joshua,” in JSB, 462-64
Jean-Louis Ska, Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch (2006), chapter 1,
pages 1-15, and chapter 2, pages 16-19 (available on Blackboard). I have
also included pages 20-39 in the pdf file on Blackboard, which are
recommended but not required; they review of material we covered earlier
in the semester, and you will find them helpful as you prepare for the final
exam.
Abraham Kuenen, An Historical-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and
Composition of the Hexateuch (1886), 313-18, 340-42 (available on
Blackboard)
Look up the word !)*3 in BDB and HALOT. Read both entries very
carefully. (Note that since BDB lists all nouns under their root or "#)"#, the
noun !)*3 is listed there under the root !'')&. Since HALOT lists all nouns
the way the are usually spelled, this noun is listed there under !)*3.
What is the Pentateuch? What is its literary genre? What assumption does
Rashi seem to make as to its genre? Review Childs on the canonical shape
of the Pentateuch (from the reading you did for September 9). How might
Childs answer this question?
Does it seem likely that in ancient times Jews thought of the Torah as
including the Book of Joshua? What are the thematic implications of a
Hexateuch rather than a Pentateuch? For what ancient Jewish groups might
one anthology seem more appropriate than the other?
In what senses is the Pentateuch !)*3? In what senses is or the Hexateuch
!)*3? And the Tetrateuch? Does the use of this term help to decide which
of these is the right literary or canonical unit?
This is the final session of a course on the Pentateuch at the Jewish
Theological Seminary. In what ways, if any, has the approach to the
Pentateuch in this course been Jewish? In what ways, if any, has it been
theological?
Chapter l
Basic westions about the Pentateuch
This first chapter presents the Pentateuch as a whoie, First of all, me must ask
what the word Pefztatetrch means. Then, we will see why the first five books of
the Hebrew Bible form a whole and why this unity is important &om the point
of view of the revelation and largely differs from the rest of the Old Testament.
The hiatus separating the end of Deuteronomy from the beginning of the book
of Joshua is not onl7- situated in rime. it also marks a transition &om the first
stage of the history of the revelation to the next,
A. The Origin of the Word Pentateuch and Its Usage

In the rabbinic tradition, the Torah ("Teaching," "Law") comprises the first
five books of the Bible, which end i7rith &loses' death (Deuteronomy 34).
These five books are called ?zd'mis"li[tzrnls'i: izartBr6, "the five-fifihs of the reach-
ing/law," This Hebrew expression is probably the source of the Greek term ha
pentateuchos (bibles). The Greek word pentateudzo.c ibiblos), translated in Latin as
pentateucilt~sllibei;i, "Pentateuch," is composed of pe~zte(fivej and tetid~irs(a kind
of "instrument," "tool," or "utensil"),' The latter term first designates the box
or cylinder containing the scrolls, and second, by extension, its contents-that
is, the "scroll."' So, Pentateuch means "five books" or, more specif cally, "fir-e
scrolls.''
The Pentateuch is the first part of the Old Testament and of the Hebrexx-
Bible, It contains the first fire books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These five titles come from the Greek transla-
tion, the Septuagint, reproduced in the Latin Vulgate. The Hebre\ri titles of
these books, in turn, derive from the first significant words of each book:
be're'ftt ("In the Beginning": Genesis), fF~z8t ("The Names": Exodus");
waYyiqrd"("And Me Called": Leviticus); bgnzidbar ("In the Wilderness [of Si-
nai]'': Numbers): de'harfwz ("The Words": Deuteronomy),
I . In specific contexts. the Greek noun te~ichoscan have four d~kerentmeanings: the plu-
ral. in Homer: "weapons." "tackle" (sails, ropes, rudders): after Homer: "vase." " c o n ~ ~ i n e r "
('liug," "pitcher," "barrel." "kneading trough," "box." "hive"): "scroll9" "book."
2. C. Houtman, Dei Peritntcuch (Contributions to B~blicalExegesis and Theology 9: Kam-
pen. 1994) 1; LU. 2.Brettler, "Torah." inJejelcilsll Sttidy Bible (ed. A. Berlin and M. Z. Brettler:
Oxford. 2004) 1 .
-he ~ ~ ' o rPentateuch
d appears less frequently in tile writings of the Church
father^,^ who prefer to talk about "the Law'' or "the Lax17 of Moses," in order
to distinguish it from the "Prophets." as do Jews and the New T e ~ t a m e n t . ~
Other ancient writings also mention the "five books" of the La1v.j One of the
first references is perhaps found in the Qumran texts, in a fragment n-here the
expression klol [c]pry~~ [~fivt~?yf?~
may be translated precisely "ail the books of the
Pentateucl~."~ A fix~e-partdivision is also found in the Psalter of the Hebrew
Bible: Psalins 1-11, 42-72. 73-89. 90-106. and 107-50. The Psalter was
probably designed to be a meditation on the five books of the Torah ("Law").
Psalm I certainly leads the way (see Ps 12).
The Gospel of Matthew contains five discolurses that end with formulas
similar to each other (Matt 7:2$, 11:1, 13:53, 19:1, 26:l). In fact: for Matthe-cir,
Jesus is a "doctor of the Lam7," and it is not impossible that he wanted his Gospel
to be a kind of "Nen- Pentateuch." The first words of this Gospel, biblorgenesear
("book of the geizeaiogy") correspo~zdto the translation of Gen 2:1and 5:l in
the Septuagint. Likev-ise, the first \x-ords of John's Gospel, en arcli.ei, are also the
first words of the Greek version of Genesis (LXX) as \\-ell as the Greek transla-
tion of its Hebreix- title it~e"r.~'!Tt).
Philo of Alexandria (ca. 20 B.c.E.-ca. 50 c.E.), ivho wrote before the Gos-
pels were set into writing, said that the first of the five books containing the
holy laws was called "Genesis" by Moses hirnseli. "Moses. the legislator of the
Hebrews, said in the holy books that the world \\-as created and incorruptible;
these books are five in number; to the first of them he gave the title 'Genesis.'"'
Elsewhere, Philo quotes the first verse of Leviticus and calls this book by its
name, "Leviticus."~Fzal17: he fi-equently quotes the book of Deuteronomy
but calls it Profrepticus. "'Exhortation," a title that is also quite appropriate for
this book.
3. See J.-PBouhout and H. Cazeiies, "Pentateuque," DBSup 7.687-858,especially

p. 687 (J.-P Bouhour). We again encounter the term "Pentateuch" in Origen, Covrzm.
oil j o h n 2; Epipilanius. Pai.1. 33.3: i47eigiits and Meos~,i.es 4.3: Pt-olemny. Flor.. 4.1 (giiostic
author); Athanasius, Letter to -%1a~(eil.5. A~lloilgthe Latin Fathers, me first encounter it
~ i l then iiz Jerome. Letter L.11 to Pauhiza 8;Pigrare to
in Tertu!lian. L 4 g ~ i i z cit l f a ~ ~ i 1.10;
josizt4a. Finally. m Isidoi of Seville; Etyi~zaiogiec6.2.1-2.
4 . See h,lart 5:!1; i:12; 1?:13: 12:40; Luke 16:16; c i 24:27 ("~Vosesa i d :he Prophets");
24:44 ("the La\v of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms"); Acts 13:15; 24:14: 28:23; Rom
321.
5, Coilcertli~~g thls ?oil:t, see J. Blellkinsopp. Peiziareuch: An Intioductioiz to tlie F t n t Five
Books of the Bible (EIBRL; Nen- Ybrk. 1992) 42-44.
6. D. Barthiiieni-y and 1. T. Miilk, ~ i ~ l 1 ~ 1Cave~ 1 1 I (DJD 1: Oxford, 1935) 132-33.
7. See Phllo of Alexandria. Aet. 19: cf. Opif 12; Post. 127. Quoted in Blenkllisopp. Pen-
tateiiill. 44.
8. Philo. Plaiir. 26.
We find the name "Deuteronomy" in the Septuagint, where it is used to
translate the Hebrew words rni.rizgh lzatt6d h a z z ~ (Deut
t 17'.18),"a copy of the
Law," which the king must acquire for himself and read dally. JNo;v, the usuai
translation of this expression wvould be delcteios nornor and not dercferonot?tiotz.
But we can understand the choice of the Septuagint, if we understand that the
book was already called "Deuteronomy" at that time.
Toward the end of the first century a.c.E,, Josephus clearly mencioils '"he
five books of Moses" in Against Apion 1.8.37-41:9
(Seeing that with us it is not open to everybody to write the records, and that
?here is no discrepancy in \\-hat is written; seelng that. on the contrary. the
prophets alone had this privilege, obtaining their knoxvledge of the n o s t remote
and ancient history through the inspiration which they owed to God, and com-
mitting to writing a clear account of che events of their own time just as the)- oc-
curred)-it follows, 1 say, that rye do not possess myriads of inconsistent books.
confl~cting\-\.ith each other. O u r books, those which are justly accredited, are but
two and tn-enty, and contain the record of all time.
O f these. five are the books of ~Moses.comprising che laws and the traditional
history from the birth of man do\1711 to the death of the lawgiver. This period falls
only a little short of three thousand years. From the death of Moses until Arta-
serxes, who succeeded Xerxes as king of Persla. the prophets scibsequenr to
Moses wrote the history of the eyents of their own dmes in chisteen books. The
remaining four books contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of hu-
man life.
From Artaxerxes to our own time the complete history has been \t-ritten. but
has not been deemed worthy of equal credit with the earlier records. because of
the failure of the exact succession of the prophets.
These witnesses confirm that, around the time of Christ's birrh, the jesvish tra-
dition had established this: there are five fundamental books of the Law; they
are the work of Moses; and finally, the authority of the five books of Moses is
greater than the authority of the books attributed to the prophets.
B. Tetrateuch, Pentateuch, Hexateuch, or Enneateuck? '"
The age-old tradition limiting the number of the books of the Law to fi~ve
wa.s questioned in studies concerning the origin of the Pentateuch and the
people of Israel. W.E~vaid,in his Gerrhichte Iuaelr, proposed that Israel's first
9. Josephus, .$gainst Apioiz (trans. H . St. J. Thackeray; LCL: Cambridgz: Harvard Uni-
vertity Press, 1926) 177-78: ci: Blenkinsopp. Peiztnte~tch,13,
10. Concerning t1:is question, see R. Smend. Entsrehntzg der Alten Tertniizentt (Theolo-
gische Wisrenschaft 1: Stuttgart. 1978) 33-35.
historical Avork was "the book of the origins" (Da5 Bt.ic/?der Crrprii~~ge). This
work included the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua." The same idea had
already been proposed bl- Bonfritre (1623), Spinoza (1670), and Geddes
(1792). After En~ald,it became conventional to unite the book of Joshua and
the Pentateuch. This is \vhy the expression Hexate~iciz("Six Scrolls") came into
use, replacing Peizt~teuch.The classic work by Wellhausen, for example, is en-
titled Die Composition dej Hexateiicils ~tzdder kistorircliei~Biir2ier der Alten Testa-
inerzfj ("The Composition of the Hexateuch and of the Historical Books of the
Old Testament"). 'l
The famous exegete G. von Rad also speaks of a Hexateuch in his f ~ ~ n d a -
rinental study Tile Problem o j the Hexafe~cjz.~For von Rad, the core of the tra-
ditions concerning Israel's origins is to be found in Israel's "small historical
creed": for example, in Deut 6:21-23 and especially in Deut 26:5-9; also see
Josh 24:2-13. Now. this "creed" ends with the mention of the gift of the land.
For this reason, von Rad concludes that one should not speak of a Pentateuch
but of a Hexateuch, because the tradition of Israel's history must end with the
account of the conquest, which is found in the book of Joshua, the sixth book
of che Hebrew Bible.
Von Rad's idea was challenged by one of his own students, Martin Noth, in
his fa~nou.swork A History o j Pelztateuci~alEaditl'oi~5.~~ The term Tetrateucl~
("Four Scrolls") originated 71-ith Noth's work, because it excluded the book of
Deuteronomj- from the Pentateuch. His thesis is based on three obser~ations:!~
1. No "Deuteronomic" texts are found in the first four books of the Bible,
with the exception of some minor additions. There is, then, no literary bond
reaching horn the unit Genesis-Nun~bers, on the one hand, to Deuterononq,
on the other.
2. The sources of the Pentateuch do not figure in the book of Joshua. In
other n-ords, the narrati~-esthat begin in Genesis-Numbers are not continued
in the book of Joshua. This makes it diff~cultto talk about a Hexateuch. l"
11. H. Ewald, D i e Geschichte des i 6 i k e s Ismel ( 2 ~~01s.: 3rd ed.; Gottingen, 1863) 1.93. For
rhe Ellgliih tro~lsiation,see the bibliography at the end of this :-olume.
12. J. We!lhausen, D i e Coi~zpositioizder Hexnreucizr u n d der lzirrorisihen Bncller des Alterz Ter-
faiileirir (Berlin, 1866: 3rd ed.. 1899).
13. G. yon Rnd, Tile P~.obleiii oJthe Hexateuch niid Oflzer Essays ( N e ~ rYork, - 1966) 1-78.
13. M. Notii, A Histor11 cf Perriafeiichai ?j.adrriorir (Englell-ood Cliffs. Nj. 1972: reps.
Chico, CA, 1981).
,-
13. Ibid.: 6; cf S . Mowinckel. Tetrateucit-Petztatwch-Hexated: Die Berichte uber die
Lairdnaizrrie iir der drel a!iisra~litisriienGercizlchtswerken (BZAW 90; Berlin. 1963) 3.
16. Nath, History o i P e ~ z r a t e ~ c i ~Eaditiorzs.
al 6: cC idem: Dai Buc-11Josiia (HAT 117: Tu-
bingen, 1938) xiii-xi\-.
Baszc Questzorzr about the Pentatezlch
3, Deuteronomy is che preface to the "Deuteronomistic History" (Joshua-

2 Kings). The "Deuteronornic Code" is preceded by a short summary of is-
rael's history (Deuteronomy 1-3), which repeats what the reader has already
learned from the book of Numbers. This repetition can only be understood if
Deuteronomy was intended to introduce a work that continues in che historical
books, that is, Joshua-2 Kings. Deuteronomy 1-3 would indeed be meaning-
less if Deuteronomy were the conclusion of a work containing the book of
Numbers.
The Deuteronomistic History should be read "in [he light of Deuter-
or~orny." For example, Joshua was able to conquer the land because he was
faithful to the "Laaw of Wloses" (Josh 1:7-8, 23:S). The Lord punished the un-
faithful people by allowing them to lose the land (2 Kgs 17:7-23; especially
18:13. 19). The "Deuteronomistic History" is, to a large extent, the story of
Israel's faithiillness and unfaithfulness to the Law of Moses contained in
Deuteronomy.
For Noth, the Pentateuch came into existence when the two units Genesis-
Numbers, on [he one hand, and Deuteronom)--with its Deuteronomistic His-
tory-on the other, mere brought together to form one great work. At that
moment, Deuteronomy became the conclusion oE the Pentateuch, and so it be-
came necessary to separate it from the book of Joshua and from the rest of the
Deuteronomistic History-. Ho\vever. Noch did not go so far as to assert the ex-
istence of a "Tetrateuch" because, in his view, the ancient sources as ivell as the
current books of Genesis-Numbers require a continuation, that is, an account
of the Conquest. The S~vedishexegete Engnell \\-as to take the decisive step by
speaking in favor of the existence of an independent Tetrateuch, " According to
Engell, the current Tetrateuch. that is, Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers,
is the xvork of P (Priestly Writer), who collected and compiled ancient oral tra-
ditions. The primitive Deuteronomy (Dt) and the Deuteronomistic History
should be distinguished from this Priestly Tetrateuch. l8 Unfortunately, Engnell
\.;as content ~14thproposing his thesis and did not develop complete arguments
to support ~ t .
a. The Thesis
Some exegetes thlnk that the sectlon Genes~s-2 Klngs should be seen as a
s~ngleliterary \I-ork that beg~nsa5-1th the Creat~onof the m-orld and ends ~ v ~ t h
17. I. Engnell, Gainla Testntnentet: En t~~udistronsiziiioi.ijkiiiiedfzing (Stockholm, 1935) 209-

12: idem, "The Pen~ateuch."A Rigrd Scr.i,ti,zy (Nashville. 1969) = Critical Ecsays OYI tlre Old
Tectnrnent (Nashville, 1969) 50-67.
18. Cf Mon-inckel, Teti.atezicit. 3-1.
the Exiie in Bab-lonia.lY The central theme of this story is the land. At the
beginning, YHWHpromises it to the patriarchs; in Exodus and Nunibers, Israel
travels t o ~ ~ a itr dthrough the n-ilderness; Joshua conquers it; the judges defend
it; under David and Solomon, it becomes a kingdom that is at first united and
t'hen is dix~idedinto North and South: finally, at tkne moment of the Exile in
Babylonia, Israel loses this la-nd.
According to D. N. Freednian, this long account is Israel's "Primary His-
torj-."'"his "Primary History" needs to be digerentiated froin the "History of
the Chronicler." \vhich is composed of 1-2 Cl~roiliclesand Ezra-Nehemiah.
The second historicai account, by the Chronicler; sums up in a -c7erysweeping
may the story of the origins fiom the Creation to David and then centers its at-
tention on David's reign and on the reigns of his son Solomon and their suc-
cessors. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah describe the reconstitution of Israel's
community after the Exile.
The "Prirnaq- History" ends with the destruction of the temple and the Ex-
ile; tl-ie "History of the Chronicler'' culminates with the reconstruction of the
temple and the Postexilic community.
'5. The Arguments
Some exegetes think that "Israel's history" does iiot end with the con-
quest of ihe land. For example, Judg 2 : 8 , 10 is connected to Exod 1:6. 8:''
Exodus 1: h T h e n Joseph died, and all h is brothers, and that \?-hole generarion.
1. . . j "No\\- a nelv king arose over Egypt, who did not knon- Joseph.
Judges 2: bJoshua son of Nun. the servant of YHWH.died at the age of one h-un-
dred ren years. [. . .I 1"h40reover. that xvhole generation was gathered to their an-
cestors. and another generation grew up after them, 17-ho did not know YHWHor
the work cihat he had done for Israel."
These literary "brackets" create ties between the different narrative blocks and
also mark tlie transinon &om one period of Israel's history to another. Exod
1:6, 3 marks the transitioi-iErom the age of the patriarchs to the age of the Ex-
odus. and Judg 2:8, 1G the shift from Joshua's time to the time of the Judges
(see josh 24:29, 31).
19. "E:li~eateuch" meails "nine scrolls": Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus. Numbers, Deuter-
onomy. Joshua. Judges, 1-2 Samuel. 1-2 Icings. In the Hebrew Bible, the book of Ruth is
one of the "Wrinilgs"; the two books of Samuel are coilsidered to be a single work; this is
also the case with the c-\vo books of IGngs.
20. 0. N. Freedman, "Pentareuch," IDB 3.712-13.
21. Bienk~nsoppi~eiztateucii. 36-37) fol1ox.i-s R. Rendtorfi; Das uberii~~rungsgesci~tliclze
Problein des l-'enmterich (BZAW 147: Berlin. 1977) 166-69.
22. See josh 24.29. 31.
The chronology of the books provides another indication of this global
vision of Israel's history, For example, according to Exod 12:40-41, Israel Lived
in E u p t for 430 years (Gen 15:13: 400 years). Solomon began to build the
temple 480 years after the Exodus (1 Kgs 6:1i, that is, 430 + 50. Now, if we
count h e years from this date on, that is, from the fourth year of Solomon's
reign until the end of the Kingdom of judah, we again come up with 430
years.'"By adding the 50 years of exile, the sum is once again 480 years, In
order to reach this number, it is necessar:; to calculate the inforrnation given in
:-2 Kings without any corrections.
There are other analogous facts. For example, according to the chronology
of the Priestly Writer, the Exodus took place 2,666 years after the Creation of
the xi~orld.This number of .,-earsis equivalent to 213 of 4,000 years, a, number
that is probably symbolic. The year 1,000 could correspond to the purification
and the new dedication of the temple by the Maccabees (164 B . C , E . ) . ~ W O \ ~ -
ever, 1 must add that this information is far from uniuocal. Moreover, is chro-
nology alone sufficient to establish that the Pentateuch is a unified history?
Blenkinsopp gives three reasons for asserting that the Pentateuch cannot
end with Moses' death (Deuteronomy 34):"
1. Without the book of Joshua, the promise of the land made to che patri-
archs remains unf~lfilled,'~Furthermore, Josh 21343-45 considers the Conquest
to be the fulfillment of a promise made much earlier to Israel's "ancestors":
Thus YHWH @\-e to Israel all the land that he swore to their ancestors that he
would give them; and having taken possession of it, they settled here. And
U H x gave
~ them rest on every side just as he had sworn to their ancesrors; not
one of all their enemies had ~vithstoodchem: for YIIWHhad given all their ene-
mles into iheir hands. Not one of all the good promises that YHW'Hhad made co
the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass.
2 There are correspondences between the work of Creatlon (Genesls I ) ,
the construction of the sanctuary in the w~lderness(Exodus 33-40). and the
lnstallatlon of the sanctuarj in the Promlsed Land (Joshua 18-19) Finally,
Solomon's temple \\as built 480 years after the Exodus (1 Kgs 6 1)
3 A major theme 111 Israel's history is that of faithfulness to the Covenant
and the Lam According to the Deuteronomistlc H~storv,the people are exlled
because of their unfalthf~~lnessNow, this theme already appears in Genesis 2-
3 n i t h a universal sense The Garden of Eden corresponds to the land, the
23. Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 18.

21.Ibid. For orher data, see pp. 17-50.
25. Ibid., 34-35.
26. Otherwise, it would be necessary to speak of a "partial realization oI' the promise" or
of a "deferral of the promise." CC D, J. A. Clines, T h e T h e m e oJthe Pentateuch (JSOTSup 10;
SheEield. 1978).
comn~andn~ent not to eat of the Guit of the tree of the knowledge of good and
evil corresponds to the Law of Moses, and the expulsion of Adam and Eve froin
the Garden after the fall corresponds to rhe Exile.'-
Howerer, these arguments are not totally convincing. The vocabulary in
Josh 21:43-43 is typically Deuteronomistic and is only found in certain late
texts, for exaii~pleiii Gen 1 3 : 7 , 18; 2 6 : 3 :
l5:7: [YH~-iisaid t o Abraham:] "I a m YHXH ~ l - h obrought you from Ur of the
Chaldeans; t o give you this laind to possess."
?5:18:O n that day Y H ~ madeH a cox-enant with Abram. saying, "To your de-
scendants I give this iand."
26:3: [YH\Y.TH said to Isaac:] "to you and to your desce~ldantsI will give all these
lands. and I \%-illfu5i: the oath that I sn-ore to your father Abraham.''
Hon~ever,there is discussion today about whether the "fathers" are the patri-
archs or the Israelites in E g ~ p t . h4oreover,
'~ the promises evoked by josh 2 1 : 4 4
do not figure in Genesis but in Deut 12:10b, 23:19, where the expression "give
rest fio111 all enelllies on every hand" appears: just as it does in Josh 21:44. In
these last two texts, the proniise is made to the exiled peopie, not to the patri-
archs. If there is a connection. it is vague and, in any case, late.
The congruence of Genesis 1 and Exodus 24-25, 39-40 is xvell k n o ~ v i i . ~ ~
For example, the structure of the week in Gen 1:1-2. 3a reappears in Exod
2 3 : 1 6 . Hon:ever. chis cheme does not appear in josl-i 16:l: 19:31. The analogies
between Geiiesis 2-3 arid the tlzeme of the land in Joshua are barely percep-
tible. The vocabulary is different and the Deuteronomistic History does not re-
fer explicitly to the history of Genesis. Furthermore, Genesis 2-3 contains no
clear references to the theologj- of Covenant. In Gen 2:16-17, the punishment
pending for chose \vho do not observe the coininandn~entis not expulsion
from the Garden but death (2:17b). Finally; Genesis 2-3 itself is quite likely a
relatively late text.i'"
27. See L. Alonso Schokel. "Motiros sapienciales y de aiianza en Gen 2-3." B i b 43 (1962)
295-316; N. Lohfink, "Die Erzahlung v o i ~ Siindeiifali." l D a s Siegerlied a111Scizi@ileer: Chrirt-
liiile A~seiiznizdellretzt~fzg iqiit der.r? illreit Gst,nmeilr (Frankfurt, 1965) 81-101.
28. T. Romer, l i i ~ , e l sV a f e r : liz:e~~.ciicituizyei1z u r T/'dterti~eiizatikirz Deureroizonzruv~ uiid iul der
deuteroizoiitlrris~iien 3iidiliun (OBO 99; Fribourg and Gottingen, 1990); on Josh 21:13-45. see
pp. 338-63; N. Lohfink, D i e Vatei. Israeli ii?i De~itcroizoiizzl~i!i: 21it Killel. Stelliui~gizalzrizevoii T h o -
i.rras Rbmei. (OBO 1!l; Friboarg and Gottingen, 1991); on Josh 2?:43-45, see pp. 81-83.
29. See. for example, P. J. Kearney, "Creat~onand Liturgy: The P Redaction of Exod 25-
40." 2-411' 89 (1977) 375-87.
30. See. for example, E.Otto. "Die ParadieserzBhlung Genesis 2-3: Eine nachpriester-
schriftliche Lehrerzlhlung in ihrern re!igionshiscorischen Kontext," ill 'yedes D i n g hat seiize
Zetr . . .'I:Studzeiz z!ir iriaelrti~c/zeiiccr~dalcorienralricheiz M/?r'sheit-Dieiizelr!~ .Ifrcizel t u r i i 65.G e -
blirtrtng (ed. A. A. Diesel et al.; BZATX721-1:Berlin, 1996) 167-92.
To conclude, it is necessary to c1arif.r. the situation and to define more
closely the object of the discussion. Although, from a canonical viewpoint, xve
may talk about the "Enneateuch" or 'Trimary History" it is not possible from
a literary viewpoint. A critical study of these different books reveals, for ex-
ample, connections bet\\-een Deuteronom;; and Joshua, or between Deuter-
onomy and 1-2 Kings, However, no literary activity has assembled in an
organic unit the books containing the "Primary History" of Israel, that is, Gen-
esis-2 Kings, These connections remain on the thematic level and have no real
~nBuenceon the literary structuring of the different books.
C. Moses, the Pentateuch, and the

Canon of the Hebrew Bible 31
There are good reasons to continue talking about the "Pentateuch.'. Of
course. as we shall see further on, this wal- of organizing the books of the Old
Testament does not exclude otner possibilities, But it does have special merit
because it takes into account the definitive and normative canonical form of the
Bible for the faith con~muniq-first of all, the people of Israel and, then, the
Christian churches,32
I . ;The Pelztatearch: Deut 34:10-12

With regard to the Pentateuchl there is a fundamental text that marks the
"dividing line" and permits us to distinguish the first five books of the Bible
from those that foi101~(Joshua-2 Kings). This text is Deut 34:10-i2:33
Never since has there arisen a prophet in Israel like Moses. \\-horn YHKH knexx-
rice to face. H e \\-as unequaled for all the signs and \venders that YH~Z-FI
sent him
31. In this section, we are follo~~-ing, with some minor changes, E. Zenger (ed.). E ~ n l e r -
t u f r i~n das A l t e Tertattieizt (Studienbiicher Theologie 111; 4th ed.: Stuttgart. 2004) 24-26.
32. Concerning the question of the canon, see J. A. Sanders, Torah ilitd Canoil (Philadel-
phia, 1972); idem. "Adaptable tbr Life: The Nature and Function of Canon." in .i4agtiaha D e i :
oJ
E s m y r 011 the Bible nnil Arcilecloyy i n Ll~fet~.lei7zory G.Erizest H'vtglzt (Garden City, NY, 1976)
531-60; B.S, Childs. Iizfrodr*ction to tile O l d Teitatrzetzt ax Scripttcre (Philadelphia. 1979). For his
method, see P, R . Noble. T h e Catiotlicsll Approach: A Cvrtical Recotz~t~tcctioiz d t h e Herii!etle~itic.c
cf Brevard S,C h l l d s (Biblical Interpretation Series 16: Leiden. 1995).
33. O n this text, see F. Garcia Lbpez, "De la antigua a la nueva critlca literar~adel Pen-
tateuco." EsrBib 52 (1994) 7-35. esp. 25-35; idem. "Deut 34, Dtr History and the Penta-
teuch," in Strtdier rn De~iteronorviy: Irz Hoilottr qf C. 1.Labtischayne, o n the Occariort o J H i s Girl1
Birthday (VTSup 53; Leiden. 1994) 47-61; C , Dohmen and M. O e ~ n i n g Biblliciler , fi~nii:
~ Mt Lu o ~ t i , ;(Quaestiones disputatae 137; Frelburg-im-Breisgau. 1992): T. 6 ,Romer
~ K I ~ Iiiizd
and M. 2,Brettler, "Deuteronomy 34 and the Case for a Persian Hexateuch." J B L 119
(2000) 401-19: J. H,Tigay, "The Significance of the End of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy
31:li'i-12);" in Texts, Tenzples, aizd Eaditionr: A Eibitte to AIIennizeinHoratl (ed .M. V. Fox st al.:
winona Lake. IN. 1996) 13--43.
10 Chapter 1
to perform in the land of Egypt, against Pharaoh and ail his servants and !iis entire
land, and for all the might\. deeds and all the terri4-ing displays of pon-er that
I\lloses performed in the sight of all Israel.
Three important things are asserted here:

1. Moses is greater than the other prophets. This is why the "Mosaic Law"
is superior to all other forn~sof revelation. His Torah is incomparable and its
value is permanent. i n other \~-ords;the revelation through Moses is superior to
all other revelation attributed to the prophets. Because of this. Moses comes
before the "Former Prophets" (Joshua-2 Kings) and the "Latter Prophets"
(Isaiah-Malachi) in the canon. For the same reason, he also precedes the
"Writings," or Books of Wisdom. The autlzorih- of the Pentateuch in the final
analysis depends on the greater authority of M o s e ~ . ~ "
2. Moses' superiorii~-also conies from tlze preeminence of his relationship
to YHWH(see Exod 33:11, Nun1 12:6-8; cf. John 1:18, 3:11j.35YHWHand
Moses \?-ere in "direct contact," without an intermediary or a "screen" (as in
dreams or visions; cf. Num 126-8).
3. The Exodus is the foundational event of Israel's history. No other event
can be compared 1%-ithit. The institution of Israel therefore goes back to Moses,
not to David or Soloinon. Israel is in fact older than the Monarchy or even than
the Conquest of the Promised Land.
2 . The Secorzd Part ofthe PPebt~ewBibrle:

The Fsnnet. and Lattev Prophets
a. Joshua ?:I-%
Josh 1:l-8 dearly ties the figure and work of joshua to the figure and work
of Moses:
lAfcer the death of Moses the servant of Y ~ v H YHWH . spoke to Josinua son of
Nun. R/loses' assistaiit. saying. ?"My servant Moses is dead. No\v proceed to cross
the Jordan. you and a11 this people, into the land that I an; g i ~ i i l gto them, to tlie
Israelites. 3 E v e n place that the sole of)-our foot \\-ill tread upori i have given to
you, as I promised to Moses. +Froli; t!le viiiderness aizd the Lebanon as far as the
great river, the river Euphrates, a!i the iand ofthe Hittites. to tile Great Sea in the
\vest shall be your territoly. jNo one shall be able to stand against you all the days
ofyour iife. As I was 7%-itkiMoses. jo 1 will be with you; I will nor fail you or for-
sake you. %e strong and coiu-ageous; rbr you shall put this people in possession
of the land that I swore to their ancestors to give them. -Only be strong and v e r y
34. B. S. Childs, Inrroducrloiz to rite O l d Testainenr as Scilpftire (Philadelphia, 1979) 134-35,

35. For the figure of hloses in the NT, see. aniollg others, D. (3. Allison, T h e .Ye~u.Llores:
-4 .\lottheair li,pology (M;nneapolis, 1993j: M.-E. Boismard. .\!hire u u Jix~ijur: Ersais de C h r i ~ t o -
Io~ieJoIlatrniqtie (BETL 84: Leuven. 1988).
Basic Qttestion.5 about the Pentateuch 11
courageous. being careful to act in accordance mith ail the law that my servant
Moses commanded you: do not turn from it to the right hand or to the lefi, so
that you may be successful wherever you go. SThis book of tile ian- shall not de-
part out of your mouth; you shall meditate o n it day and night, so that you ma>-
be careful to act in accordance with all that is written in it. For then you shall
make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful.
in :his text we encounter at least four bas~casseltlons about the book of joshua
and :he books of the Former and Latter Prophets
joshua is Moses' successor. He has the task of conquering the land prom-
ised to the fathers.
1Moses is YHWH'Sservant (("ebedyhwiz); Joshua has a different designation:
he is "'Moses' minister" (vv~t.Grt?tmas'eh). While Moses defines himself on the ba-
,is of his relationship with YH\\'H, Joshua is defined in relation to Moses. \Tie
are at another stage of the "revelation" and of relations with YEIWH.In other
words7 joshua is the successor of ~Woses,but lie does not replace him as
"YHWH'Sservant."
* There is contiiiuiti; between Joshua and Mosej: VHWH will be with
Joshua as he was with Moses (v. 9 ) . YHWHmill fulfill the promise made to
Moses by giving Israel possession of the land (v, 3). But this means that Moses,
not Joshua, is the beginning and the foundation of Israel.
Joshua's success depends on his faithf~dnessto the "Mosaic La\;-" (XT. 7-88),
This law is "written" (hakkatdb; v. 8j in a "book" (sc?pel,;r;,, 7).Henceforth. this
book will be the cornerstone of the whole enterprise of Israel's history. It n7iil
also be the criterion for judging this history. Israel's history will be the history of
the people's faithfulness or unfaithfulness to the Laxx~ITeachingof lMoses.36
b Malach~3.22-2-1
The conclusion of the prophet~cbooks (Ma1 3.22-24) contains a series of
slrnlla~assert1ons
Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, the statutes and ordinances rhat I
commanded him at Horeb for all Israel. Lo, I will send 'ou the prophet Elijah be-
fore the great and terrible day of YHWHcomes, H e \\-ill turn the hearts of parents
to their children and the hearts of children to :heir parents, so that I ~villnot
come and strike the land ~ v i t ha curse,
T h ~ stext closes the prophetic books (tle"bi'irn) like an inclus~o.There are four
essential elements to the relationship between the propheuc books and the Law
of Moses (the Pentateuch).
36. See 1 Kgs 17:7-23. especially !7:13-16, which explains the end of the Northern
Kingdom on the basis of this principle: unfairhfuiness to the Law caused the do\vnfall of the
Kingdom of Samar~a.
The prophets should be read with "refereiice" to the Lam- of Moses. Ac-
cording to this "canonical" interpretation of the Bible, prophecy fulfills the
Lass- and keeps it alive in Israel's memory.
The Lam- of Moses is a divine la\\,. Its authority is not of h u n a n origin. In
more modern terms: the Mosaic Law is the product of revelation, not of human
reason.
This Law is found, above all, in Deuterononly In this book. YHM~H ap-
pears on Mount Horeb, not on Mount Sinai. We see this, for example, in Deut
5:2 and in Exod 19:l. The expression "statutes and ordinances" is typicall>-
Deuteronomic (see Deut 5:?, 11:32, 12:l. 26:16).
O f all the prophets, Elijah alone is mentioiied, because he most resembles
Moses. Like Moses, Elijah 1%-entto Horeb (1 Kings 19) and heard God in the
cave (cf, Exod 33:22: "the cleft of the rock"). See also "forty days and forty
nights'' in Exod 24:18, 33:28: Deut 9:9: and 1 Kgs 19:8.j7
3. The Third P ~ s otf the Neb~~ezet

Bible:
"The W~pitings"(ke'tiibz"nz)
a. Psalm 1
The first psalm. v-hlch ~iitroducesthe entire third part of the H e b r e ~Blble.
also mentions the Lax\ /Teaching,
'Happy are those w h o do not hilon- the ad\-ice of the \%-lcked.or take the
path that sinners tread. or sit in the seat of scoffers;
deiight is 11: the laxv of ' l ' a w ~ ;and o n his lax\- they meditate day and
7 3
- ~ u cheir
t
n~gh:.
q. . .] in ail that they do, they prosper.
S o n ~ eof the assertions of this psalm aim zt situatirig the Psalter and the Writings
in relationship to the Lax-:
* The criterio~ithat distinguishes the righteous inan fiom the impious one
is meditation on the Law. The Lam- also constitutes the criterion for judgmeiit
(Ps 1:j-6). This psalim applies to the individual what the "Former Prophets"
said about the people.
The Law is called "Law of YHWH"( t h a t yliu~iz).
Psalrn 1 is an invitation to read all the Psalms and all the "Writings" as a
illeditation on YHK-K'S
37. This is nh!: Moses and Elqah appear together l n rhe scene of Jesus' Tsailsfiguration
(Matr 17:3and parallels).
38. There are inany sinliiarities be:\\-een Psalm 1 and Josh 1:l-8, such as the expressions
"rneditatr on the law day a i d nigh:'' ar,d "prosper in ail you do." Both texts have an unde-
niable Deuteronorniitic flavor.
Basic Qzlertiotzs about the Pentatelrclz 13
b, 2 Chronicles 36:22-23
The conclusion of the Hebrew Bible, which coincides with the conclusion
of the "Writings," is situated in many manuscripts in 2 Chr 3622-23. This text
provides an additional key for understanding the sense of the Bible according to
the Hebrew canon:
27
--In the first year of King Cprus of Persia, in fulfillment of the n-ord of YHKH
spoken by Jeremiah, YHWHstirred up the spirit ofKing Cyrus of Persia so that he
5ent a herald throughout all his kingdom and also declared in a mritten edict:
a.
'-"'Thus says King C-nus of Persia: YHWH,the God of heaven, has gi7:en me all
the kingdoms of the earth. and he has charged me to build him a house at Jeru-
iaiem, which is in Judah, Whoever is among you of all his people. may YHWHhis
God be ivirh him! Let hirn go up."
We can make three lmporiant observations about this text:

1, Here, Moses and the Law/Teaching are no longer mentioned but, rather,
Jeremiah and Jerusalem. The Hebrew Bible closes li~ithan invitation to "go
up" (tu5yl'd'al). This verb may contain an allusion to the Exodus, given that the
expression used to describe the departure from Egypt contains this same verb,
"go up" (qh. Hiphil; cL Exod 3:8).
2. The temple of Jerusalem as such is not mentioned in the Pentateuch.
However, texts such as Exodus 25-31, 35-40, the ritual prescriptions of Le-
viticus, and the Law concerning the centralization of the cult in Deuteronomy
12 are to be read in association with the temple.
3. in any case, among the last books of the Hebrew Bible we find the books
of Ezra and Nehemiah, which in an earlier period probably were located after
the books of the Chronicles, The order 1-2 Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah best
reflects the chronology of the events. Now, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah
reach a climax with the solemn proclanlation of the 'Mosaic Lm-" before the
people (Nehemiah 8: cf. 8:l).This Law becomes the cornerstone of the whole
Postexilic community. It is diff~cultto imagine the temple IT-ithoutreference to
the Law and the ritual prescriptions contained in the Pentateuch. In the most
sacred part of the temple, the Holy of Holies. we find the ark. and the ark con-
tains only one object: the two tablets that YHWH gave to Moses on Horeb
(2 Chr 5:10). The "Lam-" is at the heart of the temple, and xvorship is per-
formed there according to the prescriptions of the Mosaic Law (2 Chr 8:13).
We also find many references to the Law of Moses in the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah (Ezra 3:2; 6:8; 7:6; Neh I:?', 8: 8:1,11;9:11; 10:30; 13:l).
The Hebrem canon concludes ~ l t ahcall to all the Hebrews of the diaspora.
lnvlt~ngthem to return to Jerusalem to help rebulld the temple Thls Invitation
requires a response that each reader of the Blble must \x7rltewith hls or her own
life. In the Hebreil- canon, the Bible has a structure that opens out onto the fii-
ture. The last x-erb is jussive, chat is, a form of imperative, not an indicative.
From these observations xx-e can draw some key conclusions about reading
the Peiitateuch within the canon of the Hebrew Bible:
a The texts that have been presented and that frame the three main sections
of the Iiebrew Bible are important because of their contents and especially be-
cause of their position at strategic points of the Bible. The division brings out
the unique position of the "La\\-," which according to biblical tradition bears
ihe mark of Moses' exceptional personality The Pentateuch is unique because
Moses occupies a unique place in the llistory of revelation.
The fir-e books of the Pentateuch therefore have a "normative" character
that the other biblical texts do not have.39
Moreover, the Pentateuch largely appears to be the "life of Moses," froin
his birth in Exodus 2 to his death in Deuteronomy 34. Hoxx-ever, this is essen-
tially a "life of iMoses in rile service of YHWHand of the people." Genesis,
n-hich precedes this "life of Moses," describes the origin of the world (Genesis
1-21) and the origin of Israel as a people (12-50).4'!
From a canonical point of view, this particular grouping of the books is
more iinportant than others. Likewise, the connections between Deuteronoiny
and hloses are inore important than the ties linking Deuteronomy to the Deu-
terono~iiistic History. This fact raises serious problems with regard to the
Proniised Land, n-hich essentially renlains outside the Pentateuch. The Prom-
ised Land, and not the possession of it; constitutes a fundamental elenlent of Is-
rael's faith. In other words, according to the Pe'ntateuch, it is possible to belong
to the peopie of Israel without living in the Promised Land. This sort of asser-
tion is nlore l~nderstandableafter the experience of the Exile and at the time of
the diaspora.jl
Another elenlent should be emphasized. According to the canon of the
Hebrew Scriptures, the Monarchy is subordinate to the Lam-. While rhe Mosaic
institutions are cencral to Israel's existence, the people can do without t1:e
Morlarchj: This truth gro\vs out of the hard, tragic experience of the Exile. At
that moment, Israel discovered itself older than David or even than Joshua's
Coilquest. Israel began to exist as a people much earlier, when rhe Lord
brought them out of Eg)-p:, the house of slai-ery.
In order to rediscover the oldest traces of its ancestors, Israel must go even
hrther back, to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. To them the Lord
39. Blenkinsopp, Prrztatetich, 51-52.

50.See Bienkinsopp. Pefzrateucii, 52: Zeilger (ed.), Eifzleitung, 36, and many otiiers.
11.Oil this point. see Sanders, Toralz atzd Caizoiz; summar!- 111Childs, Iiitroductiati, 131-32.
Elasli Qtrestionr about the Pentateuch 15
promised the land that Moses contemplated before he died, unable to enter
<here (Deut 34:l-4). The Pentateuch contains two elements that are absolutely
indispensable for defining the identity of Israel: the patriarchs and Moses. Israel
is the people that descends from the pacriarchs and that has lived through the
experience of the Exodus under Moses' guidance,
From a theological point of view, the two key elements are the promises
made to rhe ancestors and the related terms ExodusILa~v(cf. Exod 20:2-3), Is-
rael's Lord defines himself as the "God of Abraham, of Isaac and of Jacob"
(Exod 3:6) and as the "Lord who brought [Israel] out of Egypt, the house of
~la.~ery''(Exod 20:2), These two assertions consxitute the two main pillars that
support the entire Pentateuch, setting aside the hisrory of origins (Genesis 1-
?I), The first chapter of Genesis adds another element: the God of the patri-
archs and the God of the Exodus is also the Creator of the universe.
The structure of the Pentateuch and the organization of the Hebrew canon
are essential for understanding the New Testament. Jesus' public life, in the
four Gospels, begins on the banks of the river Jordan, where John the Baptist
ivas baptizing, What is the reason for this scene? Anyone ix~hohas read the Pen-
tateuch will immediately find the answer to this question, Moses arrived at the
Jordan with the people and he died rvithout haying been able to cross this last
boundary. So, his work was left unfinished, The conclusion of the Pentateuch
is an opening in the direction of the land that Moses contemplated. Joshua
achieves the work that had been begun.
When Jesus appears in the Gospels, his nlission is similar: he proclaims he
coming of the kingdom," that is, the moment when Israel may finally take
possession of its land. The beginning of the New Testament presents itself as
the achievement of Moses' unfinished work. Jesus is another Joshua. In fact,
the two names are identical: Joshua is the Hebrew form and Jesus the Aramaic
form. John 5, which tells of the healing of the paralytic at the pool of Bethesda,
alludes to this theme when Jesus says: "Moses spoke about me" (5:46). Moses
announced that YHWH\vould choose Joshua to accomplish the promise made
to the patriarchs to give the land to the p e ~ p l e , According
~' to John 5, Jesus is
the announced Joshua. This is why the Gospels begin on the banks of the Jor-
dan, where the people are still assembled in D e u t e r o n o q 34 when the curtain
falls on the Pentateuch and on
-12. See J.-L. Ska, "Dal Nuovo al1'Antico Tesramento," Civilrii cattolicn 11712 (1996) 11-
23, especially pp. 20-23; idem, "I1 canone ebraico e il canone cristiano dell'llntico Testa-
111enr0," Civilrd catrolica 14813 (1997) 213-25.
13. The prophetic books end with the proclamation of the re:urn of Elijah, who is iden-
tified by the New Tesrarnent with john :he Baptist (Ma1 3 2 - 2 1 ; cf. Luke 1:17: Mat: 11:11,
17:12-13). Moreover, Jesus' arrival gi\-es an o p p o r t u n i ~to respond to Cyrus's invitation in
2 Chr 36:23. See John 2:10: Jesus 1s the new temple (cE 1:21-21). and he will garher to-
gether a11 of God's disper~edchildren (John 10:16, 11:51-52).
Chapter 2
The Five Books of the Pentateuch:

Content and Structure
How and why n7asthe Pentateuch divided into five books? Was this division
purely physical, or did it have significance? This is the first question I treat in
the present chapter. I then consider how these "five-fifths of the La-w/Teach-
ing" (hd~?lz"fB
kLZti7i'$ /~attdrd)are structured.
A. The Division into Five Books
1. The Physical Reasons1

The five books of the Pentateuch vary in length. The shortest book is Le-
viticus (23 chapters, 859 verses, 11,950 words, 31 pages in BHS) and the long-
est is Genesis (50 chapters, 1,534 verses, 85 pages in BHS). The books of
Exodus and Numbers are approximatelj- the same length. Exodus has 40 chap-
ters, 1,209 verses and 16,713 words, 71 pages in BHS, while Numbers has 36
chapters, 1,288 verses (but many of the verses are very short, such as N u m 1:2,
7, 26, 29, 331, 16,413 words, and 74 pages in BHS. Deuteronomy is slightly
longer than Leviticus (34 chapters, 955 verses, 71 pages in BHS, but the critical
apparatus is more voluininous than in the other books). In all, the Pentateuch
has 5.845 verses (353 pages in BHS). In the edition without notes, the count is
as follows: 88 pages for Genesis, 73 pages for Exodus, 52 pages for Leviticus, 73
pages for Numbers (as for Exodus), 64 pages for Deuteronomy.
There are authors who maintain that it would have been physically difficult
to write the entire Pentateuch on one scroll. The scroll would have had to be
approxiniately 33 meters long. This was of course not completely impossible,
because it is said that the complete works of Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) were
written on a single scroll measuring 50 meters. However, a long scroll would
not have been practical for reading at home or in the synagogue. At Qumran,
the longest scrolls are the Temple Scroll, which measures 8.75 n ~and
, 1QIsa (the
Great Isaiah Sc~oll),which is 7.35 m long. The average length of the scrolls of
the Pentateuch was probably between 6 and 7 meters.
1. I am follo\l-ing Blenkinsopp, Peiztatettch, 45-17.
16
Tjae Five Books o_f the Pentateuch: Content and Structure 17
The division between the different books seems totally arbitrary and artifi-
cial, For example, Jacob's family settled in Egypt in Genesis 46, but the book
of Exodus begins further on. The Sinai pericope begins in Exodus 19 and ends
in Num 10:lO. So, it covers a ~vholebook (Leviticus) and parts of ' t ~ v oothers
(Exodus and Numbers) but does not correspond to any particular division. The
Israelites arrive on the plains of Moab in N u m 21:20, where they stay until
Moses' death. But the division between Numbers and Deuteronomy does not
correspond to that moment.
2 . The Theological C~fiteria'

What then were the criteria for the partitioning of the five books?
a, Genesis
The book of Genesis begins with the Creation of the world and the well-
knon-n expression bk~'f"1bnrz' 'ddhftn (("inthe beyintzifzg God created . . . " ) , j and
it ends with the deaths of Jacob and Joseph. This is the conclusion of the pa-
triarchal period, that is, the family history of Israel's ancestors. From here on,
Israel is no longer a family but a people. Furthermore, before dying, Joseph an-
nounces the return of his descendants to the land promised to Abraham, Isaac.
and Jacob (Gen 30:21). So the conclusion of Genesis prepares for the future
and ties Genesis to Exodus-Deuteronom\-. In the language of narrative analy-
sis, Gen 50:24 contains a "proleptic summary" of the later account.
b. Exodus
The book of Exodus starts with a review of the Joseph story, which provides
a link between "the history of the patriarchs" and "the history of the people of
Israel" (Exod 1:l-7). Exod 1:8, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did
not know Joseph," marks the transition from one period of Israel's history to
another. The conclusion of the book of Exodus (40:31-38) describes the mo-
ment when, after much wandering, the "glory of YHWH" enters and fills the
"tent of meeting." This moment is important because from now on YHWHre-
sides in the midst of his people (40334-35), so that he can acconlpany and guide
them (40:36-38).
c. Leviticus
The beginning of the book of Leviticus alludes to this filling and residence:
"YHWH summoned Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting,
2. See, among others, Childs, Introdtiction, 128-30; Zenger (ed.),Einleiriing, 31-36.

3. The translation o f Gen 1:l has been d~scussed,for example, by G. J. Wenham, Genesis
2-15 (WBC 1 ; Waco, T X . 1987) 11-13.
saying. . . ." From this moment on, YHWHspeaks to Moses from the tent of
meeting and no longer from the summit of h4ount Sinai (cf. Exod 19:3). The
original conclusion of the book of Leviticus was Lev 26:46: "These are the stat-
utes and ordinances and lams that YHWHestablished between himself and the
people of Israel on Mount Sinai through Moses." This is without doubt a "con-
cluding summary," which follows a chapter of blessings and maledictions (Lev
26:3, 14). Leviticus 27 is a later addition, and the last verse of this chapter re-
peats the conclusion of 26:46: "These are the commandments that YHWHgave
to Moses for the people of Israel on Mount Sinai." Both conclusions indicate
Mount Sinai as the site of the revelation. For Israel's tradition, the Laws pro-
mulgated by YHWHon Mount Sinai and transmitted by Moses have unique
normative value. These assertions are therefore very important, because they
make a distinction betxveen the Laxvs that are incorporated in the "Mosaic
canon" and the others.
d. Numbers
The book of Nunibers also has its own introduction and its own conclusion.
The introduction is sirnilar to the introduction of Leviticus (Num 1:l; cf Lev
1:l): "YHW~H spoke to Moses in the m-ilderness of Sinai, in the tent of meeting,
on the first day of the second nionth, in the second year after they had come
out of the land of Egypt." We are still in the wilderness of Sinai, and YHWH
continues to speak from the tent of ilieeting (cf. Exod 10:34-35; Lev 1:l). The
conclusion of the book of Nuinbers recalls Lev 2 6 ~ 4 6and 27:34: "These are
the con~mandinentsand the ordinances that YHWHgave through Moses to the
Israelites in the plains of Moab by the river Jordan at Jericho" (Num 36:13).
Between the introduction and the conclusion, the people are led from Mount
Sinai into the plains of Moab, where they prepare themselves to enter the
Promised Land. The 1a~s.spromulgated in the plains of Moab also have a special
canonical value. Deut 28:69 even mentions another covenant that YHWHcon-
cludes here with Israel (subsequent to the Covenant made on Mount Horeb).
These assertions create a parity between the Laws of Moab and those of Horebl
Sinai.
e. Deuteronomy
Deuteroilolny has its own setting Like the book of Numbers, it begins wlth
a formula indicating the place from which Moses spoke (Deut 1 1-3): "These
I . Concerning the covenant on the plains of Moab, see N. Lohfink, "Der Bundesschlufi
iin Lande Moab: Redaktionsgeschichtliches zu Dt 28,69-32,47," BZ n.s. 6 (1962) 32-56
(= Studieiz ztim Deuteronorni~i*?~
und Z U d~e u t e r o t ~ o ~ t i s t i ~Literatw
~ i ~ e t ~ [Stuttgarter biblische Auf-
satzbande 8;Sruttgart, 19901 53-82); idem, "'Bund als Vertrag in1 Deuteronomium," ZAW
107 ('1995) 215-39.
The Five Books $the Pentateuch: Content and Structtrre 19
are the words that Moses spoke to all Israel beyond the Jordan-in the wilder-
ness , . . in the fortieth year, on the first day of the eleventh month." All Moses'
discourses are pronounced on the same day, and on that day Moses dies (Deut
32:38; 34:5). Then, after Moses' death, Deuteronomy ends and so does the
Pentateuch (34:l-12).
3, Conclusion
The five books of the Pentateuch are clearly divided by linguistic and struc-
tural markers. Nonetheless, there is a major hiatus between the first book
(Genesis) and the four books that follow (Exodus-Deuteronomy). The first
book narrates the origins of Israel, and the others, the organization of the
people under Moses' leadership. They constitute a kind of "life of Moses" in
the service of YHWHand of all 1srael.j
From a structural viewpoint, the end of Deuteronomy corresponds to the
end of Genesis. Joseph's death marks the end of the patriarchal period (Gen
50:26), and Moses' death, the conclusion of another period, that is, the time of
Israel's wanderings in the wilderness and the formation of the people of Israel
into YHWH'Speople. Jacob's blessings in Genesis 49 correspond to the blessings
of Moses in Deuteronomy 33. The introductions and conclusions of the books
of Levltlcus and Numbers as well as of Deuteronomv thus emphasize the leg-
lslative character of these books, the figure of Moses (the lntermedlary between
YHWHand the people), and the Importance of SlnalIHoreb and the plalns of
Moab as '.theological sltes" of the Lam
B. The Structure of the Book of Genesis6
1. The T81gd8t ("(Generations") Formula

A large majority of exegetes consider the t61;dBt formula to be the structur-
ing element of the book of Genesis. The formula appears ten times in the book
(or even eleven, if we include 36:9, which repeats 36:l): 2:4; 5:l; 6:9; 10:l;
11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:l (9); 37:2,:
5. See R. P. Knlerim, "The Composition of the Pentateuch." The Task oJOJd Testament
Theology: Subsmnce, AVIethodand Carer (Grand Rapids, 1995) 351-79.
6. See especially Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 57-59 and 98-100. See also Childs. Introdctc-
fion, 115; R. B. Robinson, "The Literary Function of the Genealogies of Genesis." CBQ 48
(1986) 595-608. R.N.Whybray (Inrvod~rctionto the Peniatectch [Grand Rapids, 19953 31-32)
is opposed to this view, but his arguments are quite weak.
7.Much has been written about this formula. See, among others, N. Lohfink, "Die
Priesterschrifi und die Geschichte," in Congress Wlirnie: Gottingen, 1977 (ed. W Zimmerli:
VTSup 29; Leiden, 1978) 189-255, especially p. 205 (= Lohfink, Studierz rtcn~Pentateuch
[Stuttgarter b~blischeAufsatzbande: Altes Testament 3; Stuttgart, 19881 213-54, mainly
20 Chapter 2
a. A Problem of Interpretation
Whybray does not recognize this forn~ulaas the structuring element of the
book of G e n e s l ~He
. ~ advances two objectlons:
1. The word tBle'd6t does not have the same meaning in all contexts. In
some cases, it means "list of descendants," "descendants of . . . ," "what was
gendered by . . ." (5:1; 10:1; 11: l o , etc.). Then again, elsesi~here,it means "his-
tory of . . ." and refers to specific events (2:3).
2. In Gen 2:3 the forn~ulaserves to conclude a narrative (1:l-2, 3a), while
in other cases it serves as an introduction, for example, in 3712.
We can reply to these objections by noting that:
1. The term rBled6t has the same meaning in all contexts. It means "what
was engendered by. . . ." N o ~ vand again this formula is followed by a simple
list of names, that is, a genealogy (3:1; 10:1; 11:10; 25:12; 36:1, 9). In other
cases, it is follo\ved by narrati~es(2:4, 6:9, 11:27, 25:19, 37:2). Whatever the
case may be, these narratives are alxi~aysreferring to the descendants of the per-
sonality mentioned in the forinula. For example, in 6:9 the formula introduces
the history of Noah and his family; in 11:27, the history of the descendants of
Terah, that is, chiefly Abraham: 23:19 the history of Esau and Jacob, the son of
Isaac; 37:2, the history of Joseph and his brothers, the sons of Jacob.
A distinction must be made between the ineaning of a word and its use in dif-
ferent contexts. The term t61td6t has lexical meanings that we find enumerated
in dictionaries and significations that ive need to differentiate on the basis of its
usage in context. Let us recall the well-known distinction made by the SIT-iss
linguist F. de Saussure between "language" and "speech" on an abstract level
(regarding the possibilities of language) and on a concrete level (in discourse
and texts, that is, in ~ s a g e )O. ~n a concrete level, the ~zeanirzgof the tdle'ddt for-
mula remains the same, that is, "engenderment of. . . ." But there are two uses
of this same term: in certain cases, it introduces genealogies, and in others, nar-
ratives. While its use differs, its meaning remains the same.
p. 230); S. 'rengstron~,Die Toledotfir~zel tnrzd die lirerartsche Struktnr der priesterliclzen Eruieite-
rntzgsschtciit it?? Pentateuch (Lund, 1982): M . D. Johnson, Tlze Purpose o f t h e Biblical Genealogies
(2nd ed.; Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 8; Cambridge. 1988); B. Re-
naud. "Les gCnCaiogies et la structure de l'h~stoiresacerdotale dans le iivre de la Genkse." R E
97 (1990) 5-30.
8. Whybra;:, Iittroductioiz, 23-24.
9. F. de Saussure. C O U Iin? ~General Litzgutjtics (trans. R. Harris, ed. C. Bally and A. Se-
chehaye; 3rd ed.; LaSalle, IL, 1983) 77. For the d~stinctionbetween iqteanitzg and .ciglz$cance,
see E. D. Hirsch, Val~diryit1 Inteyrrtarion (New Haven, CT, 1967); idem, T h e A i m s dInteiyre-
tation (Chicago, 1976).
The Five Books $the Pe~ttateuch.Content and Structtire 21
2. All the formulas are introductory, including Gen 2:4a: the term t81e'ddt is
consistently follo~vedby the name of the genitor and never by the person en-
gendered.ln Consequently, the formula in Gen 2:4 does not mean: "the story of
the origin of heaven and earth" ("how heaven and earth were engendered or
created") but "the story of what was engendered by heaven and earth." Now,
what was engendered by heaven and earth is described in Gen 2:4-25: from
the earth-that is, the soil-YHWH formed the first human being (2:7), pro-
duced trees (2:9), and then made animals (2:19).11It is (to return to Whybray's
point) not likely that the formula in Gen 2:4 is a conclusion to Genesis 1, the
first narrative of Creation, with the meaning "what was engendered by heaven
and earth." In addition to the diff~cultymentioned in no. 1 above, it should be
mentioned that Genesis 1 does not describe the "engenderment" of the uni-
verse but its creation.12
b. Subdivisions
The most impo~tantevents. As we have already said, certain formulas in-
troduce genealogies (3:l; 10:l; 11:10; 25:12; 36:1, 9) while others introduce
narratives (2:4, 6:9, 11:27, 23:19, 37:2). The latter correspond to the most im-
portant moments of Genesis: the creation of man and woman (2:4), the Flood
(6:9); the stories of Abraham (11:27), of Jacob (25:19), and of Joseph and his
brothers (37:2).
B~f0or.eand nJtev the Flood. The formula covers the entirety of the book of
Genesis and, at first glance, it does not appear to mark the boundary between
che history of origins (Genesis 1-1 1) and the history of the ancestors (the pa-
triarchs: Genesis 12-50), the division traditionally presented by commentaries
and introductions. However, the book of Genesis seems to emphasize another
division: before and after the Flood (see the formula "nhar han~mabbzilin 10:l
and 11:10, "after the Flood"). This criterion indicates that the two parts of
Genesis are Genesis 1-9 and 10-j0.13
10. J. Skinner, Genesis (ICC; Edinburgh, 1910) 41; cf. B. Jacob. Das erste Bccch der Tora:
Genesis (Berlin, 1934) 71; Childs. ltztroductiort, 145.
11. For more details. see T. Stordalen; "Genesis 2,4: Restudying a locci~clusrinis," ZAT'I'
104 (1992) 163-71 (with bibliography): E. Blum, D i e Komnpositiorz der V~tevgesclzichte
(WMANT 57; Neukirchen-Vluyn. 1984) 451-52; idem, Stzldien z u r Kovtpt~sitionlies Penta-
ter*sh (BZAW 189: Berlin. 1990) 280; D. M. Carr. Reading the Fructzlres uJ Genesis: Historical
and Literary .Approaches (Louisviile, 1996) 74-75 (vrith bibliography); F. M. Cross, Caizaanite
a1fl1th and Hebretu Epic (Cambridge. MA, 1973) 302.
12. It is quite likely that the formula is redactional in origin and that it serves to integrate
Gen 2:4a with the "genealogies" of Genesis.
13. See R. Rendtorff, "Gen 8,21 und die Urgeschichte des Jahwisten," KD 7 (1961) 69-
78.
22 Chapter 2
Between the Flood and Abraham, the book of Genesis contains few narra-
tives. The various elements of 10:l-11:10 have a single aim: they show how
the transition from Noah to Abraham occurred. Even accounts such as Noah's
drunkenness (9:18-29) and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) prepare for Abraham's
coming. Gen 9:18-29 explains why Canaan, the son of Ham, was cursed and
lost all his privileges, while Shem, Abraham's ancestor, \\-as blessed and there-
fore occupies a preeminent position in the history of salvation (Gen 9:26; cf.
10:21-31; 11:lO-26). Gen 11:l-9 (the Tower of Babel) prepares for the mi-
grations of Terah and of Abraham. From Gen 9:20-29 on, the text no longer
shows an interest in the history of the universe as such but introduces a prin-
ciple of selection that reaches its highpoint in Abraham's calling (Gen 12:l-3).
For example, the "Table of Nations" (Genesis 10) begins with the genealogy of
Japheth, then Ham. and finally Shem, although Shem is the oldest son. After
that, Gen 11:lO-26 presents the genealogy of Shem alone, because he is the
ancestor of Terah and Abraham. These are deliberate choices made to highlight
the figure of Shem and to prepare for Abraham's arrival.
Consequently, there are good reasons for introducing a break between Gen
1:1-9:19 and 9:20-50:26. The ancient texts are less inclined to divide and
structure than to uni6: they cultivate "the art of transition." In the specific case
of Genesis, they progressively pass from the history of the universe (Genesis 1-
9) to the history of Abraham and his descendants (12-50), with the "transi-
tion" in Gen 9:20-11:26.14
2. Other Structural Elentents in the Patriarchal History

(Genesis 12-50)
Under the general heading of the t61e'dBt, we need to introduce some more
important subheadings. The first one, as we have seen, is the distinction be-
tween the antediluvian universe and the postdiluvian one. In the second sec-
tion, the patriarchal history, or history of Israel's ancestors (Genesis 12-50),
occupies a special place. Here, the structural elements are different. Some di-
vine discourses are placed on the horizon of the history of Israel or the history
of one of the patriarchs. In the technical language of narrative analysis, these are
"narrative pro grain^."^^ The most important of these are Gen 12:1-3, 26:2-3,
28:13-13, and 16:l-5a; also see 50:21.
In Gen 12:l-3, "the call of Abraham" introduces the first major break in
the great genealogies (t6le'dBt) of Genesis:
11.In any case; it is necessar!. to insist on the fact that the tble'd6t formulas make the book
of Genesis a literary unit. See the reflections of Childs, Iiztroduction, 146.
15. See in>-''Siiicroilia: A~lalisinarrativa."in .Metodologigla dellXrztico Tertameizto (ed. H . Simian-
Yofre; Studi biblici 23; Bologna, 1994; 2nd ed., 1997) 157 and 230.
-
The F ~ v eBooks of the Pe'entateuclz: Cotztent and Stvuc-true 23
'Now YHWHsaid to Abram, "Go from your country and your kindred and your
father's house to the iand that I will show you. *I will make of you a great nation,
and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. 'I
will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse; and in
you all the families of the earth shall be blessed."
Up to this point, God took care of the universe and all humanity. From now
on the narrative is centered only on the people and the land. In what foiloxvs,
when other peoples or other countries are mentioned, it is only in relationship
to the people and to the land. This radical change in the narrative development
certainly indicates that something new begins in Gen 12:l-3.
The problem is no longer humanity's destiny on earth but the destiny of
Israel's ancestors. Gen 12:l-3 contains the divine "program" for Abraham's
descendants without any limits; it therefore reaches far beyond the book of
Genesis. This program is everlasting. A second divine discourse is addressed to
Abraham, a little further on, and the account indicates the boundaries of the
land (Gen 13:14-17). After the separation of Abraham and Lot, God allows the
ancestor to "see" the land he ;vill give him,
Isaac's program is presented in Gen 26:2-9, Essentially, God repeats to him
the promises made to Abraham: the promise of the land and the promise of
countless descendants. Furthermore, the discourse establishes continuity be-
tween the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac.
As the narrative moves on to Jacob, a key passage is the "vision of Bethel"
(Gen 28:lO-22). In this vision, God reveals himself as the God of Abraham and
of Isaac, again emphasizing the continuity between the patriarchs. In addition
to the promises of land and large lineage, Gen 28:13-15 introduces a new ele-
ment: the promise to "bring Jacob back" to the land of his fathers (28:15). The
return begins in Gen 3 1 ~ 3when
, Jacob receives the explicit order, "Return to
the land of your ancestors and to your kindred." Gen 31: 13 and 33:10 refer to
the same set of themes. Gen 46:l-5a is situated at the beginning of Jacob's
journey to Egypt, where he will once again find Joseph. With him, the entire
family immigrates to Egypt, Here begins Israel's long stay in Egypt, the stay
that will end with the Exodus (Exodus 12-15). At this moment, the d i irlne ' or-
acle promises the patriarch that God will accompany him on the second impor-
tant journey of his life and then "bring him up" from Egypt. So, Israel does not
settle in Egypt forever.
Finally; before dying, Joseph returns to this idea and states that one day God
will lead the people into the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
(50:24). The interest in the "land" constitutes an important thread in this
framework. YHWHshows the land to Abraham, promises it once again to Isaac,
brings Jacob back to it after his "exile" in the household of his Uncle Laban,
2nd promises to lead his descendants back to it after the descent to Egypt. Jo-
seph reiterates this idea in the conclusion of the book of Genesis. In this way
the patriarchal story is largely, but not exclusively, an account centered on the
itinerary of the patriarchs, and this is one of the elements that most strongly
unites the narratives in the book of Genesis.
Although it is more apparent in Jacob's case than for Abraham and Isaac, the
message of these narratives is clear: the land promised to Israel is the land of Ca-
naan. With this goal, these narratives interpret Abraham's life as a departure for
and an exploration of the Promised Land. Jacob's life constitutes a circular itin-
erary because he leaves the country and finally returns with his entire family.
The story of Joseph, in this context, explains why Israel settled only tempo-
rarily in Eg)-pt. The narratives in 16:l-5a and 50:24 stress the transitory char-
acter of this stay in a foreign country. l 6
3 . The Function of the T6li;diit Formula in

the Patriarchal History
The patriarchal narrative merges the concerns for the lineage and the land.
The problem is to discern who is the heir of the promise. This problem is also
connected with the tdle'ddt formula and its function. The questions of genealogy
and territory are intertwined, and in this context we could even talk about
geopolitical theology.
One of the aims of a genealogy is, of course, to define who belongs to a
family, race, or people." In the case of Genesis, the tdle'ddt formula is intended
to mark the boundaries of the people of Israel and to situate Israel in the world,
- -
that is, in creation. The various formulas are related to the most important
moments of this "history of the definition of I~rael."'~ Actually, in antiquity,
"genealogies" often served to "legitimate" the prerogatives of individuals, of
groups, and of peoples. Certain formulas introduce these genealogies and ac-
counts, which are the two means used in the book of Genesis to determine
w-ho belongs and \vho does not belong to the chosen people.
Genesis 1-9 describes the origin of the universe and of humanity. Sin and
violence are the causes of the Flood (Genesis 6-9). So, Israel belongs to the
postdiluvian nations. After the Flood, the genealogies focus on the figure of
Sheni, the remote ancestor of the people of Israel.
The Abraham story (Genesis 12-25) is organized around a central question:
who iirill inherit the promise? There is a succession of candidates: Lot (Genesis
13),Eliezer (Genesis 13); and Ishmael (Genesis 16 and 21). They are all elimi-
16. On this, see, among others. Blum. Koriiporition der L'atelgesclziclzte. 297-300
17. Concerning the various functions of the genealogies. see, among others, R . R . Wil-
son, "The Old Testament Genealogies in Recent Research,"JBL 91 (1975) 169-89: idem,
Genealogl~a i d History i~ the Biblical Hforld (I\ie\v Haven, CT, 1977);Johnson, T h e Purpose of
Bibltcal Geizealogier; Childs. Introductioiz, 152-33.
18. See Blum, Kornporttiorz der Vatelgeschichte. 179-91 and 305-6.
The Five Books of the Pentatetlclz: Content and Structiue 25
nated in favor of Isaac (Gen 21:l-7; cf. Gen 13:l-6; 17; 18:l-15).19 Ishmael
will have his own genealogy (the tBle'd6t in Gen 25:12-18), but this is a collat-
eral lineage, not the main one. Abraham's genealogy and his story help us to
understand and to define more closely the position of neighboring peoples,
such as the Moabites and the Ammonites (descendants of Lot), the Ishmaelites,
and the Israelites (descendants of Ishmael and of Isaac). In addition, Genesis
12-25 shows that the Promised Land is the land of Canaan. Therefore, Isaac
inherits the land of Canaan, while Lot's descendants settle in Moab and Am-
mon (Genesis 19) and Ishmael's descendants in the \vilderness, to the south of
Beer-sheba, not far from Egypt (Gen 25:18; cf. 16:14; 21:14, 21).
The Jacob story (Genesis 23-35) defines Israel in relationship to Esau and
the Edomites, Esau's descendants, and to Laban, the Aramean. Once again,
the text is concerned with the "related" populations who occupy the neigh-
boring territories. Esau is Jacob's twin and Laban is his uncle, but Jacob alone
will inheric the promise, although he obtains the blessing in a rather dishonest
way (Genesis 25 and 27). The story fixes the precise delimitation of the
boundaries between the territories occupied by each one. The oath of Laban
and Jacob (31:51-34) that concludes the events recounted in Genesis 28-31
has precisely the task of marking the boundaries between the respective terri-
tories. Gen 36:6-8 states quite clearly that Esau did not settle in che land of
Canaan but in the hill country of Seir. The land of Canaan belongs to Jacob
(28:13-14; 31:3, 13; 32:lO).
The Joseph story answers the final question: why are there twelve tribes? In
Genesis 37 a new conflict arises between "brothers." Will Joseph, like Isaac and
Jacob, be the sole heir? The account explains why all the brothers (or most of
them) are blessed in Genesis 49 and are thus all ancestors of the people of Israel.
After the reconciliation between the brothers, the entire family goes down to
Egypt. However, the last verses of this story contain the promise of a return to
the land of Canaan (50:24).>OThus, the Joseph story serves as the transition be-
tween the book of Genesis and the book of Exodus."
4, The Impovtance of the Patriavchal History

The patriarchal history (Genesis 12-30) constitutes, by far, the most impor-
tant part of the book of Genesis. According to the chronology of Genesis,
Abraham was born in the anno rnundi (since creation) 1946. H e left his country
19. See L.R.Hzlyer, "The Separat~onof Abraham and Lot: Its Significance in the Patri-
archal Narratives." JSOT 26 (1983) 77-58.
20. From Gen 12:l-3 on, the "land" becomes the central theme of the patriarchal
narrative.
21. For other presentations. see Blenkinsopp, Pentnteuclz, 37-39 and 98-100; Whybray.
Inti.oduction, 29-40 and 19-62.
26 Chapter 2
to immigrate to the land of Canaan in anno fnundi 2021 (cf. Gen 12:4b). Jacob
and his family went down to Egypt in a m o nzundi 2236 (Gen 47:9).22Conse-
quently, chaps. 1-11 of Genesis col-er 2,021 years; and the chapters dedicated
to the patriarchs cover 215. without counting the years between the arrival in
Egypt and the deaths of Jacob and of Joseph. Now, if we add this number to
more or less 70 years in order to arrive at Joseph's death, we get the sum of
2851290 years.'3
Proportionally, the "narration time" is much longer in Genesis 12-50 than
in Genesis 1-1 1. O r to put it more simply, the narrative of Genesis 12-50 is far
richer and more detailed than the account of Genesis 1-1 1. In the first case, the
proportion is approximately 200 years per chapter but, in the second, 7; years
per chapter.
C . The Structure of the Book of Exodus
1 . The Subdivisions2"
The structure of Exodus differs greatlj- from the structure of Genesis. We do
not encounter any linguistic markers co~nparableto the "tdlgddt formula" to
help us grasp the con~positionof the book.'There are, however, some recur-
ring fornlulas of Priestly origin (P) that mark the various phases of Israel's wan-
dering in the wilderness (Exod 12:37a, 30-42; 13:20; 14:2; l5:22a; 16:1; 17:1;
19:2). The formula of wandering reappears in the book of Numbers (10:11-
12; 12:16; 20:1, 22; 21:4, 10-13; 22:1).26Numbers 33 contains a complete list
of the stages of wandering. However, the formula is not found in all sections of
Exodus (it does not appear in Exodus 19-40) and does not correspond to the
principal divisions of Exodus. .Moreover, the xvandering continues in Numbers,
structuring a unit that goes far beyond the single book of Exodus.
22. See Blenkinsopp, Pentuteitciz, 18.

23. Joseph -was 17 years old at the beginning of the story (Gen 37:2) and 30 in Gen 11:16.
To this it 1s necessary to add at least 7 years of abundance (41:53) and 2 years of famine (45:6).
When Jacob and his family arrived in Egypt, Joseph was at least 39 years old. H e died at 110
(50:26). The dlirerence is lilore or less 70 years.
21. See Childs, Introdtiction, 170-71. Other exegetes leave aside study of the "canonical
form'' of Exodus, preferring to study Exodus-Numbers. Ci. Blenkinsopp, "From Egypt to
Canaan," in Pentureuch, 134-82. Blenkinsopp divides the books of Exodus-Numbers into
three sections: (1) "Israel in Egypt" (Exod 1:l-15:21); (2) "Israel in the wilderness" (Exod
15:22-18:27 + Nun1 10:ll-36:?3); (3) "Israel at Sinai'' (Exod 19:l-Num 10:lO); Whybray
(I~ztroilucrioiz,63-64) adopts a similar division.
23. Childs, Introdt~itiotz, 170; Blenkinsopp. Pentateuch, 135.
26. See Lohfink. "Pnesterschrifi." 206 (= Studien Z M ~Pentuteuc\~,
Z 231);Blenkinsopp, Pen-
tateuch, 135-36.
'The Five Books ofthe Pentatettch: Cotzte~ztand Strzlctu~e 27
Generally, exegetes distinguish at least three parts to Exodus: (1) the depar-
ture from Egypt (Exod 1:l-15:21); (2) the journey from Egypt to Sinai
(13:22-18:27); (3) Israel in Sinai: the Covenant and the Laws (19-40). In this
last section, a distinction is nonnally inade between the Covenant (Exodus 19-
24), the breach of the Covenant, and its renewal (32-34); and, finally. the in-
structions for the building of the sanctuary and their execution (25-31; 35-
But there is no clear linguistic signal to support this may of structuring
the text. We therefore need to look elsewhere.
2 . Attempt at a Solutiotz
The book of Exodus ends n l t h the corlsecratlon of the tent of meetlng
(Exod 40:34-38) Thls text may prov~dethe key for lnterpretlng the book in
~ t canon~cal
s form.
a. The Literary and Historical Context

What happens in Exod 40:34-381 YHWH rakes possession of the tent of
meeting, and this implies that he comes to live in the midst of his people
(40:35; cf. 29:43-46). The eminent symbols of the Presence are the "glory"
and the "cloud." This moment anticipates 1 Kgs $:lo-13, where YHWHtakes
up residence in the temple of Solomon (cf. 2 Chr 5:ll-6:2).
Ezek 43:l-7 is another text that needs to be connected with Exodus 40.
There, we see the "glory of YHWH" entering the temple it had abandoned in
Ezek 10:18-22, The temple destroyed by the Babylonians will be rebuilt after
the Exile (Ezra 3-6). This second temple will be purified by Judas Maccabeus
in 1 Macc 4:36-61. For the Postexilic community, the consecration of the tent
was the key moment of Israel's history. It should probably be seen in relation-
ship to the reconstruction of the temple of Jerusalem and the restoration of the
cult during the Persian period.28
b. Significance of the Construction of the T e m ~ l e ' ~

In the anclent Near East, the consecration of a temple 1s the moment when
a dlvinlq affirms his or her sovereignty. The creanon accounts often conclude
with the construction of a temple for the creator-god. Marduk, for example,
has a sanctuary built for hlmself at the end of the poem Enurrza Elislz At
Ugant, there 1s a long poem telllng about the construcnon of the temple of
27 Childs, Ivitrudci~tton, 170-71

28 Blenkinaopp, Petrtateiiclz, 218
29 See abole all M Welnfeld, ' Sabbath. Temple, and the Enthronement of the Lord
The Problem of the Sztr rm Leberz of Gen 1 1-2 3." In .bfelanges btbl~qlreset orietztatix en I'horz-
tiectv de J f Hetm Cazelles (ed A Caquot and M Delcor, KOAT 212, Neukirchen-Vlu~nand
Kelelaer, 1951) 501-12
Baal. Likewise. YHXH, who comes to iire in the midst of Israel, affirms his
soi~ereigntyover the people of Israel (and the m7orld). Israe! is the people of
YHWHand of no other divinity or power. The consecration of the tent corre-
sponds to the categorical illustration of the first commandment: "I an1 YHTVH
your G o d , tij11o lirotglzt you out qftlze land o j E g y p t , orrt q f t h e 1zot.rse $slavery; you
rhall have ino otllergods bejbre m e J J(Exod 30:2-3).j0
Exodus 30 conlpletes the story of the Creation (Genesis 1). Genesis 1 ends
with the consecration of a sacred time (the seventh day, the Sabbath). YH\T-H
will not have a residence in the created modd until Exodus 30, when Israel \\ill
have become his people (Exod 6:7) and YHWHtheir God (29:45-46j."
c. The Structure of the Book of Exodus

The question of YHWH'Ssovereignv over Israe! runs throughout the encire
book of Exodus.
* In Exodus 1-15, the fundamental problem is to discern who the true sov-
ereign of Israel is and whom Israel should "serve": Pharaoh or YHX'H? The
question appears even more clearly in rhe plague narrative (Exodus 7-1 1) and
in the narrative of the crossing of the sea (Exodus 14). In these chapters, YHWH
reveals his sovereignty. The plagues of Egypt and the crossing of the sea prove
who "YHWH is" because Pharaoh said, "I do not kno\v YHW~H" (Exod 3:2).
This is why the "recognition formula" is frequently repeated in this part of Ex-
odus (see 715, 17; 8:6, 18; 9:14, 29; 1 0 2 ; 11:7; 14:4, 18): "by this you shall /
they shall knoll- that I am YHWH." Compare 14:18: "and the Egyptians shall
know that I am YHIVI~."~'
Exod 15:18, the last rerse of the "Song of Moses," proclaims after the final
1-ictory in Exodus 13: "YHWH ~villreign forever and ever." YHTH reigns and
he ~ i ~ imake
l l his residence in the midst of his people. These two themes of the
sox-ereignty and the residence (sanctuary) are already connected in the coil-
cluding verses of the "Song of h40ses."~"
30. The translation of the expression 'al-p?nqa (translated '"before me" above) is dis-
puted. See the commentaries.
31. O n the correspondences beclveen Genesis 1 and Exodus 25-40, see. among ochers.
Blenkinsopp, Petztaieuch, 217-18; l? Weimar. "Struktur und I<ornpositlo;: der prlesterschrift-.
lichen Geschichtsdarstellung," B S 2 4 (1984) 151 11. 179; idem. "Sinai und Schopfung: Koni-
posltlon und Theo!ogie der priesterschriftlichen Sinaigeschichte," R E 95 (1988) 138-62.
32. See M. Greenberg, C'izdercranding Exodtu (IVelv York, 1969) 164-67, 169-70. and
181: D. j. McCarth\; "Moses' Dealings with Pharaon: Exod 7:8-?2:27," C B Q 27 (1965)
336-17; J.-L. Ska, Le paxsnge de In nzer: Et~idede la cdt~srructiorl,du stjlle er de /a jllmboliqii~
d'Exod ?$,I-31 (AnBib 109; Rome, 1986) 57-60 and 75.
33. O n Exodus 1-15, also see G. Fischer. "Exodus 1-15: Eine Erzahlung," in Srudtex tn
the Book qf Exodzls: Redaction-Receptloiz-Itztelpl.etntic~iz (ed. !a.Vervenne; BETL 126; Leu-
ven. 1996) 119-78.
- -
The Flve Books oSthe Pentateuch: Content and St~uctuf~e 29
Exod 15:22-18:27 forms a transition that leads Israel from Egypt to

Mount Sinai. From this moment on, YHWHis the "sovereign" of Israel and
must resolve the problems of his people: thirst (Exod 15:22-27, 17:l-7); hun-
ger (chap. 16);belligerent enemies (17:6-16). In addition, these chapters allude
to the Law (13:25b; 16:4-5, 28) and to the organization of the people (chap,
l a ) , The only stylistic element uniting these chapters is the "wandering for-
mula" (15:22, 27; 16:l; 17:l; cf. 19:l-2): which contains the verbs nr""to
move around," "to journey," "to travel"), bw' ("to arrive"), and ilnlz ("to
camp"); and various place-names, especially the points of departure and arrival.
Exod 19:l-24:ll is one of the most intense moments in the book of
Exodus. j4
The style, The corresponding phrases in 19:7-8 and 24:3, 7 frame the en-
tire secrion: 35
19:7-8: -So Moses came, summoned the elders of the people, and set before
them all these words that YHWHhad commanded him. 8The people all ans.,s.ered
a5 one: "Everything that YHWH has spoken me will do." Moses reported the
v.rords of the people IO'YHWH.
24:3: Moses came and told the people all the xords of YHWHand all the ordi-
nances; and all the people answered with one voice. and raid, "Ali the words that
YHK-Hhas spoken 7%-ewill do."
24:7: [Moses] took the Book of the Covenant, and read it in the hearing of the
people; and they said. "All that YHWH has spoken we 117ill do, and we will be
obedient."
With regard to YHWH,the central assertion appears in Exod 20:2-3, "I am

YHWHyour God, 5vho brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house
of slavery; you shall have no other gods before me." The Exodus is the founda-
tional event in Israel's history, the event on which YHWHbases all his preroga-
tives. The first consequence of this fact-that is, the "first commandment"--
is that Israel must have no other gods: YHWHalone has freed Israel; YHWH
alone has rights over Israel,
Isvael's stat~ls. The first part (Exod 19:3-8) contains the "program" for the
whole section, In this oracle, which introduces the Sinai section, YHXVHre-
minds Israel of the Exodus (19:4) and invites them to become his exclusive
possession ( s ~ g u l l d )among the peoples of the earth, a "priestly kingdom"
34. On these difficult chapters, see Hum. St~rdieil,88-99 (with bibliography). Also see
T. B. Dozeman, God on the .Moltntain: A Stctdy of Redactior!, Theology and Canon it2 Exodux 19-
24 (SBLMS 37; Atlanta. 1989): B. Renaud, L a t/~40plzarziedu Sinnl-Exod 19-24: E.x@se e f
'hidogie (CahRB 30: Paris, "191).
33. See L.Perlitt, Bttndestiteologie i m illten Tejtai7zei~l( W M A N T 36; Ne~ikirchen-Vluyn,
1969) 192.
30 Chapter 2
(matdeket kohn~~cl?) and a "holy nation" jgdy q~dB!).~"fter the proclamation of

the Decalogue and the "Covenant Code'' (20:22-23:1?), the various rituals,
especially the ritual of the Covenant in Exod 24:3-8, seal the new relations be-
tween YHU-Hand his people. From no\\- on. Israel is the exclusive possession of
YHWH,a "lioly nation" and a "priestly kingdom." The rituals in Exod 24:3-8.
especially the sprinkling with blood, "consecrate" Israel. The same rite of as-
persion consecrates the priests in Exodus 29 and Leviticus 8. The vision and
the ilieal in Exod 249-11 are intended to confirm the authority of the priests
and of the eiders, the Legitimate representatives of YHWH in the midst of the
"holy Howel-er: the "sanctuary" with its indispensable elements, the
altar and the priesthood, is still missing (cf. 29:43-46). Tl~islvill be the topic of
discussion in the next section.
Exod 24: 12-31: 18, especially 24:15-31:17, are the chapters in which
YHWHreveals to Moses his plan for construction of the sanctuary: "Have them
make me a sanctuary, so that I may dwell among them'' (25:8-9). YHWHwill
be even more the "sovereigi~"of Israel when he has a sanctuary permirting him
to live in the midst of his people. This section is set off by an inclusio marked
by two references to the "stone tablets" containing the Lam (24:12, 31:18).
These tablets play an important role in the chapters that follow because they
represent the basic conditions of the relationship between YHWH and his
people. YHWH\.;-ill be able to live in the midst of his people only if Israel re-
spects this Lam-.38
* Exodus 32-34. However: Israel does not respect the basic Law inscribed
on the stone tablets. The episode of the golden calf prov~kesa serious crisis that
endangers Israel's existence as the people of YHWH.The golden calf is consid-
ered to be a rival diviniry (cf Exod 20:3; 32:l. 8). One question dominates
chaps. 32-33: after the incident of the golden calf, will YHWHcontinue to reside
36. This texr has beell the object of much stud!- and debzte. For the discussion and the
blbliography: see ibid.. 167-81; B. S, Childs. Esodus: A Cointizerztary (OTL; London, 1974)
310 and 360-61: j. Durlian~,Exodus (WBC 3: Waco. TX, 1987) 256 and 261-63: D. j. Mc-
Carth!; G a t y aiid Covei?arir: A S t u d y iri Fort11 in the Aitcient Orietita? Doiurtierzts and irz tlie O l d
%stai?ieut (A11Bib 21A; Rome, 1978) 270-73: J.-L. Ska, "Exod 19,3b-6 er l'identite de 1'1s-
rael postexllique." in Studies iri tile Book elf Exodits: Redaction-Reception-iizferpre~atioil, (ed.
M .Vervennr: BETL 126; Leuoen, 1996) 289-317.
37. Exod 24:l-2. 9-1 1 and 24:3-8 are also largely discussed. See Perlitr. Buizderfheologie,
181-90 and 190-203: McCarth); Z e a t l ~arzd Coverzarzt; 264-69: Blurn. Studterz, 51-52 (with
bibliography); J.-L. Ska. "Exod. 19,3-8 et les parCn6ses deuttronomiques." in Bibiisclze Tlieol-
ogie iil~dge~ellsilidJtltci~e~ L h d e l : Fiir Soybeit Lohfiizk SJ (ed. G. Brauiik. \Xl Gross, and S. Mc-
El-enue: Freiburg-im-Breisgau; 1993) 307-14, notably pp. 311-12; idem, "Le repas de Exod
24.11," Bib 74 (1993) 305-27.
38. O n these chapters, see H. Utzschneider, D s r Heiligtuui itiid das Cesetz: Studiet~ztir Be-
deiittuzg der. sirzaitisc?ieri tIeiiiyi~r~zrterre (Ex 25-40, LEV8-9) (OBO77; Fnbourg. 1988); Wei-
mar, "Sinai und Schopfung," 138-62.
The Flue Books qfdie Pek~tateb~ch.Coritetlt and Strliitiire
in the midst of his people and guide them in the x~iiderness?(see 33:3, 3, 14).
Moses intercedes and finally YHXCHconcedes (33:11, 17). From this moment
on. the God who acco~npaniesIsrael ~ t ~ ibe l l a God of forgiveness and mercy
(Esod 34:6-7). The renewal of the Covenant (Exodus 34) is symbolized by the
granting of two new tablets of the Lam-. iMoses destroyed the first tablets in Evod
32:15-16, 19, The "words" are written on che new tablets in 34:1, 27-28.39
Exodus 35-40, i t is now possible to build the sanctuary in which YHWH
will take up residence in 4(3:31-35. After having eliminated the human power
of Pharaoh and the other divinities. symbolized by the goiden calf, YHWHhas
no\-,- shown that he is the only real sovereign of Israel.
F;rom a stylistic point of viex-,the last section of these chapters (40:34-38)
is linked to the firs1 section (35: 1-3) by the 15-ord "work" (n~e"ld'kd),which ap-
pears in 3 3 2 and 40:33. There are alllusions to Gen 1:l-2, 4a in both cases, and
notably to Gen 2:l-3. Exod 3531-3 mentions the week and the rest of the sev-
enth day (cf, Gen 2:1-3). and Exod 40:33 says that Moses finished his work ex-
actly as God had finished 5 s mork in Gen 2:2:
G e n 2:': And o n the serenth day G o d finished the w o r k thar he had done
Exod 10:33:So Mores finished the v ~ o r k .
Iri the last chapter of Exodus, there are tu--o key elements: Y ~ T Hdweils in
the midst of his people (40334-35). and it is necessary to organize the people in
relation to the divine presence. This wi?i be the task of Leviticus. From the
tent, Ywa-;I guides his people (Exod 40:36-38). The book of Numbers de-
scribes Israel's journe)- under the guidance of YHarH. present in the cloud.
One last remark concerning these chapters needs to be added, The begin-
ning o-f the book of Exodus describes Israel's slavery in Egypt (Exodus 1). At
the end of the book, Israel "serves" Ywwn. Hoxtrever, "serving YHWH"is not
another form of slavery The "liturgy" (in Hebrew this word means "service,"
"mork," or "worship") is spontaneous and voluntary "serliice," riot "forced la-
bor." See Exod 35:4-29, xvhsre the Israelites act "~~illingly" ("of a generous
heart," 35:5, 22; "everyone whose heart \\-as stirred, and everyone \\-hose spirit
was willing," 35:21),'" h/loreover, the rest on the Sabbach (Exod 35:l-3)
39. Concerning the problems of this very complex section, see B l u ~ n ,Sttidten. 73-75;
R. W L. hloberly. At the .\lo~iitain of God: Story nitd Tizeology in Exodus 32-34 (JSOTSup
22: Sheffieid. 1983); B.Renaud, "La formation de Esod 19-10. Quelques points de rep&,"
in Le Pentatetrq~ie:Dhbats er ~erilercher.XIV' Cor!gi.?sde li.ICFEB, Arigers, I99 [ (ed. P Haude-
bert: LD 151: Paris, 1992) 101-3.
10. O n this point, see, among others, N. Lohtink, "Freizeit: Arbeltsx-oche u.nd Sabbat irn
Alten Testament, insbesondere in de; priester!ichen Geschichtsdarsceilung," Crriere grosxen
t,Vc~;ciiter:Dar S l t c Tectattzettt a i Thenten dterer]aitre (Freiburg-ini-Breisgau, 1977) 190-208:
1.-L. Ska. "I1 lavcro nelia Bibbia," Firrnni~a8 11995)47-62.
32 Chapter 2
introduces a difference between "voluntary xvork" and slaver). The book of

Levltlcus also describes it as the Israelrtes' "free service'. for YHWH.their God.
D. The Structure of the Book of Leviticus 41
1 . The Problem
UHWH'Spresence in midst of h is people requires a special organization of
their entire life around the basic requirement of "purity" and holiness." This is
the primary aim of the book of Leviticus.
Interpreters agree on the division of Leviticus into four important sections

and an appendix. Leviticus 1-7 deals with sacrifices; 8-10 with the inaugura-
tion of the cult; 11-16 with the laws of purity and impurity; 17-26 with the
"Holiness Code"; and chap. 27 is an appendix concerning various offerings in
the sanctuary.
Let us look at the evidence for the structuring.
Leviticus 1-7 ends with a characteristic "concluding sumniary" (7:37-
38): "This is the ritual ofthe burnt offering, the grain offering, the sin 06-ering,
the guiit offering, the offering of ordination, and the sacrifice of well-being,
which YHWHcommanded Moses on Mount Sinai, when he commanded the
people of Israel to bring their offerings to YHWH,in the wilderness of Sinai."
The other sections of Leviticus do not have an introduction or conclusion of
this sort. The formulas in Lev 26:46 and 27:34 close the entire book. The di-
vision is therefore based on other criteria.
Leviticus 8-10 describes the consecration of the priests, Aaron and his
sons, and the inauguration of the cult. Moses, Aaron, and his sons are the cen-
tral figures here (8:2, 9:1; 10:l).
Leviticus 11-16 are chapters in which the vocabulary of purity and inipu-
rity is dominant-tdi112' ("impure"); pihor ("pure"j; feqe; ("abomination"); and
the corresponding verbs. Chapter 11 has its own conclusion (11:46-47). Other
conclusions of this lcind also appear iii 12:7 (law of parturition); 13:39 (law con-
cerning leper spots); 14:54-57 (law concerning leprosy); 15:32-33 (la\- con-
cerning sexual impurity).
Leviticus 16 does not precisely belong to the law of impurity. Actually. it
deals with the ritual to be observed for the "Day- of Expiation" (yBm 11akkb-
pur?nf),one of the theological pivots of Leviticus. This chapter has a double
conclusion (16:29a and 16:34).
41 See. aoove all, Chllds. It~tioductton,182
---
The Five Books of the Pentateuch: Content and St~cicture
Leviticus 17-26 contains what convention calls the "Holiness Code." Un-
fortunately, the linguistic markers that i ~ o u l dhave permitted singling out this
section are not clear. For example, the expression "Holiness Code" derives
from the well-known phrase: "You shall be holy, for I YHWH your God am
holy" (Lev 19:2), But this phrase is not found at the beginning of the Holiness
Code, in Lev 17:1, and furthermore it already appears in Lev 11:44. Many ex-
egetes think that Leviticus 17 is a part of the "Holiness Code" because this
chapter refers to the blood: the sacred element (17:ll) present in man)- rituals
of consecration.
Some chapters have their own conclusions, that is, an exhortation to obserx
the Law, See 18:30, 19:37, 20:22-26, 22:31-33, 26:2, Elsewhere, the conclu-
sion only state? that Moses conlmunicated to Israel (or to Aaron) the prescrip-
tions promulgated by YHWH(Lev 21~24,23:44). See also 2 4 2 3 (conclusion of
a historical interlude). As we have already said, Lev 26:46 and 27:34 conclude
the entire book.
More simply$ one could even say that the book of Leviticus has tivo maln
sections, In the first section (1-lo), the cult is organized (1-8) and inaugurated
(9-10). in the second, Leviticus indicates x h a t YHWHexpects from the "cultic
community of Israel": purity (11-15) and holiness (17-26, 27). The iiturgy of
the Day of Atonement in Leviticus 16 is the means given to Israel to be recon-
ciled 114th the Lord on a regular basis,
3. T h e Meaning of the
in order to understand the book of Leviticus, it is necessary to consider its
context. Israel has just left Egypt and is now at the foot of Mount Sinai. The
people are living in the wilderness and have not yet entered the Promised
Land, What legal foundations do the people of Israel have? Israel cannot take
possession of any territory and, consequently, it is not possible to apply prop-
erty law, The only basis for the existence of Israel at this moment is the expe-
rience of the Exodus: YHVH brought Israel out of Egypt, and he liberated them
from slavery. The Israelites are therefore a free people, although the)- do not yet
possess land,
In the book of Leviticus, the experience of the Exodus is interpreted in a
new way: when YHWHled Israel out of Egypt, he "separated" them from the
other nations: especially from Egypt, and "sanctified" them. This "theological
12.See especially Zimrnerii. "'Heiligkelt' nach dem sogenann:en Heiligkeitsgesetz."

I.'T 30 (1980)493-5121 F. Criisemann, "Der Exodus als Hziligung: Zur rechtsgeschichr-
lichen Bedeurung des Heiligkeitsgesetaes," in Die hebraiscite Bibel und titre ztueifacize Saciz-
n Geburt~tug(ed. E . Blum, 6. ~Macholz,and E. V
~esciiichte:Festrcizr$j~i R o ~ R e n d t o t j ~ z u i65. \
Stegenlann; Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1990) 117-29.
34 Chapter 2
basls" of the Israelltes' existence has consequences for then legal status. The
most Important of these consequences are the follow~ng,
The Exodus is not a human feat, the action of a great hero or a well-
organized group; it is not even due to the intervention of some divinity: it is
the achieveinent of YHTH alone. Because Israel owes its existence as a people
to YHWH,it "belongs" to YHX-H.See, for example. Lev 25155:"For to me the
people of Israel are serx-ants;they are my servants u-hom I brought out from the
land of Egypt: I am YHWHyour God."
This fact defines the relations between the various members. The free-
dom of all the lnembers of the people is "sacred" because they belong to
YHV'H alone. See Lev 23:42 (lam- regarding the redemption of slaves): "For
they are my servants, whom I brought out of the land of Egypt; they shall not
be sold as slaves are sold."
Because Israel is a "holy-" people. all the aspects of its existence are char-
acterized by '%oliness" (Lev 1 9 2 ; 2231-33). Consequently. Leviticus insists
on the cult and the observance of "religious" rules-for example, the distinc-
tion betxveen "pure" and "impure." See Lev 11:44.-47 (la-vxon permitted and
prohibited food):
+For I ain YHKH your God: sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I ain
holy. You shall not defile yourselves with an>-s\r,arming creature that moves o n
the earth. 'jFor 1 am YHTH who brought you up from the land of Egypt. to be
!-our God; you shali be hoiy. for i am holy. '6This is the laxi, pertaining to land
animal and bird aild every living creature that moves through the waters and ev-
ery creature that swarms upon the earth. -IFtomake a distinction between the un-
clean and the clean, arid between the living creature that rnay be eaten and the
1'iling creature that may not be eaten.
7:
Israel ~x-assanctified by YHWHwhen he brought the people out of Egypt. This

is \ijhy, according to the same text in Leviticus 11; Israel inust "make a distinc-
tion between the pure and the inlpure:" in other 1%-ords.remain "holy" and
"pure" (cf. 18~1-1,20:23-25).
a The land that will be given to the people belongs exclusively to YHWH,
\1711o \.;ill be its sole 0x1-ner.'"his means that there will be no "propertj- rights"
in Israel. The Israelites lvill have the usufruct of the land, but they will not be
able to own it: Lev 20:23; 25:23, 38. Lev 2 3 2 3 is particularly significant (law
regarding the redemption of the land): "The land shall not be sold in perpetu-
ity, for the land is mine; with me you are but aliens and tenants."
The Exodus, as "separation" and "sanctification," also defines Israel's rela-
tions with other nations." The people that have been "sanctified" cannot live
13.Ibici., :24-25.
44.Ibid., 118-19.
The Flue Bookr 4 t h e Pentateuch. Content i l ~ dS t ~ ~ i ~ c t ~ i ~ e 33
as do the other nations from which they have been "separated." See Lev 11:47,
18:3-3, 20:22-26, 2232-33; especially Lev 22:32-33 (conclusion of a law
concerning the sacrificesj: "You shall not profane my holy name, that I may
be sanctified among the people of Israel: I am YHWII; I sanctify you, 1 who
brought you out ofthe land of Egypt to be your God: T am YFIWH."This text
establishes a precise correspondence between two divine actions: the sanctifi-
cation of Israel and the departure from Egypt, The participle ;1re'qaddis"e'ket17
('.who sanctifies you") is followed by the participle iiainm6;l"~("mholed you
out"), The tn70 participles have the same value and, consequently, the depar-
ture from Egypt is the sanctification of Israel.
Also see Lev 18:3-1, which introduces the laws regarding sexuality: "You
shali not do as they do in the land of Egypt, where you lived, and you shall not
do as they do in the land of Canaan, to which I am bringing you, You shall not
follow their statutes. My ordinances you shall observe and my statutes you silall
keep, follo~\,ingthem: I am YHWH)-our God." If the Israelites are "separated"
and "sanctified," they cannot foilo\\- the laws and customs of peoples Cram
whom they have been "separated" in order to be "sanctified."
This introduction is not the place to attempt a full evaluation of the the-
ology of Leviticus, which definitely has limits. The emphasis on the cult.
"separation," and Israel's distinctive character is not \vichout danger. The Old
Testament-for example, the books of R u t h and Jonah-manifests a critical
artitude toward this mentality. The New Testament x~illjudge it severely.
Nonetheless, we need to elucidate its merits. Wif'hout this theology, Israel
~vouldnot have been able to survive and transmit its faith when, after having
lost its political autonomy, ~t no longer possessed ~ t son-n territory. This is all
the inore true for the Jews of the diaspora,
E. The Structure sf the Book of Numbersi5
As many authors have noted, ~t is especially difficult to determine the struc-

but with
ture of the book of Numbers Generally, a three-part d l v ~ s ~ opreva~ls,
n
13.1 am primarily following R, P. Knierim, "The Book of Nurnbers," in Die ilebriiircize Bi-
he1 rind ihre rwe@che S~chge~chicizie:
FertschijfiJir. R o ! f R e n d t o ~ ~ z i ~63,
n ? Gebnrts:ng (ed. E. Blum,
C. klacholz, and E. \ST Stegemann; Neukirchen-Vluyn. 1990) 155-63, esp. 155-56 on the
problem. See also R. RendtorE, Tiie Old Tectutnent: z4n It!tiodtcition (trans. J. Bowden; Lon-
don. 1985) 147; also see the comrnentanes and studies of G. B. Gray, *Yiiili?~befi(ICC: Edin-
burgh, 1903): N. fi. Snaith, Levitiinc anti Sniizbers (Century Bible: London, ! 9 6 i ) : M. Noth.
a large variety of opinions. These three parts are: Israel at Sinai; the jouriiey
fiom Sinai to rhe plains of Moab; Israel in the plains of Moab. For many schol-
ars, the first section ends in 10:lO. But according to Noth and Coats, it ends
in 10:36; and Budd argues for 9:14. The conclusion of the second part is lo-
cated, according to these authors, in 20:13 (most), 21:9 (Noth), 22:l (Coats).
and 25: 18 (Budd). Similarly, no agreement has been reached on the conclusion
of the book. Almost all the authors think that the conclusion of the third sec-
tion coincides li~ichthe end of the book, 36:13. For Budd, however, chap. 36
is an addition.
Thus, most scholars divide the book into three parts. However, some prefer
two sections (D. T. Olson),i6 chaps. 1-25 and 26-36. The first section mainly
discusses the generation that experienced the Exodus and the Sinai, while the
second sectlon deals wlth the nem generation that replaced the first 4C)years
later. The two censuses, 111 chap. 1 and chap. 26, mark the beginning of each of
the ni70 rectlony
2. 'Fhe Bipartite Structure

The book of Nunlbers contains several indicators that may help us deter-
mine i ~ structure:
s for example, the chronological data in Num 1:1, 7: 1, 10: 11,
and 33:38; the topographical infornlation distinguishing the various stages of
Israel's wanderings in the wilderness: Sinai (1:1-10: lo), Paran (10:11-12: 16):
Edom (20323-21:4), Negeb (21:l); Moab (21:11, 13, 20; 22:1), the land of the
Amorites (21:13, 21, 31); and, finally-, the plains of Moab (chaps. 22-36).
However, these chronological and topographical indicators are not conclusive
with regard to the structure of the book because they do not converge. In
order to obtain more satis@ing results, we must study both the form and the
content.
This is why Knierim suggests beginning with a three-part division. Hen-
ever, he goes on to note that there is no reason to distinguish the second part
Xuiqdxr. (trans. J. D. Martin; Philadelphia, 1968); G. T'I/ Codts, Rebellion it? the Mi'lderttesi: Tltr
12~I~~.il~~!ri1~g
Alf~tjjiii
the M/'i!dei.nexs Eaditioiis cjtize Old Testametit (Nashville, 1968); J. de Vaulx,
Les Xornbres ISB: Paris, 1972);B. A. Levine. ,\-tiinbers 1-20 (AB 4A; Ne\vYofk. 1993);idem,
.\-ntr~beis 21-36 (AB 4B;Garden C i y NY, 2000); J. Milgrom, .Yriinbers (JPS Torah Com-
mentary; New York, 1989); P. J. Budd, ,\-utvbers (WJBC 5; Waco. TX, 1954); A. Schart. .Z.lase
uizd Ismel iii Kot7jlikr: E k e redaktio~zxgeschichilicheStudie zrl den I17~istenelsaiziungeii(OBO 98;
Fribourg and Gottingen, 1990); T. R Ashley Tlze Book oJA\-ninbeic(NICOT; Grand Rapids,
1993): R. K. Harrison, AYui~~bers: Ail Exegetic01 Comrizenraiy (Grand Rapids, :992); J. Schar-
best, .Yii*nlc;Y(NEchtB 27; Wiirzburg, 1992): K. D. Sakeilfeld.]ourne)~i~qgwitif God: A COIM-
menmq, 091 the Book 4 Afi~nbers (International Theologica! Con~mentasy:Grand Rapids.
1995): cf. Childs, I~ttrodilctiotr:191-99.
46. D. T. Olson. The Death qf file Old a t ~ dtize Birfh of the Seus: The Frattiework of the Book
of?;~nizberjaitd the Petirate~~clz (BJS 71; Chico, CA. 1985).
The Fwc Bockr of the Peatatezicli: Corzfent a ~ l dStnlcttcre 37
from the third part on the basis of form and content, From ?0:11 on, Israel is
journeying in the wilderness. Moab is only a "stage for Israel in the \vildenless,"
one ainollg others. even if the stay there is the longest one. Consequently, it
seems most reasonable not to distinguish more than two sections in the book:
Nurn !:I-10:10 and 10:ll-36:13.
What is the factor that unites and distinguishes these t i ~ oparts on the high-
esr struc~urallevel?" In 1:10-10:10, Israel prepares itseif for the march in the
wilderness. This preparation is both religious and militar); and it differs from
the preparations in the follotving chapters because it takes into consideration
r!le entire march in the wilderness, not just one particular stage. The second
Dart of the book (!0:11-36:13) describes the execution of the plan contained
in the first chapters. The f~~ndarnental structure of the book of Numbers is
therefore: plan / execution of the plan. The book as a whole belongs to the lic-
erary genre of rnilitary campaign, 4s
There are, however, good reasons to introduce another subdivision, with-
out rriodifying the structure proposed by Knierim. The second part of the
book of Nun~bers(10:ll-36:13) describes the march through the wilderness
on the model of a military campaign. But there are two ciistinct stages in this
campaign. In the first stage, Israel journeys from Sinai toniard the Promised
Land. Then, it1 a second section, the conquest of the territory begins. The
"campaign" is no longer exactly the same. because, for the first time, the text
says that Israel has "taken a territory" and has "settled" there. These verbs ap-
pear in Num 21:21-26, in the account of the campaign against Sihon, the king
of the Xmori~es;see 21:25: "Israel took all these towns, and Israel settled in all
the towns of the Amorites. in Heshbon, and in all its villages." See also 21:3?:
"Thus Israel settled in the land of the Amorites." In addition, in 21:24, a key
verb related to the conquest occurs, y d ("KO conquer, take possession"): "Israel
put him to the s\t-ord, and took possession (wayyi~(aS')of his land from the Ar-
non to the Jabbok."
From this moment on, the account cenrers around the concluest. For ex-
anlple, Numbers 32 contains instructions for the distribution of the territory of
Trans~ordanand Numbers 34 for Cisjordan. N u m 21:10-20 serves as a tran-
sitio~lbet."\-een the two stages of the =arch in the xvilderness. The oracles of
1 -,
7 , . Knierim. "Numbers," 156-50. Here, see esp, p, 1 5 9 . From the methodological v i e w
pcinc, Knierim's obserx-ation is very important. The structure helps us to understand the en-
tire book and the articulat~onof the two parts.
48.G. W; Coats, "The Wilderness It~nerary."CBQ 34 (1972) 135-52: G. I. Davies. "The
Wr~lder-riessItineraries: Comparari:.e Study," 2jv1Bul25 (1971) 16-81; idem, Tile Uby c$"tize
M-iidernerj: A Geo~izlpizii-nls ' t ~ ~ do yj rite Tti'1deu;lerz Itiizeiories iil the Old Testnrneiit (SOTSMS 5;
Cambridge, 1979);j.Iran Seiers, Tile L ~ f e~$~i'f~:ioses: The Ihilli~irt Historint~it1 E.~odtis--Y~ct~~bei.j
(Contribut~onsto Biblical Exegesis and Theology 10; Louisville, 1991)1 5 3 - 6 4 . For the Mes-
o?otanlian parallels, see Davits, "Wilderness Itineraries." 52-78.
38 Chapter 2
Balaain (Numbers 22-23) occup- a key position in this structure. at the begin-
ning of the conquest. They do indeed show that no one can stand in the way
of the divine plan.
To C O I Z L / ~ ~ 1~ Epropose
, the follo\i~iiigstructure for the book of Numbers:
1. Preparatioii rbr the campaign-1: 1-10: 10
2. Execution of the campaign-10: 11-36: 13
a . The march in the n~ilderness-l0:ll-21:20
b. The beginning of the conquest-21 :21-36: 13
3. The Meanitzg oJ the Book orfNunzbersi9

The problem presented in the book of Numbers is to know hon- to "'march
with KWH," who resides in the tent, in the midst of Israel. The first part of the
book (1:1-10: 10) is primarily dedicated to the organization of the tribes
around the rent (Numbers 2) and to the charge to the Levites in the service of
the tent (Nunibers 3-41, Numbers 7-8 contains other religious prescriptions
that are also connected to the sanctuary. Nuinbers 10 deals with the immediate
preparation for the departure. The second part of the book (10:ll-36:13)
sholz-s what it actually ineans to "march with YHWH."KHWH is ready to help
his people, but he is above all a God who punishes all rebellion (1 1; 12; 13-14;
16-17; 20:l-13; 21:4-9; 23). In the most cases, all the people rebel against
YHWH as well as against Moses and Aaron. However, in certain cases, Y H W H
punishes individuals: Aaron and Miriam in Nuinbers 12; Dathan, Abiram, and
the sons of Korah in Numbers 16; Moses and Aaron in Nurn 20:1-13.
The most important episode is found in Numbers 13-14, where the whole
generation of the Exodus is condemned to die in the wilderness because they
refused to conquer the Promised Land. The message is tlear: the failure was not
in any may due to the preparstion of the campaign: YHTVH had foreseen every-
rhing. The ivanderings result fioni Israel's sins. Hoxx~ever,when the Israelites
folio\\- the instructions that Y H W Hgives to Moses, they succeed in all of their
undertakings. This is also the case, for example, in the first wars of conquest
(21:21-32; 2 1 3 - 3 5 ; 31). If the Pentateuch \\.as coinposed for Israel after the
Exile, rile book of Numbers explains under what conditions they may regain
the Promised Land.
E The Structure of the Book s f Deuteronomy
The structure of Deuteronomy I S based on four "titles." tile construction

and colitents of which are analogous:
49. Knierim, "Numbers," 160-63

The Fzve Bookr ojthe Pentate~icl~.
Content artd Structu~~e 39
1:l: 'These are t'he words that Moses spoke to all Israel beyond the Jordan,
4:44:This is the !a\\- that Moses set before the Israelites,
28:69: These are the words of the covenant that YH~KH
commanded Moses ro
make with the Israelites . . .
33:l: This is the blessing with which Moses, the man of God. blessed the Israelites
berbre his death.'"
This book requires special treatment.jl Briefly, the book of Deuteronomy is

to be distinguished from Exodus-Numbers for one main reason: it contains
"1~0rdjof Moses" (Deut 1:I), whereas Leviticus and Numbers explicitly
present their content as "~vordsof VHWH"(Lev ?:I-2, 26:46, 27:34; Nun1 I::,
36:13; see aiso Exod 20:I, 22; 21:l: 21:3). Therefore, ave have in the book of
Deuteronomy the first "comrnentary'~on he LawiTeaching by the most de-
pendable and most competent commentator, Moses hlmself 'j
~ n u s the
-3
, books of the Pentateuch are not all structured 111 the smle v7a1->
and they do not ail present a clear structure Nonetheless. ~t is pos>lble to elu-
cldatr the structure of the canonical text of each book. We no\\ need to study
this canonical text more closely to see ~f ~t1s unified or ~f Ir bears marks that re-
veal ~t to be a colnposlte work based on older elements.j3
50. See P, Kleinert. Das Detr:eroncrnin~n14nd die Deniemnoruiker: Tiiterjeichzin,oe,z a i r altiesta-

i?rentiicheii Rechts- ccnd Liteizltuygerciiichte (Bielefeld and Leipz~g. 1872) 167; Lohfink, "Der
Bundessch:uss im Lande Moab, 32-36; especially pp. 32-33 (= Studiert zciin De~iteronovizium,
1.53-82, especially pp. 53-51): idem, "Bund als Vertrag im Deureronomium," 219; G. Brau-
iik. Deuterorzomitim 1- 16,17 (NEchtB: Wurzburg, 1986) 5-6.
51. See mv 1tztrod:izione a! Deccterononlio: Sti.:itttcva, $toria, teo!oyia (Rome, 1995).
52. Idem. 'La structure du Pentai-euque dans sa Forme canon~que."ZAiV 113 (2001)
331-52
53. Complementary b~bliographyon the callonicai reading of the OT: J. Barton, Oracles
q - G o d : Perctptions 0fAncient Prophecy in Israel a$er the Exile (Oxford. 1986); R. T. Beckwith,
T h e Old Testainent Canotz oj^ the -Yew Tejiamenf Chzvch and I?s Backgroitnd i!z Early Jzidaizm
(Grand Rap~ds,1985); J. Bienkinsopp. Prophecy and Cannit: A Covltribtition to the Study qfjetv-
ish Or&irzj (Notre Dame, IN, 1977); W Brueggernann, T h e Creative itbrd: Canon as a .\.lode1
.hi. Biblical Education (Philadelphia, 1982); R. E. Clements. Prophecy and Zaditioiz (Atlanta,
1975j; L. M , McDonald. T h e F~3mzation$the Christian Bib!iciil Canon (2nd ed.; Peabod& M A ,
1995): D. F. Morgan. Between Text and Conztinlty: T h e "lfiitings" iiz Caolonical lizreipretaiioiz
!1\JIinneapolis. 1990); P R . Noble, The Canoviical Approach: A Critical Reconstviictiori of the
Hev~ieneuticsoJBrevard S , Child (Biblical Interpretac~onSeries 16; Leiden, 1995); J. H.Sail-
hanler, Iiirroduction to Old Testament Theology: A Caizonical Apprcach (Grand Rapids. 1995):
G. 7. Sheppard, "Canonical Criticism," A B D 1.961-66.
H'orkx e f B , S . Chiidj: Exodus; Introduction to the O l d 'htanrettt ~s Scr(ptc~re:Biblical Tlleology
i?f the Old and S e t v Tejtaments: Theological Rejiectioiz o i l the Chvirtian Bible (London, 1992).
Larks efJ A . Sanders: Torah and Canon; Canon aizd Cornmui~iiy:A Guide to Cano!zicul Crit-
icisffl (Philadelphia, 1981); From Sacred Story to Sac~ed 2 x f : Canon aj Paradi,om (Phlladelphla,
1987); "Canon," i i B D 1.837-52; "The Integrity of B~blica!Pluralism," in " X o ? in Heaven":
Coheia!zce and Coulplesity in Bibiical a\-avrative (ed. J. l? Rososenblact and 1.C, Sitterson; India-
nap oh^, IN, 1991) 154-69.

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4BIB 5012x

SURVEY OF THE PENTATEUCH

Goals of the course.

Primary source readings.

Questions to ask while reading.

2. Sept 9 The Book of Genesis (I).

3. Sept 16 The Book of Genesis (II).

4. Sept 23 The Book of Exodus.

- Sept 30 No class (!("#! "#,))

5. Oct 7 The Book of Leviticus (I).

- Oct 14 No class (3*56)

- Oct 21 No class (3)'2 &(&."#)

6. Oct 28 Leviticus (II).

7. Nov 4 The Book of Numbers (I).

8. Nov 11 The Book of Numbers (II).

9. Nov 18 The Book of Deuteronomy (I).

10. Nov 25 The Book of Deuteronomy (II).

11. Dec 2 The Pentateuch as a Literary and Canonical Unit.

Basic westions about the Pentateuch

A. The Origin of the Word Pentateuch and Its Usage

3. See J.-PBouhout and H. Cazeiies, "Pentateuque," DBSup 7.687-858,especially

B. Tetrateuch, Pentateuch, Hexateuch, or Enneateuck? '"

3, Deuteronomy is che preface to the "Deuteronomistic History" (Joshua-

17. I. Engnell, Gainla Testntnentet: En t~~udistronsiziiioi.ijkiiiiedfzing (Stockholm, 1935) 209-

23. Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 18.

C. Moses, the Pentateuch, and the

I . ;The Pelztatearch: Deut 34:10-12

Three important things are asserted here:

2 . The Secorzd Part ofthe PPebt~ewBibrle:

34. B. S. Childs, Inrroducrloiz to rite O l d Testainenr as Scilpftire (Philadelphia, 1979) 134-35,

3. The Third P ~ s otf the Neb~~ezet

We can make three lmporiant observations about this text:

39. Blenkinsopp, Prrztatetich, 51-52.

The Five Books of the Pentateuch:

A. The Division into Five Books

1. The Physical Reasons1

1. I am follo\l-ing Blenkinsopp, Peiztatettch, 45-17.

2 . The Theological C~fiteria'

2. See, among others, Childs, Introdtiction, 128-30; Zenger (ed.),Einleiriing, 31-36.

B. The Structure of the Book of Genesis6

1. The T81gd8t ("(Generations") Formula

2. Other Structural Elentents in the Patriarchal History

The F ~ v eBooks of the Pe'entateuclz: Cotztent and Stvuc-true 23

3 . The Function of the T6li;diit Formula in

4, The Impovtance of the Patriavchal History

C . The Structure of the Book of Exodus

22. See Blenkinsopp, Pentuteitciz, 18.

a. The Literary and Historical Context

b. Significance of the Construction of the T e m ~ l e ' ~

27 Childs, Ivitrudci~tton, 170-71

c. The Structure of the Book of Exodus

The Flve Books oSthe Pentateuch: Content and St~uctuf~e 29

Exod 15:22-18:27 forms a transition that leads Israel from Egypt to

With regard to YHWH,the central assertion appears in Exod 20:2-3, "I am

(matdeket kohn~~cl?) and a "holy nation" jgdy q~dB!).~"fter the proclamation of

introduces a difference between "voluntary xvork" and slaver). The book of

D. The Structure of the Book of Leviticus 41

Interpreters agree on the division of Leviticus into four important sections

41 See. aoove all, Chllds. It~tioductton,182

12.See especially Zimrnerii. "'Heiligkelt' nach dem sogenann:en Heiligkeitsgesetz."

Israel ~x-assanctified by YHWHwhen he brought the people out of Egypt. This

E. The Structure sf the Book of Numbersi5