III Biological Treatment System

Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment of Solid, Liquid and Gas Wastes
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III BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM

Beside than all physical and chemical methods of wastes treatment discussed earlier, biological treatment, on the other hands, is also significant for treating and managing the wastes, particularly, the wastes that could not be able to be treated physically or chemically. In Biotreatment of Agricultural Wastewater Mark E. Huntley (1950) states that Biological treatment refers to removing or reducing concentration of contaminants in a waste stream by utilization of living organisms, and most of the time, this way of treatment takes place through the use of natural metabolic process. Natural metabolic process that occurs within a biological treatment method can be divided into three phases; which are Oxidation, Synthesis, and endogenous respiration. For oxidation-reduction reaction, it happens either aerobically; in presence of free oxygen or anaerobically; in the absence of it. Overall process may be different under these two different conditions; microbial growth and energy utilization are similar. The three phases mentioned are:Respiration CxHyOz + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy Cell material Synthesis C6H6O3 + NH3 C5H7NO2 + CO2 + H2O Cell material oxidation C5H7NO2 NH3 + 5CO2 + 2H2O + energy In Biotechnology waste and wastewater treatment Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff (1996) states that Biological management of waste has been practiced for thousands of years, in which microorganisms are used to convert the organic matter; colloidal and dissolved, into various gases and into cell tissue. The microorganisms that have been most used are extracted from soil and water bodies, and recently technically developed for specific application, that apply organic and toxic materials as sources of carbon and energy.
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BIOLOGICAL Treatment system
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Two main categories of Biological treatment systems

1. Microbial systems This category could be divided into three sub-divisions which are Bacterial, Algal and Lagoon, as shown in the figure 1. Among these three sub-divisions, bacterial systems are often incorporate and the best known (Huntley, 1950) The established system can be divided into three groups;

Aerobic stationary contact systems Aerobic suspended contact systems Anaerobic suspended contact systems The principal application of the above process are for; removal of carbonaceous
organic material, nitrification, denitrification, stabilization, and phosphorous removal. For Algal systems, its purpose is to remove nutrients from wastewater, there are some kinds of algae that are used to metabolize or complex organic and inorganic compounds which are previously thought to be refractory to biological system (Huntley, 1950) Other type of microbial system is Lagoon, this system normally rely on symbiotic relationship between bacteria and algae. All this system will be further explained in the next section. 2. Aquaculture Systems This system generally refers to the utilization of higher form of plant and animal life for the main components of the biological system. This system can generally be divided into four groups, which are overland flow, wetland processes, aquatic plant processes and polyculture, as shown in figure1. This paper is focused on Microbial systems.
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TYPE OF ORGANISMS
There are many important microorganisms that have been used for the purpose of biological treatment; they are bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa rotifers, viruses, and crustaceans. Bacteria- they are small single cells in which some of their structure can be seen by using electron microscope. The bacteria consist of several significant components, such as a cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane, a single molecule of DNA, ribosome, etc. the body itself contains around 80 % water, and 20% dry material of which 90% is organic and 10% inorganic. Factors affecting the growth of bacteria 1. Temperature. It is the most important factors that affect microbial growth, since different microorganism could be able to grow within a specific temperature; hence to know and be smart in selecting the condition for this matter is vital for the process to be successful. Based on optimum growth temperature, microorganism can be classified as: less than 20 C called psychrophiles, 20-45 C called mesophiles, and greater than 45 C called thermophiles (Cheremisinoff, 1996)
2. pH. The general statements that can be made about microorganisms pH references: The optimum pH for bacteria is near7 pH for blue green algae is greater than 7 Most protozoa, pH range 5 to 8 4
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3. Oxygen. Bacteria can grow either in the presence of oxygen (aerobically) or in the absent of it (anaerobically), while algae are aerobic organism. For aerobic organism, the oxygen is required for electron transport system necessary for producing of energy, besides; it is needed in a small amount for enzymatic reaction.
4. Nutrients The major elements that make up 90 % of the dry weight of a cell are Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen. These elements together with Phosphorus and Sulfur comprise the large molecules of the cells. In addition, there are other elements included, such as Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, magnesium, chlorine, etc. Only of the four elements, however, comprising the bulk of the cell, for instance, CONH, only C and N are or selected importance. While H and O are extracted from water of from other compounds used by the cell. Based on this fact, it is shown that the major difference in nutritional requirements of microorganisms is the different source of C and N that they can use for synthesis of cellular material. Fungi- they are the most structurally uniform group of eukaryotes. They have filaments as the predominant form of growth Algae- There are many thousands species exist, which they range from unicellular to large aggregates of filamentous cells, usually, they are aquatic organism Protozoa- They are single organism that have a complex and highly organized structure. These organisms are mostly aerobic heterotrophs which can be classified by life cycle and means of locomotion; flagella, cilia, or amoeba. They have a function as disease causing organisms and as a essential link in the food chain from bacteria on up.
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Figure 3.2: typical microorganisms that are important in biological treatment
INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES

According to Cheremisinoff (1996) industrial wastewater is characterized by its large volume that possesses high temperature and concentration of biodegradable organic matter and suspended solids, besides it is also characterized by high alkalinity or acidity, and by variation of flow. Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way by anthropogenic industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environment or its re-use. Wastewater treatment processes can general include equalization tanks, settling tanks, precipitation, coagulation, or flocculation, neutralization, and biological processes. For the process itself, there are many methods that are available for us to select, these include: activated sludge, trickling filter, land disposal, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, stabilization, aerated lagoons, and etc. (Cheremisinoff, 1996) Aerated processes. This process occurs by bringing water and air into close contact as to remove dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide, and to oxidize dissolved metals such as iron. It can also be used to remove volatile organic chemicals in the water.
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Activated sludge, trickling filter, and aerated lagoon treatment regularly process wastewaters with less than 1% solids, while waste stabilization ponds process wastewaters with less than 0.1% solids. Activated sludge treatment and trickling filters are settle better because they rely on biomass retaining their slimy coating. On the other hand, aerated lagoon and waste stabilization ponds have long retention periods and exhibit endogenous growth (Cheremisinoff, 1996)
1. Activated Sludge Process

Activated sludge is the process involves air or oxygen being introduced into a mixture of primary treated or screened industrial wastewater combined with organisms to develop a biological floc which reduces the organic content of the sewage. In another word, it refers to biological treatment processes that use a suspended growth of organisms to remove BOD and suspended solids. As shown below, the process requires an aeration tank and a settling tank.
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Figure 3.3: Activated sludge process
Moreover, there are some support equipment requires, these include return pumps, waste pumps, flow measurement devices for return and waste, as well as equipment to provide aeration (mixers and/or blowers). For the process of this system is being start, the organic waste are first introduced to a reactor, either plug flow or completely mixed, where the bacterial culture is held in suspension. By the use of diffused or mechanical aeration, aerobic environment is obtained. After a certain time, the biological solids form a floc and settle out and separate from the treated water. A portion of the settled cells is recycled to maintain desired concentration of 8
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organism in the reactor and the rest wasted. Level of biological mass in the reactor depends on desired efficiency and kinetics. (Cheremisinoff, 1996) In order for getting effectively in separation of the biological solids, a satisfactory floc is needed. This floc is promoted by operation at a cell retention time where slime layers exist. Besides, it is essential to prevent the presence of filamentous organism and fungi by conduction proper design of a settling unit and proper operation. Bacteria in activated sludge are competent in performing hydrolysis and oxidation reactions. These can be presented by: Oxidation COHNS + O2 CO2 + NH3 + energy Organics Synthesis COHNS + O2 + energy C3H7NO2 (new bacterial cells) Endogenous respiration C3H7NO2 + 5O2 5CO2 + 2H2O + energy (cell tissue) Both the oxidation of complex hydrocarbons and the hydrolysis of polysaccharides occur outside the cell, and are catalyzed by exoenzymes secreted from the cell wall into the surrounding aqueous environment. Oxidation is done by aerobic organisms which use dissolved oxygen present in the biological system, while hydrolytic reactions are occur by aerobic organisms that are use water present in the biological system Bacteria
2. Aerated Lagoons
Aerated lagoons technique was developed from adding artificial aeration to exiting waste stabilization ponds. This technique is basically the same as the conventional extended aeration process except that an earthen basin is used as the reactor by supplying oxygen to the surface. Since lagoons are not generally as well mixed as activated sludge as discussed before, as a result, a low level of suspended solids is maintained in the mixed liquor. 9
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Normally, the process that occurs in aerated lagoons is aerobic process, this technique, however, does not undergo aerobic process at all the time that is it happens when aeration is not sufficient to maintain aerobic condition throughout so that a portion of biomass on the bottom may encounter anaerobic microbial decomposition. Such lagoons are called aerobicanaerobic of facultative lagoons. The aerated lagoon process has been successfully operated on various types of operation; petrochemical wastes, pulp and paper mills, textile wastes, and refinery wastes. (Cheremisinoff, 1996)
3. Waste Stabilization
This technique is basically treat wastes by natural process of bacteria and algae, the word stabilization ponds actually are large earthen basins that aerobic conditions prevail oxygen produced by the algae and atmospheric diffusion. However, in order to maintain aerobic conditions throughout, the contents are mixed periodically by pumps or surface aerators. The working function is happen in which natural biodegradation reactions are allowed to proceed as wastewater pass slowly through large shallow basin so that oxygenation is occurring here by wind aeration and algae photosynthesis using sunlight energy. Nevertheless, there is a limitation for industrial wastes, that is theses wastes could use the waste stabilization process only where the waste has received preliminary treatment to remove most of the organics and essentially all the inorganics. This technique is also may encounter anaerobic process as in the case of aerated lagoons, that is during cold seasons, facultative bacteria may shift to anaerobic mode and only simple organics are decomposed by anaerobic activity but the rate is less than aerobic condition, however, it may increase if the depth of the pond is increased.
4. Trickling Filter
Trickling filter treatment of aqueous wastes is proven technology for industrial waste treatment, especially its application in sequence with activated sludge; the filters are more accommodating to load variations and activated sludge unit can achieve higher organic loading efficiencies. This technique is reported to successfully handle acetaldehyde, acetic 10
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acid, acetone, etc. Besides, it has been also used to decompose oil and phenol. (Cheremisinoff, 1996) The working process of this technique is using oxygen by allowing the wastes to be sprayed through the air so that can absorb oxygen, then let it trickle through a bed of rock or synthetic media coated with a slime of microbial growth, which is able to decompose organic matter in the wastes stream. This process relies on a media support of immobile microorganisms which receive substrate as waste and is trickled over their cell surface. This process is also the encounter anaerobic reaction that is upon its surface where air and water interface with the cells the microbial slime remains aerobically; it then becomes anaerobic ally at the underlining portion. The relatively drawback of this technique is removal of organics is not as good as in activated sludge treatment because of the short resident time, and this factor affects the ability of trickling filters to accept hydraulic and organics loads which is based on this short resident time.
5. Anaerobic Digestion
In Biowaste and Biological Waste treatment Gareth Evans (2001) states that anaerobic digestion is a method that has been widely used in the water industry to treat sewage since the end of the last century, and gain good recognition in certain countries, notably Denmark and Germany, for the treatment of agricultural and municipal biowastes. This process is basically the process of decomposition and decay that occurs naturally by which organic matter is broken into its simpler chemical constituents. In nature, this type of process happen in an air free environment, typically associated with wet, warm, and dark environment. Applied to waste management, this process requires the close, artificial replication of such conditions, within a digester or bioreactor cell, where the present of oxygen is prohibited, temperature, acidity and other internal factors are optimized for bacterial action. The following figure is shown generalized process flow chart of anaerobic digestion.
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Figure 3.4 Generalized process flow chart
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Main processes of Anaerobic Digestion

In this process large organic molecules are converted into methane and carbon dioxide by the action of bacteria, under ideal condition; the condition that complete absence of oxygen, this proceeds to give fully reduced methane and fully oxidized carbon dioxide. Overall biochemical reaction: Organic material
CH4 + CO + H
2
+ NH3 + H2S
The three stages of anaerobic digestion and Methanization. 1. Hydrolysis In this stage, complex insoluble polymers, such as carbohydrates, cellulose, protein, and fats, are broken down and liquefied by the extracellular enzymes produced by hydrolytic bacteria. In general, fats in the waste are converted into fatty acids, proteins into amino acids and carbohydrates into simple sugars. The rate limiting step in the digestion is the liquefaction of those complex compounds into simple and soluble substances; this is because bacterial action at this stage proceeds relatively slow. 2. Acidogenesis It is characterized by the production of acetic acid from the monomers that are released in the preceding stage and volatile fatty acids which are derived from the protein, fat, and carbohydrate components of the feedstock. From this stage, acetic, lactic, and propionic acids are obtained as products, besides, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are also evolved as a result of 13
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catabolism of carbohydrates. In addition, the production of methanol and other simple alcohols would be developed too. 3. Methanogenesis After those two stages are completed, the process is then continuing to the last stage; Methanogenesis in which the raw materials produced form the first two stages are then become the production of methane. The process here happens in the anaerobic condition whose growth rate is slower than the bacteria responsible for the preceding stages. As mentioned before, the simple substrates that have been produced from the previous stage, such as acetic acid, methanol or carbon dioxide and hydrogen, are now used to produce methane, among these substances the acetic acid and the closely acetate are the most important. Methane produced from acetic acid is derived according to the equation below: CH3COOH
CH +CO
4 4
Methane-forming bacteria may also use methanol: CH3OH + H2
CH +H O
2 4 2
Or carbon dioxide and hydrogen: CO2 + 4H2
CH + 2H O
As it is known that the production of methane yields a useful source of fuel, not only these, the action of the associated methanogenic bacteria are also play a significant role in maintaining the wider breakdown process. The aim is to decrease the pH level, by converting volatile fatty acids into methane and associated gases; as a result, decreasing in pH. Furthermore, in case that this stage is not proper conduced, the required stabilization of the waste will not be achieved and the volatile fatty acids that produced prior to the methanogenesis phase will have serious implications with regard to the final use of the material derived The Figure below shows the working process of anaerobic digestion
Complete organic carbon
Monomers
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Hydrolysis
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Acidogenesis Organic acids Acetogenesis Acetic acid H2 + CO2 CH4 + CO2 Methanogenesis
Figure 3.5: Metabolic stages in anaerobic digestion The Bacterial ecology of Anaerobic digestion There are four main groups of bacteria that involved in the anaerobic digestion process 1. Hydrolytic fermentative bacteria, such as, Peptococcus, Clostridium, etc. 2. Acetogenic bacteria, such as, Desulfovibrio, Syntropobacter, etc. 3. Acetoclastic methanogens
4. Hydrogenotropic methanogens
All these four groups have the relationship with each other in the anaerobic digestion as outlined below: Hydrolytic bacteria Complex organics Acetogenic bacteria Methanogenic bacteria
simpler organics
Organic acids
Methane&Carbon dioxide
The diagram below represents the entire complexity of the process of the substrate dissimilation under anaerobic digestion
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Figure 3.6 Simplified diagram of substrate dissimilation
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT FOR SOLID WASTES

As discussed in the prevail section that Biological treatment can be used to treat both organic and inorganic materials. According to Forbes McDougall, in integrated solid waste management (2001) stated that for the case of non-recyclable paper fractions of solid waste, the biological treatment could be divided into two distinct processes; aerobic and anaerobic treatment, hence two main treatment types exit which are composting, involve aerobic process, and biogasification, anaerobic process. These two ways of treatment are used for reducing the volume and stabilization materials for disposal in landfills or as a ways to produce valuable products, such as composts and biogas plus compost from the waste stream. Biological Treatment processes The diagram below is shown a classification of the types of biological treatment processes, each consists of a pre-treatment stage followed by a biological decomposition process. 16
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BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
COMPOSTING
BIOGASIFICATION
Windrows
Enclosed vessel
Wet process
Dry process
Static
Dynami c
1-stage
2-stage
Batc h
Sequenci ng batch
Continuou s
Figure 3.7: classification of biological treatment processes
1. Pre-treatment
There are two basic functions of pre-treatment; the separation of the organic material from other fractions in the feedstock, and the preparation of them for the subsequent biological processing. Due to the plant input is mixed waste, such as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), the non-organic materials, i.e. plastic, glass, metal, etc. need to be removed at this stage, in some plants on the other hand, part of this material can be recovered for use as secondary materials. According to ENDS, level of criticism aimed at mixed composting has been increased, and it is supported by experience from Germany, France and UK where large quantities of low quality compost that contain high level of heavy metals were produced (cited in McDougall, 2001). A report by the consultancy DHV of the Netherlands, for the European commission, stated that the preferred method of biological treatment now emerging in Europe is based on source-separated feedstock (cited in McDougall, 2001)
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Before conducting the composting or biogasification, there is a requirement for some form of screening to remove oversize items, size reduction and homogenization. This can be done in various ways; size reduction and mixing are achieved by shredding the feedstock in a mill or by the use or a large rotation drum. By using shredding the aim could be achieved together with the removal of nuisance materials, a drum method, however, achieves some degree of size reduction and homogenization as it rotates, but does not shred nuisance materials. These can be solved by a screen prior to the biological process.
2. Biological decomposition process
2.1 Composting (Aerobic processing) Conditions for this process to undergo are aerobically and elevated temperature and theses can be obtained due to the exothermic processes catalyzed by microbial enzymes. There are three main groups of micro-organism that are involved in this process; bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. The working process is starting by bacteria and fungi that performing some activity, as a result, the temperature of the system rise to around 70 o C in the center of amass. At this temperature only thermophilic bacteria and actinomycetes are active, upon that rate of decomposition and thus temperature falls, fungi and other heat sensitive bacteria become active again. (Lopez-Real, 1990, cited in McDougall, 2001) In order to maintain the rate of decomposition to be high as much as possible, the vital factor is constantly available of oxygen. This could be achieved by using various kinds of methods, such as by regular turning of the composting material in long pipe, or by applying forced aeration, etc. For the percolation of composting piles by air, it depends on the structure and water content of the input material, where the water content needs to be over 40%, otherwise the rate will start to fall, if it is too high, however, the material will become waterlogged hence limit air movement. The duration of the composting process varies with the technology employed and the maturity of the compost required. The assessment of compost stability is not easy, there are several methods used and currently there is incomplete understanding of all the process involved. (McDougall, 2001)
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a.
Carbon-based analysis assessed by ratio of carbon and nitrogen in the material which falls from around 20 in raw organic waste to around 12 in a mature compost after 12-14 weeks. The results vary which depend on the C and N content of the material used.
b. Enzyme assays during the composition process, the enzymes will change its
concentration differently. Further is required to develop an accurate measure of stabilization using this technique.
c.
Respiration measurement it actively falls as composting proceeds
d. Phytotoxicity assay to obtain this situation, it could be cone by using cress seed
emergence tests and assays for individual phytotoxins such as acetic, etc.
e.
Humidification indicators we may measure the stabilization of the system by applying the measurement of humid substances, especially humid acid carbon to fulvic acid carbon ratio.
f.
Molecular size determination upon the formation of humid substance, the molecular size is then increase in size. This test requires specialized equipment and expert operators.
2.2 Biogasification (Anaerobic processing) The general and detail explanations of this process have been mentioned in the preceding section. The following paragraphs are describing more detail of solid waste treatment by anaerobic processing method. There are various types of this process, which are classified based on solids content of the material digested, and the operating temperature. If consider the solids content, there are dry and wet anaerobic digestion. The process is considered dry anaerobic digestion if a total
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solids concentration of over 25% (De Baere et al., 1987, cited in McDougall, 2001) on the other hand, if below than this level the process is hence described as wet digestion. a. Wet anaerobic digestion In the simplest form, this process consists of a single stage in a completely mixed digester in which it operates at total solids contents of 3-8 % (De Baere et al., 1987, cited in McDougall, 2001) The process is started by adding considerable water and heated, it is then be removed after the digestion process. Normally, this method is used for sewage sludge and animal wastes. There are several problems raised due to the single stage wet process, such as formation of a hard scum layer in the digester, difficulty in keeping the contents completely mixed, etc. However, the main problem is that different reactions in the process cannot be separately optimized, there for in order to overcome this trouble, the system was developed into two-stage process. Within this two-stage process, hydrolysis and acidification are taken place in the first reactor vessel and a pH is kept at around 6.0. For methanogenesis stage, it occurs in the second separated vessel where the operating condition is a pH of 7.5-8.2 (De Baere et al., 1987, cited in McDougall, 2001) b. Dry anaerobic digestion For a situation whereby the total solids concentration of over 25%, the process is then said to be as dry anaerobic digestion, the material used as a source of waste is might be organic material form wastes such as MSW, separated biowaste, and etc. The word dry means little process water has to be added, here there is not necessary to use mixing equipment and crust formation due to the relatively solid nature of the digester contents.
BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

Apart from general wastes that have been produced by the industries there also is hazardous waste, currently as we know that the use of plastics, cars, and etc. are having side effect Hazardous waste does not consist of one chemical, it has a wide definition. According to the environmental protection agency (EPA) stated in its report to Congress that: this term 20
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means any waste or combination of waste which pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or living organism, this is because such wastes are non degradable, persistent in nature, biologically magnified, or otherwise cause to cause detrimental cumulative effects. (Cited in Cheremisinoff, 1996) There are many ways to manage or do treatment for this type of wastes; physical and chemical treatment, incineration, biological treatment, etc. In the modern world currently, the biological treatment of hazardous wastes is becoming a realistic choice, one of the reasons is because of much less cost than incineration, drawback of this option, however, is the length of time involved; that is this type of treatment might take months. Land Treatment Biological option that is the most widely used is land treatment, this process involved several steps; the wastes are first spread on the land to let it dry, until it is mixed with soil, if necessary some nutrients should be added in order for the waste-destroying bacteria will grow. Typically, this option is used for the wastes such as petroleum refinery sludge, creosote sludge and wastewater, and etc. Besides, it is widely used for municipal sludge and wastewater, also for food processing sludge and wastewater. In addition, oil, metals, and other environmental concern are also controlled by this method. Composting As described earlier that this method has been used widely in MSW treatment, and has also been used to treat some industrial solid wastes, as well as such a hazardous wastes. Liquids/Solid treatment systems (LSTS) This method is used for the waste that is not in a solid form as in land treatment or in water as in conventional municipal wastewater treatment, it is however, half way between; that is in a suspended solid, slurry, or in a sludge form. Key concept for the processing of LSTS is reducing the level of contaminants in a waste by dissolving organics, biodegrading the dissolved organics into less toxic, or by releasing the products as gases to the atmosphere. This process undergo either in a single reactor or in two stage reactor, in both cases it is crucial to have enough mixing of liquid/solid mixture so that the mass transfer of both organics in the liquid phase is effectively worked. The simpler and the most widely used reactor is batch reactor, both dissolving and biodegrading steps happen here, air is fed to 21
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provide mixing for the extraction process and oxygen for biological reasons. According to J.R. Ryan, stated in Biological treatment of hazardous wastes that: LSTS have been used in coal tar waste sites in Florida and Illinois (Cited in Cheremisinoff, 1996) In Florida, about 600,000 gal of the waste are found in the gas holder. The advantage of this method is that the process could be achieved in a shorther time using less land area than others, the process uses tank reactors hence eliminate regulatory obstacles related to possible land treatment ban.
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III Biological Treatment System

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Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment of Solid, Liquid and Gas Wastes

III BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM

BIOLOGICAL Treatment system

Two main categories of Biological treatment systems

Figure 3.2: typical microorganisms that are important in biological treatment

INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES

1. Activated Sludge Process

Figure 3.3: Activated sludge process

Figure 3.4 Generalized process flow chart

Main processes of Anaerobic Digestion

Methane-forming bacteria may also use methanol: CH3OH + H2

Or carbon dioxide and hydrogen: CO2 + 4H2

Figure 3.6 Simplified diagram of substrate dissimilation

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT FOR SOLID WASTES

Figure 3.7: classification of biological treatment processes

2. Biological decomposition process

Respiration measurement it actively falls as composting proceeds

BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

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