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MIDDLE EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR Condensed from J.P.

Allen

by J. Gottfred

Middle Egyptian Grammar Condensed from J.P. Allen J. Gottfred 105 Hillcrest Est. Calgary, Canada. Copyright 2011 V2.16.6

CONDENSED TABLE OF CONTENTS


1. 0 UNILITERAL SIGNS 2.0 BILITERAL SIGNS 3.0 MULTILITERAL SIGNS 4.0 NOUNS 5.0 PRONOUNS 6.0 ADJECTIVES 7.0 ADJECTIVAL & NOMINAL SENTENCES 8.0 PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS A. GODS B. TRANSLITERATION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS
1. 0 UNILITERAL SIGNS
1.1 Alphabetical Order

2.0 BILITERAL SIGNS 3.0 MULTILITERAL SIGNS 4.0 NOUNS


4.1 Roots 4.2 Gender & Number 4.2.1 Masculine 4.2.2 Feminine 4.2.3 Gender & Number Examples 4.3 Articles 4.4 Noun Phrases 4.4.1 Apposition 4.4.2 Connection 4.4.3 Possession - Genitives 4.4.4 Genitival Adjectives 4.5 Honorific Transposition

5.0 PRONOUNS
5.1 Personal Pronouns

5.1.1 Suffix Pronouns 5.1.2 Dependent Pronouns 5.1.3 Independent Pronouns 5.1.4 Personal Pronouns: Summary 5.2 Demonstrative Pronouns 5.2.1 Demonstratives Written Forms 5.2.2 Demonstrative Pronouns - Use 5.2.2 Demonstratives Special Uses 5.3 Interrogative Pronouns 5.3.1 Interrogatives Written Forms

6.0 ADJECTIVES
6.0.1 Primary Adjectives 6.0.2 Secondary Adjectives 6.0.3 Derived Adjectives nisbes 6.1 Agreement 6.1.1 Written Forms 6.2 Adjectives and Word Order 6.2.1 Multiple Adjectives 6.2.2 The Genitive and Adjectives 6.3 Adjectives as Nouns 6.3.1 nfr r Noun Phrases 6.4 The Interrogative Adjective 6.5 Apparent Adjectives 6.5.1 Other - ky

6.5.2 Each, each One - nw 6.5.3 Some, a few, a little - nhj 6.5.4 Whole, Complete, Entire 6.6 Comparatives and Superlatives 6.6.1 English Comparatives & Superlatives 6.6.2 Egyptian Comparatives 6.6.3 Egyptian Superlatives 6.7 Expressions for to have 6.7.1 Lord of nb 6.7.2 Ownership and nfr r

7.0 ADJECTIVAL & NOMINAL SENTENCES


7.1 Sentences 7.1.1 Sentences in English 7.1.2 Nonverbal Sentences 7.2 Adjectival Sentences 7.2.1 Adjectives as Predicates 7.2.2 The Subject in Adjectival Sentences 7.2.3 Adjectival Sentences Emphasis 7.2.4 Additions to Adjectival Sentences 7.2.5 Adjectival Sentences of Possession 7.2.5.1 Writing n(j) Peculiarities 7.2.5.2 Uses of the n(j) A B Form 7.2.6 Summery of Adjectival Sentences

7.3 Nominal Sentences 7.3.1 A B Nominal Sentences 7.3.1.1 Most Common A B Usage 7.3.1.2 A B Usage with Two Nouns 7.3.2 A pw Nominal Sentences 7.3.3 A pw B Nominal Sentences 7.3.4 Summary of Nominal Sentences 7.3.5 Interrogatives in Nominal Sentences 7.4 Nonverbal Sentence Examples

8.0 PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS


8.1 English Prepositions and Adverbs 8.1.1 English Prepositions 8.1.2 English Adverbs 8.2 Egyptian Prepositions 8.2.1 Primary Prepositions 8.2.1.1 Among - jmjtw 8.2.1.2 By jn 8.2.1.3 In m 8.2.1.4 Like mj 8.2.1.5 Among mm 8.2.1.6 To, For n 8.2.1.7 With Respect To r 8.2.1.8 Behind, Around - 8.2.1.9 Together With - n

8.2.1.10 On - r 8.2.1.11 Opposite, In Accordance - ft 8.2.1.12 At The Head Of - nt 8.2.1.13 Near - r 8.2.1.14 Throughout - t 8.2.1.15 Under - r 8.2.1.16 Atop tp 8.2.1.17 Since - r 8.2.2 Summary of Primary Prepositions 8.2.2 Compound Prepositions 8.2.2.1 Forming Compound Prepositions 8.2.3 Objects of Prepositions 8.2.4 Adjectival Predicates and n 8.2.5 Prepositional Nisbes 8.2.6 Summary of Forms and Meanings 8.2.6.1 Comparison of Forms 8.2.6.2 Comparison of Meanings 8.2.7 Using Prepositional Nisbes 8.2.7.1 Use as Nouns 8.2.8 Reverse Nisbes 8.2.8.1 Understanding nfr r 8.2.8.2 Examples of Reverse Nisbes 8.2.9 Special Use of the Nisbe rj 8.2.10 Prepositional Phrases as Modifiers

8.2.10.1 Special Cases 8.3 Egyptian Adverbs 8.3.1 Primary Adverbs 8.3.2 The Interrogative Adverb 8.3.3 Interrogative Adverbial Phrases 8.3.4 Forming Adverbs 8.3.4.1 Forming Adverbs in English 8.3.4.2 Forming Adverbs in Egyptian 8.3.4.3 Forming Prepositional Adverbs 8.3.5 Word Order and Adverbs 8.4 Summary of Parts of Speech

A. GODS B. TRANSLITERATION SYSTEMS

1. 0 UNILITERAL SIGNS a - ah

) f m - Same 4 j ee - meet p n - Same Z y ee - meet 1 r - Same F a - ah ] h - Same 6 Same, or U - as h oo too or w in midkh as I German D word ach kh as R b - Same German 7 p - Same J ach , followed ! f - Same by ee

X z - Same i s - Same t sh - she j q as k X k - Same

c g - Same z t - Same F ch - church ; d - Same @ j - jump

Same indicates that the pronunciation is as in English. 1.1 Alphabetical Order The Egyptian uniliteral signs are ordered as follows:

jywbpfmnrh zsqkg t d

2.0 BILITERAL SIGNS

R l n 2 N } L {

w b

jw jw jb jb

H N W G p # o s } H 4 S j ] B N
jm jm jn jn jn jn jr jr

j jz js jk j

x G 4 S 5 S 6 / : Q P ' Q . K r . - L ) s ; ? I 3 ,
q d wr ws ws wd w b b w w wp wn wn b p

p pr p pd pd p m mj mj

q x = l | q \ P

mj
mw

mn mn mr mr mr mr m

I Y L \ c 99 w j \ , A ( o h h C W b
ms mt mt md nj nj nw nw nb

nm nm nn n ns n rw rs hb

3 e " ; e D M [ [ y R y o g 1 # i I " C } h N Y l p 0
z s w p m n n n r r r za za zp s w m t

n n

sw

L ] 2 V . q 5 H W b P X G I s u ) " M 8 v u ' g / X ,
sn sk st s n s d qn qs s t t qd k w tj m n kp km

gb gm gs gs

tp tp

d 0 '

tm dj

7 k r

dj db

g k C

w b d

3.0 MULTILITERAL SIGNS

R n V . s v @ n r S

jwn jm jsw jdn

V t z (
J

w
ws/wb

w wbn w w wm wsr ws w

wt b pr n

p C 0 _ _

a wb { bs IJ pq )_ ps S m c mwt Y msn ) m M nfr q nnj 9 nb

/ ; B a r ; 5 b i y t

nr nm rw / rwd nw q tp tm pr nt nt rw

w ? G A N F b l G | T

sf nm zw zwn zm sb s sj sw sb spr

' sn/snd v sm UV sm j stp . sm [ m H ms b n & zp ^ . sr

' f { d | O

kp grg tjw z dw db

c p t O

dm / dmd dr m b

Multiliteral signs are confined to a few specific word roots and can be learned as those specific words are encountered.

4.0 NOUNS
4.1 Roots The root is the part of the noun that is common to all related nouns. 4.2 Gender & Number Egyptian nouns are singular, plural, or dual. 4.2.1 MASCULINE Singular Plural Dual root singular + w singular + wj root + j singular + w singular + wj root + w singular + w singular + wj 4.2.2 FEMININE Singular Plural Dual root + t root + wt singular + j

4.2.3 GENDER & NUMBER EXAMPLES ROOT S PL DUAL

brother sister ruler ruler (fem) god goddess enemy enemy (fem) snake snake (fem)

sn q nr ft f

sn snw snwj snt snwt sntj q qw qwj qtqwtqtj nr nrw nrwj nrt nrwt nrtj ftj ftjw ftwj ftt ftwt fttj fw fww fwwj ft fwt ftj

4.3 Articles Egyptian has neither a definite article (the), nor the indefinite article (a). 4.4 Noun Phrases A phrase is two or more words. A noun phrase is two or more nouns. In Egyptian, a noun phrase can express the following: 4.4.1 APPOSITION Both nouns refer to the same thing. our friend the dog. 4.4.2 CONNECTION In English conjunction is shown with and, and disjunction is shown with or. In Egyptian, both can be implied by context only. t nqt bread (and) beer To explicitly shown conjunction Egyptian may place one of the following between the two nouns:

n together with

r upon
To explicitly show disjunction Egyptian may follow the second noun with: r-pw whichever 4.4.3 POSSESSION - GENITIVES The direct genitive is shown in Egyptian simply by the placing of two nouns one after the other where the second noun is the possessor. nbt pt mistress of the sky w n breath of life Nothing can stand between the two nouns of the direct genitive. The indirect genitive is used when another part of speech (e.g. a suffix pronoun) comes between the two nouns. In this case, the two nouns must be linked with a word called the genitival adjective.

4.4.4 GENITIVAL ADJECTIVES Use when the first noun is:

n masculine singular nw masculine plural or dual nt feminine (regardless of number)


4.5 Honorific Transposition The possessing noun is always second in the direct genitive. However, when the possessor is a god or the king the written order of the nouns may be reversed, placing the important figure first in the phrase. This is called honorific transposition.

tpw-nrgods offerings zt-nswt (daughter of (the)


king) princess

5.0 PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that replace a noun. There are several kinds of pronouns. Personal pronouns replace the names of persons e.g. I, me, mine, myself, we, us, our, ours, ourselves are the English first-person singular and plural personal pronouns. 5.1 Personal Pronouns Egyptian has three types of personal pronouns, the suffix, dependant, and independent pronouns. 5.1.1 SUFFIX PRONOUNS Are the most common pronouns in Egyptian. Always attached to the end of the word they modify and cannot stand alone. Always added after all other suffixes. 1S was often not written.** 1S ideogram (seated man) was often replaced to better indicate the speakers status such as woman, god, king, or dead. Plural forms used for both plural and dual.

SUFFIX PRONOUNS 1S 2MS 2FS 3MS 3FS 1PL 2PL 3PL

.j .k .

a, 4, 4a, **
X

F, z
i, X
,p , , ,

.f ! .s .n .n .sn

, , , ** See 5.1.1 Suffix Pronouns

DEPENDENT PRONOUNS 1S 2MS 2FS 3MS 3FS 1PL 2PL 3PL 3NT

.wj .w .n .sw .sj .n .n .sn .st


, , ,

, , ,

, etc.

iA, i, X
,p , , , , , ,

5.1.2 DEPENDENT PRONOUNS Are separate words, not a suffix. Always used after some other word. Cannot stand alone. 3PL also has a neutral form .st, .zt, (sometimes written with plural strokes) which is used for the plural of it. 5.1.3 INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS Are not dependent on another word in the sentence. Can stand alone. Note that the signs: are determinatives and can be replaced by other ideograms in both the suffix, and independent 1S pronouns. It is best not to think of the pronouns in terms of English words such as him, her, they, etc. This is because an Egyptian pronoun can stand for several English pronouns. For example, the 3MS suffix pronouns .f, sw, and ntf can all mean he, him, his, it, or its.

INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS 1S

jnk ntk nt ntf nts jnn ntn ntsn

, ,

, ,

2MS 2FS 3MS 3FS 1PL 2PL 3PL

, , , ,

5.1.4 PERSONAL PRONOUNS: SUMMARY SUFFIX 1S 2MS 2FS 3MS 3FS 1PL 2PL 3PL DEPENDENT INDEPENDENT

.j .k ., .t .f .s .n

wj w, tw n, tn sw sj, st n

jnk ntk nt ntt ntf nts jnn ntn, nttn ntsn

.n, .tn n, tn .sn sn, st

5.2 Demonstrative Pronouns The demonstrative pronouns in English are this, these, that, and those. Egyptian has a masculine (p-), feminine (t) and neutral (n-) form for each. Egyptian demonstratives are made by adding one of four different endings: -n, -w, -, -f (or -f). The -n series mean this or that, depending on how far away the subject is. The -f series are used to contrast with the -n series, in which case they can be taken to mean that. The -w series were used like the -n series during the Old Kingdom and are pass. The - series were used like the -n series but were in colloquial use. Any of the demonstratives can stand alone, but the neutral n- forms were preferred for this use. Masculine forms were used with masculine singular nouns, feminine forms with feminine singular nouns, and the neutral forms with plural or dual nouns.

5.2.1 DEMONSTRATIVES WRITTEN FORMS MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTRAL SINGULAR SINGULAR

-n -f, -f -w

p-

t-

n-
,

, ,

The forms do not change to indicate the plural, rather the singular forms are

connected to their plural nouns by the genitival adjective n. 5.2.2 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS - USE MASCULINE SINGULAR nr pn this god, that god nr pw this god, that god nr pf that god pf nr that god p nr this god, that god FEMININE SINGULAR nrt tn this goddess, that goddess nrt tw this goddess, that goddess nrt tf that goddess tf nrt that goddess t nrt this goddess, that goddess MASCULINE PLURAL nn n nrw these gods, those gods nw n nrw these gods, those gods nf n nrw those gods n n nrw these gods, those gods FEMININE PLURAL nn n nrwt these goddesses, those goddesses nw n nrwtthese goddesses, those goddesses nf n nrwtthose goddesses

n n nrwt these goddesses, those goddesses pn/tn and pw/tw always follow their noun. p/t always precede their noun. pf/tf or pf/tf can precede or follow their noun. Plural forms always precede their nouns and joined to them with the genitival adjective n. 5.2.2 DEMONSTRATIVES SPECIAL USES Vocative- If a god or human is invoked, pw and tw may be used to convey emphasis. jrt tw nt rw - O Eye of Horus! When pw and tw are used with nouns they are sometimes written as pwy and twy. 5.3 Interrogative Pronouns The most common is mj meaning who? or what?. It acts like a dependent pronoun. ptr, meaning who? or what? acts like an independent pronoun and usually starts the sentence.

j meaning what? is sometimes used instead of mj, but only when the question is about things. jst meaning what? is occasionally used instead of ptr, and can also start a sentence. zy, zj mean which? or which ones? If used with a noun, zy always precedes the noun and acts like a direct genitive. 5.3.1 INTERROGATIVES WRITTEN FORMS

mj ptr j jst zy, zj

6.0 ADJECTIVES
Describe qualities like size, color, value, etc. 6.0.1 PRIMARY ADJECTIVES Egyptian has only one primary or true adjective nb, meaning all. 6.0.2 SECONDARY ADJECTIVES Are actually participles, a kind of verb form. E.g. the running man. (pp.) E.g. nfr - good, beautiful, perfect, is from the verb nfr - to be (or become) good beautiful, perfect. Most Egyptian adjectives are this kind. 6.0.3 DERIVED ADJECTIVES NISBES Made from nouns or prepositions (8.2.5, 8.2.7). E.g. nwtj - local, is derived from the noun nwt - town. Derived adjectives are called nisbes (NISSbees) by Egyptologists, from the Arabic.

6.1 Agreement When modifying nouns, adjectives must take the same gender and number. Note that the feminine plural (FP) is the same as the feminine singular (FS). PRIMARY SECONDARY NISBE nb MS Root Root + j nbw MP MS + w MS + w nbt FS MS + t Root + t nbt FP same as FS same as FS Adjective form using nb, nfr, and nwt: MS MP FS FP PRIMARY nb nbw nbt nbt SECONDARY nfr nfrw nfrt nfrt NISBE nwtj nwtjw nwtt nwtt

6.1.1 WRITTEN FORMS Sometimes feminine plural adjectives are written with plural strokes. This is a holdover from earlier times. (Eventually

Egyptian lost all forms except the masculine singular.) WRITTEN FORMS OF ADJECTIVES PRIMARY SECONDARY MS MP FS FP Note that in the example above the vulture in nwtjw is the multiliteral tjw. 6.2 Adjectives and Word Order Adjectives always follow the noun that they modify. Note: pr nb means every house, but nb pr means lord/owner of (the) house. NISBE

Adjectives must follow demonstrative pronouns. Adjectives must follow suffix pronouns. 6.2.1 MULTIPLE ADJECTIVES More than one adjective may follow a noun. If present, nb must be the first of the adjectives following the noun. All the adjectives must take the same form. 6.2.2 THE GENITIVE AND ADJECTIVES Nothing can stand between a direct genitive and its possessor, this includes adjectives. nd If the adjective modifies the 2 noun then there is no conflict. mt wb nb - every priests wife st If the adjective modifies the 1 noun, then this must be made clear by agreement of st the 1 noun and the adjective, and nonnd agreement by the 2 noun and the adjective. mt wb nbt - every wife of a priest

otherwise , the direct genitive must be converted to an indirect genitive. mt nbt nt wb - every wife of a priest Note that the indirect genitive can simply be used for greater clarity. 6.3 Adjectives as Nouns The previous paragraphs have described how adjectives are created from verbs, prepositions, and nouns. Additionally, adjectives can be used as nouns. In fact, all Egyptian adjectives are nouns except for nb. A noun followed by one or more adjectives is actually a noun phrase of apposition. The adjectives are in apposition to the noun. srw.j jqrw - my plans [srw], the excellent ones Adjectives often do not need to modify another noun in order to convey the full meaning. This is because Egyptian adjectives show gender and number. E.g. nfrt (FS) by itself could mean any

beautiful, good, or perfect woman mt (FS) or thing t (FS). Sometimes additional clarity was provided by the addition of a determinative: nfrt a beautiful woman nfrt a beautiful cow nfrt something good When used as a noun, an adjective behaves and takes the forms of regular nouns. They are pluralized the same way, take suffix pronouns, and are modified by demonstratives and other adjectives just like other nouns. 6.3.1 nfr r NOUN PHRASES As already seen, adjectives being used as nouns can be part of a noun phrase of apposition. As nouns, they can also be part of a direct or indirect genitive.

good of face (kindly) This is called the nfr r construction by Egyptologists and the translation of such can sound odd to an English speaker.

nfr r

nfrwt nt w.sn beautiful ones of their bodies i.e. those with beautiful bodies The construction can be used even when the adjective-noun is modifying another noun: zw jqr n bw.f a scribe excellent of his fingers i.e. a scribe skilled with his fingers I interpret this example as the noun scribe in apposition to the noun phrase skilled of his fingers- the noun phrase is the adjective-noun excellent forming a direct genitive with his fingers.

6.4 The Interrogative Adjective Egyptian has one interrogative adjective: wr How much?, How great? The way to think of this is as the adjective great being used as a noun (even though it does not have a determinative.) 6.5 Apparent Adjectives Some Egyptian nouns are best translated by English adjectives, these are called apparent adjectives and are covered below. 6.5.1 OTHER - KY MS FS PL

ky kt,
, , ,

kty

kjwj
When used with a noun it always precedes the noun.

When used with another noun it is always in apposition to that noun. As a noun itself, it can stand alone in which case it takes the meaning of another one or the other one. Can also take suffix pronouns.

kty.f wt its other path (lit. its other one, the path) NOTE that when the plural stands alone to mean just others or the others, it takes the form of a compound noun together with t thing: kt-t others, kt-j
the others 6.5.2 EACH, EACH ONE - NW

nw each, tnweach one

Only one form. Can stand alone. In a noun phrase, use only as the first noun of a direct genitive.

nw rnpt each year


6.5.3 SOME, A FEW, A LITTLE - nhj

nhj some, a little, few


Only one form. Can stand alone. In a noun phrase, use only as the first noun of an indirect genitive.

nhj n r(m)a few people


6.5.4 WHOLE, COMPLETE, ENTIRE Egyptian has several prepositional phrases (8.1.1) used to express that something is complete or whole. That it exists in its entire form, that nothing is missing.

r r r w mj qd

to the limit according to the length like the shape

mj qj like the character


These phrases are usually translated as English adjectives They modify nouns. Must stand after the noun they modify. Placed after any modifiers to the noun. rd Usually have a 3 person suffix pronoun that agrees in gender and number with the noun being modified.

wt-nr mj qd.s
the whole temple

lit. the temple, like its shape

t pn r r.f
this entire land lit. this land, to its limit 6.6 Comparatives and Superlatives
6.6.1 ENGLISH COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

A regular adjective describes some quality possessed by something: a cheap hat The comparative is a different form of the adjective used to compare some quality of something to the same quality of another. It is formed by either adding er to the adjective, or for some adjectives, inserting the word more. a cheaper hat a more expensive hat The superlative is yet another form of the adjective used to indicate that something has the greatest amount of the quality

being compared. It is formed by adding -est to some adjectives, while inserting most in front of others. the cheapest hat the most expensive hat There are a few exceptions to these general rules in English, such as: good, better, best 6.6.2 EGYPTIAN COMPARATIVES There are no special forms for Egyptian adjectives to indicate comparatives or superlatives. In general, context is used to determine what is meant. For example, nfr can mean good, better, or best. It can also mean beautiful, more beautiful, and most beautiful. To clarify when a comparative is meant, Egyptian uses the preposition r with respect to, after the adjective. The word r connects to the thing that the adjective is being compared to.

nr mn r nr nb
the most beneficent god lit. a god beneficent with respect to all gods This construction can also be used with adjectives that are used by themselves:

nfrt r t nbt
something better than anything lit. a good one with respect to everything 6.6.3 EGYPTIAN SUPERLATIVES There are no special forms for Egyptian adjectives to indicate superlatives. Normally the superlative is constructed using adjectives that stand by themselves.

The most common means to indicate a superlative was by using a direct or indirect genitive.

wr wrw
the greatest of the great Sometimes the superlative is indicated with the use of jm(j) among placed after the adjective.

wr jm(j) sw
the greatest dignitary lit. the great one among the dignitaries 6.7 Expressions for to have Egyptian contains no word(s) for to have, to possess, or to own. 6.7.1 LORD OF nb The noun nb means lord, so using it in a direct genitive results in an expression of ownership: nb pt lord of the sky

In this case, lord would be the correct translation. However, in others: nb owner of donkeys The word nb has the meaning of owner.

6.7.2 OWNERSHIP AND nfr r The nfr r construction (6.3.1) usually has the connotation of possession: one who has nfr r a good face

nfrwt nt w.sn ones who have beautiful bodies ones who have beauty (in) their bodies

zw jqr n bw.f a scribe who has skilled fingers a scribe who has skill (in) his fingers

7.0 ADJECTIVAL & NOMINAL SENTENCES


7.1 Sentences A sentence consists of two parts: a subject, what the sentence is referring to, and a predicate, which says something about the subject. 7.1.1 SENTENCES IN ENGLISH An English sentence is always has the subject followed by the predicate: This plan is excellent In this sentence the subject is this plan, and the predicate is is excellent. In English, the sentence also must contain a verb. In the example above, the verb is to be. This is the infinitive or dictionary form. The verb in the sentence has been rd conjugated to its 3 person singular, present tense form is. 7.1.2 NONVERBAL SENTENCES Egyptian (like Russian and Arabic) has no verb for to be. It is perfectly possible to

construct a grammatical sentence in Egyptian which contains no verb. Such a sentence is called a nonverbal sentence (which at first glance seems to indicate something rather strange). Although it is ungrammatical in English, this plan excellent is perfectly understandable. This is exactly like Mandarin Chinese and the sentences: ni how ma How are you? lit. you good verbal-question-mark how bu how How are you? lit. (you) good (or) no good(?) Egyptian has several kinds of nonverbal sentences. The nonverbal sentences that consist of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives fall into two categories: the adjectival and the nominal sentences. 7.2 Adjectival Sentences Must contain a subject and a predicate. If the predicate consists of an adjective, then the sentence is one which has an adjectival predicate.

A sentence with an adjectival predicate is usually just called an adjectival sentence. All adjectival sentences have the form: PREDICATE then the SUBJECT For example:

jqr sr pn
This plan is excellent. lit. excellent this plan 7.2.1 ADJECTIVES AS PREDICATES When used as a predicate, the adjective (with one exception) always takes the simplest form, the masculine singular. This rule is true regardless of its normal gender. nfr rt tn This widow is beautiful

/ jqr nn n srw
These plans are excellent

The one exception to the simplest form rule is explained under Adjectival Sentences Emphasis(7.2.3). Only secondary adjectives (6.0.2) are used as adjectival predicates. (see also 7.2.5). nb can only be used to modify a noun. Only one nisbe nj can appear as a predicate. It is a special case explained under adjectival sentences of possession. 7.2.2 THE SUBJECT IN ADJECTIVAL SENTENCES The subject always follows the adjectival predicate (7.2). Subjects are always nouns. This includes: Nouns Noun phrases Personal pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Adjectives in noun form nd rd Only dependent 2 and 3 person pronouns were used as subjects in adjectival sentences. Pronouns follow the adjectival predicate. Interrogative pronouns were not used.

Examples of subjects in adjectival sentences: nfr w You are good nfr n You are good nfr sw He is good nfr sj She is good nfr n Yall are good nfr sn They are good nfr st It is good, They are good nfr drwt The red ones are beautiful. nfr nn This is beautiful.

7.2.3 ADJECTIVAL SENTENCES EMPHASIS One exception exists to rule that adjectival predicates must be in their simplest form (7.2.1). If presented in the old masculine dual form (4.2.3) the sentence becomes an exclamatory one:

nfrwj mt tn
How beautiful this woman is! Personal pronouns, just like other subjects, can be used with exclamatory adjectival predicates:

nfrwj st
How good it is! 7.2.4 ADDITIONS TO ADJECTIVAL SENTENCES The word wrt very can be added between the adjectival predicate and the subject. (Note the t which differentiates wrt very from wr great).

t wrt wt
The path is very inaccessible. or The path is very secret. Adjectival predicates (like adjectives themselves) can be used as comparatives to their subjects (6.6.2). Note that in this case the comparative phrase introduced by r is placed after the subject.

nfr st r t nbt
It is better than anything. lit. It is a good (one) compared to every thing. Occasionally the subject can consist of a personal pronoun (see 7.2.2 for rules of use) followed by a noun in apposition (4.4.1) to the pronoun.

rwwj sw jb.j
How firm is my heart! lit. It, my heart, is twice firm!

7.2.5 ADJECTIVAL SENTENCES OF POSSESSION The genitival adjective n (4.4.4) is actually the nisbe n(j) meaning belonging. n(j) is the exception to the rule that only secondary adjectives (6.0.2) can be used as adjectival predicates (7.2.1). n(j) occurs in an adjectival sentence of the form: n(j) A B meaning either that A belongs to B, or that B belongs to A, depending upon the contents of A. If A is a dependent pronoun (5.1.2), then it means that A belongs to B. n(j) wj r I belong to Re if A is an independent pronoun (5.1.3) then it means that B belongs to A. n(j) ntk hrw The day is yours.

1 person pronouns can be used in the n(j) A B form. This is the exception to the nd rd rule that only 2 and 3 person pronouns are used in adjectival sentences (7.2.2).
st

7.2.5.1 Writing n(j) Peculiarities 1S n(j) wj n(j)w(j) n(j)w(j) 3MS n(j) sw he belongs n(j)sw 3FS n(j) sj n(j)s(j) she belongs n(j)s(j) The combination of n(j) with the dependent pronouns was often I belong

abbreviated, with the weak consonant j often missing from both words. A similar contraction was used with the independent pronouns where the p of n(j) and the first p of the pronoun were only written once, with the result that the existence of n(j) must be deduced by context alone. ntk nbw Gold belongs to you. Similarly, n(j) jnk was often contracted to nnk. nnk pt nnk t The sky is mine, the earth is mine 7.2.5.2 Uses of the n(j) A B Form The n(j) A B form is common in names of people where B is the name of a god. Note that honorific transposition (4.5)is required in the following example:

n(j) sw mnw
He belongs to Montu. Normally the A part of a n(j) A B adjectival sentence is either a dependent or an independent pronoun, but for personal names, both parts can be nouns. When this occurs, B is usually the name of the king or of a god and the meaning is that A belongs to B.

n(j) n pt
Life belongs to Ptah Normally the B part of a n(j) A B adjectival sentence is a noun, but it can be a pronoun, or the interrogative adjective. nnk sj She belongs to me.

n(j)-sw wr How much is


it? lit. It belongs to how much?

7.2.6 SUMMERY OF ADJECTIVAL SENTENCES Sentences with adjectival predicates: Predicate (P) is followed by subject (S) with the meaning S is P. The predicate is: A secondary adjective In masculine singular adjective form The subject may be a: Noun Noun phrase nd rd 2 or st person dependent pronoun 3 (not 1 ) Demonstrative pronoun Adjective in noun form Not an interrogative pronoun. n(j) A B If A is a dependent pronoun then the meaning is A belongs to B. If A is an independent pronoun then the meaning is B belongs to A.

7.3 Nominal Sentences A sentence in which the predicate consists of a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase is said to have a nominal predicate. In the sentence: This plan is a disaster. The subject is this plan, and the predicate consists of the words is a disaster. If you ignore the verb the remainder of the predicate is a disaster. This is a noun, not an adjective, and so such a sentence is said to have a nominal predicate. A sentence with a nominal predicate is usually just called a nominal sentence. Unlike the adjectival sentence (7.2), the rule of predicate followed by subject does not apply to the nominal sentence. Egyptian has three forms of nonverbal (7.1.2) nominal sentences: A B, A pw, and A pw B.

7.3.1 A B NOMINAL SENTENCES 7.3.1.1 Most Common A B Usage The A B nominal sentence is mostly used when: A is an independent pronoun (5.1.3). and B is a noun or noun phrase. The meaning is A is B jnk wmw jqr I am an excellent herald. The A B nominal sentence can also be formed where: A is a noun or noun phrase, and B is the neutral form of a demonstrative pronoun (5.2.1). The meaning is B is A dpt m(w)t nn This is the taste of death. In the A B form: Independent pronouns are always first: jnk B I am B.

Demonstratives are always second: A nn This is A. Demonstratives stand as close to the start of the sentence as possible, even inside an indirect genitive, but not inside a direct genitive, see (4.4.3): st nf nt nt That is a place of landing. 7.3.1.2 A B Usage with Two Nouns The use of the A B form with both A and B being nouns or noun phrases is confined to two cases: Either A or B contains a noun of kinship or the noun rn name. Or, both A and B contain the same noun in two different phrases, a so-called balanced sentence. In both cases, the meaning is that A is B. Normally, when both A and B are nouns, a different form: A pw B is used (7.3.3).

7.3.2 A PW NOMINAL SENTENCES The A pw nominal sentence is composed as follows: Where A is a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun. And where B is the demonstrative pronoun or pw. The meaning is : * is/are A, where * is he, she, it, they, this, that, these, those:

z.j pw
He is my son.

r pw It is Re mt wb pw
She is the wife of a laypriest.

wrw pw
They are miserable ones.

If A is a pronoun, it can only be a dependent (5.1.2) or independent (5.1.3) pronoun. ntf pw It is him. p pw It is this pw must be as close as possible to the first noun. This means that pw will come between: the noun and the genitival adjective (4.4.4) of an indirect genitive (4.4.3). the noun and any adjectives (6.2.1). Note that pw will not come between the two nouns of the direct genitive (4.4.3). stj pw n st-mt He is a peasant of the Wadi Natrun Lit. He is a peasant, one belonging to the Wadi Natrun.

t pw nfr It is a good land Lit. It is a land, a good one. w pw n sj They are (the gods) Hu and Sia. Lit. It is Hu, together with Sia. 7.3.3 A PW B NOMINAL SENTENCES The A pw B is the pattern normally used when both A and B are nouns or noun phrases. (Note that the A B nominal sentence is used only for two specific cases (7.3.1.2).) pw must be as close as possible to the first noun. This means that pw will come between: the noun and the genitival adjective (4.4.4) of an indirect genitive (4.4.3). the noun and any adjectives (6.2.1).

Note that pw will not come between the two nouns of the direct genitive (4.4.3). pw must always stand before B. prt pw n Life is a cycle. Lit. It is a cycle, life. snt.f pw tfnt His sister is (the goddess) Tefnut. Lit. It is his sister, the goddess Tefnut. mnw pw n z(j) nfrw.f The monument of a man is his goddness. Lit. It is the monument belonging to a man, his goodness.

7.3.4 SUMMARY OF NOMINAL SENTENCES AB A is an independent pronoun: A is B. B is a demonstrative pronoun: B is A Both A and B can be nouns or noun phrases, but only if: A or B contains the word rn name, or other kinship term. A and B are the same noun. In both cases, the meaning could be either A is B or B is A, depending upon context. A pw A is a: noun or noun phrase independent pronoun demonstrative pronoun The meaning is It is A (or She is A, They are A, This is A, etc.) A pw B Both A and B are nouns/noun phrases. The meaning is either A is B or B is A, depending upon context.

7.3.5 INTERROGATIVES IN NOMINAL SENTENCES The interrogative pronouns (5.3) can all be used with nominal sentences. They are always the predicate. mj who? or what?: Independent pronoun + mj Used mostly in archaic religious texts.

wt mj
Who are you? jn mj + dependent pronoun:

(j)n mj tr w
Who are you? jn and tr are particles and not translated. tr is often added to questions, as in ptr (actually p(w)-tr). ptr who?, what?: Most common interrogative in nominal sentences.

Always stands first in the sentence. Is followed by a noun, noun phrase, or dependent pronoun, as the subject.

ptr rn.k
What is your name?

ptr sj t r(w)d-dt
Who is this (woman named) Ruddjedet? Lit. Who is she, this (woman named) Rud-djedet?. jst what? Sometimes used with the A pw form.

jst pw
What is it? (Lit. It is what?)

zy which? Independent pronoun + zy

ntk zj
Which one are you? zy pw B

zj tj pw mjw pw
Which is that great cat? Note that tj in the example above is an alternate way to write tr. It is a particle and not translated. 7.4 Nonverbal Sentence Examples The following examples should help clarify the usage of adjectival and nominal nonverbal sentences.

sr pw
It is a plan.

srw pw
They are plans.

jqr sr
The plan is excellent.

jqr srw
The plans are excellent.

jqr sr pn sr pw jqr jqr st


It is excellent.

jqr nn n srw srw pw jqrw jqr st


They are excellent.

This plan is excellent. These plans are excellent.

It is an excellent plan. They are excellent plans.

8.0 PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS


8.1 English Prepositions and Adverbs 8.1.1 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS A preposition relates one thing to another. In the sentence: Jills cat is inside the house. The preposition inside shows the relationship between the things in the two noun phrases (4.4) Jills cat and the house. Prepositions can be followed by: Nouns (4.0) Noun phrases (4.4) Pronouns (5.0) When followed by any of these, called the object of the preposition, the preposition is said to govern them, and together they form a prepositional phrase (8.2.3). A preposition or prepositional phrase can stand by itself, in which case it is said to be functioning adverbially (8.1.2):

A preposition used as an adverb is called a prepositional adverb (8.3.4.3). A prepositional phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase (see
8.1.2).

8.1.2 ENGLISH ADVERBS An adverb is a word or phrase indicating when, where, why, or how something happens or is true. Adverbs and adverbial phrases (see also 8.3.3) modify: Verbs: The treaty was signed here. The adverb here shows where the signing took place. Adjectives a moderately heavy rain The adverb moderately modifies how heavy the rain was. Prepositions: apart from Here the adverb apart shows where in relation to the preposition from. Other adverbs:

almost always The adverb almost modifies how often something occurred. A prepositional phrase (8.1.1, 8.2.3) can act adverbially: The treaty was signed in this room. The prepositional phrase (8.1.1) in this room showing where the action took place. Most prepositional phrases can act adverbially because they specify when, where, why, or how something happens or is true. A prepositional phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase (see also 8.3.3).
See also Forming Adverbs (8.3.4)

8.2 Egyptian Prepositions Egyptian prepositions are used more-orless like English prepositions. They are placed before the word that they modify.

8.2.1 PRIMARY PREPOSITIONS 8.2.1.1 Among - jmjtw

jmjtw
between, among Means between if used with a dual. jmjtw btj between two bushes To relate two nouns, the second noun is preceded by the preposition r with respect to (6.6.2). jmjtw st tn r nhrn between this country and Naharina lit. between this country with respect to Naharina. Means among, amidst, in the midst of if used with a plural. jmjtw zpw among the sacred images Refers to a specific physical position. Sometimes written as r-jmjtw. Used adverbially it is written:

jmjtw-nj
between them, among them 8.2.1.2 By jn

jn by
Not a true preposition, it is used to identify the agent of the passive verb form (x.x.x). Not used adverbially. Not used with personal pronouns (see 5.1) 8.2.1.3 In m

m in
The most common preposition in Egyptian, the meaning varies: in, into a physical space: m pr in the house q m pr enter into the house in, for, by, during a time: m gr in the night, by night

m rnpwt 3 for three years, during three years in a state of being: m tp in peace in, of a material or contents: m jnr in stone, of stone w m rnpwt a period of years from or of a place or state: prj m nwt emerge from (in) the town w m b free from boasting, free of boasting as something or someone: j m nswt appear as king with, through, or by something: wr m mrt anoint with oil jnj m z get through prayer, by prayer njs m rn call by name Used adverbially it is written as:

jm
there, there in, in it, of them, etc. w jm one thereof, one of them

8.2.1.4 Like mj

mj like
Indicates that one thing is like another: mj sr nr like the plan of a god In accordance with, according to: mj nt-.f nt r nb according to his daily custom lit. like his custom of every day As well as something: hrw mj gr day as well as night lit. day like night Not used with personal pronouns (see 5.1) Used adverbially it is written as:

my likewise
8.2.1.5 Among mm

mm
among

Used with a plural or plural meaning noun, it means among in a general sense, without a specific physical position in mind. (see also 8.2.1.1) mm nw among the living mm mw among the waters It is used adverbially with no change in the written form and with the meaning among them. 8.2.1.6 To, For n

n to, for nj to, for


This form is used only before a noun. n indicates the goal of something: to or for something. rdj jw n wsjr giving praise to Osiris nfr sm n rm listening is good for people Motion to a person. mj n ky go to another person to, or at (in the sense of towards) something. dg n qwj.k look at your elbows

in or for a time or period of time. n bd 2 in two months n t forever for, at or because of something. rmj n mr weep for/at/because of pain Used adverbially it is written as:

nj thereto, therefore, for it, &c.


8.2.1.7 With Respect To r

r with respect to jr with respect to


jr is used at the start of a sentence. jr is sometimes used before personal pronouns (5.1). Translation varies with context: The basic meaning is with respect to. Motion to, towards, or at a place. prj r pt go to/toward the sky r rdwj m.f at the feet of His Incarnation spr r nw arrive at the royal residence mj r nn-nswt go to Herakleopolis

at a time. r tr pn at this season to, in order to, or for a purpose. r jnt qw in order to get food hb r msw-nswt send for the kings children from, indicating separation from or distinction from something. r w r r to know the foolish man from the knowledgeable lit. to know the foolish one with respect to the knowledgeable one. f r kpnj depart from Byblos concerning, about, according to something. d r speak about something r hp according to the law as for, when used at the start of a sentence. jr sf wsjr pw As for yesterday, it is Osiris. Used adverbially it is written as:

jrj
Often written like jr instead of jrj.

Has the basic meaning of with respect to it or pertaining to it. against or to act against someone or something. jrj r act against so./sth. for, or to act for someone or something. jrj n act for, on behalf of so./sth. 8.2.1.8 Behind, Around - Basic meaning is behind and around. pr going around the walls z rd protection around a child Not used adverbially. 8.2.1.9 Together With - n

n together with
Indicates accompaniment of one thing together with another. n snw.j together with my siblings tj n zm heart and lungs It is often translated as and or with but it does not imply a means of attaining a goal, i.e. with a hammer(see 8.2.1.3).

Used adverbially with the meaning of with them etc. Usually written the same way, although pluralisation strokes may be added. 8.2.1.10 On - r ,

r on

The form at left is often used with personal pronouns. The basic meaning is on. Translation depends upon contex: on, upon, in , at, by something. Indicates placement or position. r wt on the path r t q upon a high tree r rdwj on foot r wnmj.f on his right, at his right r kmt in Egypt r jb.f in his heart, on his mind prj r rw come forth at the sound sw r jz pass by the tomb with, and, than something. Indicates adding on to something.

jrj w r nfr do more than well psj r bjt cook with honey (added) r yt storm wind and rain (too) for, per someone or something. Indicates distribution of something. t- r wb nb a loaf of white bread for each priest from, of somewhere. Indicates physical origin of someone or something. nbw r st gold from the desert prrt nbt r t everything that comes from the alter wn wrw r t.f rob a poor man of his property. at, with, concerning, about, because of, for something. Indicates cause of a nonphysical origin. tp r content at/with something zj r bless because of/on account of rd-tp r watchful concerning sth jj r come about, come for sth mhj r forget about something r fight for, on behalf of so. Not used adverbially.

8.2.1.11 Opposite, In Accordance - ft

ft opposite, in accordance with


Indicates the something is physically opposed to something else, i.e. face to face. ft stand opposite, stand before d ft speak in front of someone When governing a noun or pronoun referring to a thing it means in accordance with that thing. ft z pn in accordance with this writing ft y according to measure Used adverbially it is written as:

ftw
meaning accordingly. 8.2.1.12 At The Head Of - nt

nt at the head of
Indicates that something is in front of something else, or has priority. Usually indicates superiority.

msj nt nrw sit in front of the gods nt nw at the head of the living Used adverbially it is written as:

ntw
meaning that something happened before or previously in time. 8.2.1.13 Near - r

r near
Indicates proximity to someone or something. Used to indicate that the governed noun, noun phrase, or pronoun is someone of higher social status than the speaker. d r m.f speak to His Incarnation r nrw in the presence of the gods r m n during the incarnation of *kings name+ jmy r honoured by *gods name+ Not used adverbially.

8.2.1.14 Throughout -

t throughout
Used as in English. pr t t happen throughout the land Not used adverbially. 8.2.1.15 Under - r

r under Indicates something is literally under something else. msj r tw sit under an awning r mw under water jw r jnw come with tribute tp r jtj loaded with grain t r rwt the land in joy wr r mt tired from walking Used adverbially it is written as: rj
meaning that something is under it or under them.

8.2.1.16 Atop tp

tp atop, above , Means atop, on top, above, and usually in contact with a specific thing. tp jnb on top of the wall n tp t live on earth Note that r also means on, but in a sense which implies closer contact than tp. sr r t to lie on the ground Not used adverbially.
8.2.1.17 Since - r

r since
Indicates a time since an occurrence. r rk rw since the age of Horus It is used adverbially to mean over (completed), finished.

8.2.2 SUMMARY OF PRIMARY PREPOSITIONS PREP USAGE jmjtw between, among (a specific location) jn by (object of a passive verb) m in/into (a space), in/by/for/during (a time), in (a state), in/of (a material), from/of (a place/state), as (so. /sth), with/through/by (means /use of sth) mj like (sth else) mm among (in a general sense) n to (goal), toward (so.), for/at (sth), in/for (time), because of (sth) r with respect to, to/toward/at (a place), go to (a place), in order to/for (a purpose), from (separation/distinction), about/concerning/according to (sth), against (sth), as for (sth) behind/around (so. /sth) n together with (so./sth), with r on/upon/in/at/by (sth), than/with/and (addition), for/per (distribution), from/of (origin), at/with/concerning/about/ because
(accompanying so. /sth. Use m for means)

of/on account of/for (so./sth), ft opposite (physically from so./sth), in accordance with (so./sth) nt at the head of (in front/has priority), r near (proximity), to (an underling) t throughout (a place/space, a period of r under (an object/mood) tp atop (position above sth) r since (a time) Note the the primary prepositions all consist of a single word. ADVERBIAL USAGE OF PRIMARY PREPOSITIONS ADVERB USAGE jmjtw-nj between them, among them there, therein, in it, of them jm likewise my among them mm therefor, thereto, for it, etc. nj with respect to it, pertaining to jrj it; jrj r against, act against sb./sth
time)

nw ftw ntw rj r

jrj n act for, on hehalf of sb./sth with them, etc. accordingly before (in time), previously under it, under them over (completed), finished

8.2.2 COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS English has prepositions made up by combining a preposition with other words. For example in the word: alongside the preposition along is combined with the noun side to form the compound preposition. (see also 8.3.4.3) Compound prepositions exist in Egyptian and they must contain a primary preposition (8.2.1).
8.2.2.1 Forming Compound Prepositions

Egyptian compound prepositions are formed three ways:

1. A primary preposition (8.2.1) followed by a noun (4.0) or noun phrase (4.4).

m t in front of r t to the front of r t at the front of


This is the most common way of forming a compound preposition in Egyptian. 2. A primary preposition (8.2.1) followed by the infinitive form (x.x.x) of a verb, or an infinitival phrase (x.x.x).

r b
instead of, in exchange for 3. An adverb (8.3) or adverbial phrase (8.1.2) followed by a primary preposition
(8.2.1).

rw r
apart from, in addition to, as well as

8.2.3 OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS The governed (8.1.1) noun (4.0), noun phrase (4.4), or pronoun (5.0) is called the object of the preposition. A preposition together with its object is called a prepositional phrase (8.1.1). The form of the object of a preposition, does not change regardless if it is a primary or compound preposition.

rdw boys n rdw for boys Only the suffix pronouns (5.1.1) are used if the object of either a primary or a compound preposition is a pronoun. jn (8.2.1.2) and mj (8.2.1.4) are not used with personal pronouns (5.1).
8.2.4 ADJECTIVAL PREDICATES AND n n, meaning to or for is often used in an adjectival sentence (7.2) where the subject, if the sentence were in English, would be it. Egyptian dispenses with the

it in such cases, resulting in a sentence with no subject.

nfr n.tn
It is good for you. Lit. (It is) good for you. 8.2.5 PREPOSITIONAL NISBES Adjectives (6.0) derived from nouns or prepositions are called nisbes (6.0.3). Most primary prepositions (8.2.1) form nisbes using the same procedure as used to make nisbes from nouns (6.1). jmj inherent in from m in mjtj similar like from mj belonging to from n to, nj for. This is also the genitival adjective (4.4.4) jrj pertaining torespect to. from r with

(j) surrounding from around, behind. n(j) accompanying from n together with. rj ftj ntj r(j) rj tpj
upper, lying upon from r on. opposing from ft opposite. foremost from nt at the head of. adjacent from r near. lower, lying under from r under. standing atop from tp atop.

8.2.6 SUMMARY OF FORMS AND MEANINGS The following two tables show a side-byside comparison of prepositional, adverbial, and adjectival (nisbe) forms and meanings of the prepositions covered.

8.2.6.1 Comparison of Forms ENG. PREP PREP ADV among jmjtw jmjtw-nj in, into m jm like mj my among mm mm to, for n nj with respect to r jrj around together with n nw on r opposite ft ftw at the head of nt ntw near r under r rj atop tp since r r

ADJ jmj mjtj nj jrj (j) n(j) rj ftj ntj r(j) rj tpj -

8.2.6.2 Comparison of Meanings PREP ADV ADJ


among in, into like among to, for with respect to around together with on opposite at the head of near under atop since among them* of them likewise among them for them with respect to them with them accordingly previously under them finished inherent in similar belonging to pertaining to surrounding accompanying laying on opposing foremost adjacent lying under standing atop -

* Note that other personal pronouns may replace them. 8.2.7 USING PREPOSITIONAL NISBES Used like any other derived adjective (nisbe), and taking the appropriate adjectival ending for any nisbe, e.g. nwtj, nwtjw, nwtt, nwtt, etc. (6.1).

Can be used to modify nouns. t rt an upper room Can be used as nouns. (see also 8.2.7.1) rt nbt every upper one Derived adjectives (6.0.3) created from prepositions (8.2.1) (prepositional nisbes) can also govern a following pronoun, noun, or noun phrase, just like regular prepositions. nrw jmjw pt the gods who are within the sky
lit. the gods, the inherent ones in the sky

jmjw.s Those who are in her lit. her inherent ones 8.2.7.1 Use as Nouns Prepositional nisbes are often used as nouns, especially when referring to: a persons office/function jr(j)-t roomkeeper lit. one pertaining to a room

gods or kings When used as a description of a god or king, they are called epithets. Like regular nouns, prepositional nisbes acting as nouns can be: modified by adjectives (6.0). the nisbe is modified, not the noun or pronoun that the nisbe governs. jrj-t nb every roomkeeper vs. jrj t nbt one pertaining to every room adjectives normally follow the nisbe phrase, but may move closer to the nisbe if clarification is required. jrj nb sm every functionary jrj sm nb one pertaining to every functionary they take suffix pronouns (5.1.1) jmt t.sn lit. the inherent one of their front jmt.sn t

lit. their inherent one of the front The difference is that the former means that which is in front of them, while the latter means their predecessor. 8.2.8 REVERSE NISBES Derived adjectives (nisbes)(6.0.3) created from prepositions are also used in nfr r constructions (6.3.1). One must analyse these constructions carefully in order to understand them. This is best illustrated by an example:

mt jmt pr
The sentence above consists of three elements: mt, scroll, a feminine noun. jmt, inherent in, the feminine form of a derived adjective (6.0.3, 8.2.5) created from the preposition m, in(8.2.1.3). Note that an adjective created in this

manner is also called a prepositional nisbe (8.2.5, 8.2.7). pr, house, a noun. These elements can be read in two distinct ways. First: jmt, a prepositional nisbe (8.2.7), acts as a preposition governing pr. This yields the noun phrase: mt jmt pr the scroll that is in the house lit. the scroll inherent in the house. Or, it can be read: jmt, a prepositional nisbe (8.2.7), acts as a derived adjective (8.2.5) in the nfr r (6.3.1) noun phrase: jmt pr
the one with the house in it Lit. the (one) that has inherent in (it) the house

I interpret this noun phrase as being in apposition with the word scroll(4.4.1). mt [jmt pr] the scroll that the house is in
lit. the scroll, the one that has inherent in (it) the house

Note that in the first example, the nisbe is acting prepositionally on the following noun, while in the second case, the nisbe is acting adjectivally on the preceding noun. For this reason, the second case is referred to as a reverse nisbe. Only context can determine which of these readings is the correct one. Note that jmt pr is the Egyptian idiom for will/testament. 8.2.8.1 Understanding nfr r Consider the following examples: [See also
nfr r (6.3.1, 6.7.2)].

z(j) zrw
a man who has many sheep

mt jmt pr
The scroll that the house is in

The adjective many, modifies the preceding noun zj man, even though it describes a quality of the zrw sheep. a man, one who has many of sheep The adjective jmt inherent in modifies the preceding noun mt scroll, even though it describes a quality of the pr house. a scroll, one that has inherent in (it) the house Note that in both cases the adjective takes the same gender and number as the noun it modifies. 8.2.8.2 Examples of Reverse Nisbes jmj-r overseer , If no word appears in front of the derived adjective (6.0.3) you must remember that it is acting on someone, or something, even though it is not stated. jmj-r therefore is literally: (someone) that has inherent in (them) the mouth. i.e. the one in whom the mouth is.

[Allen then refines the meaning as the one who gives commands. I wonder if that is true. Maybe it really means the one who speaks for us. Did the Egyptians have slave drivers for bosses, or were they more like team leaders?] jmj-r appears in titles like: jmj-r pr steward jmj-r m general [army] jmj-r can also be used as a prepositional nisbe (8.2.7), in which case it governs the noun following: jmj-r the one who is in the mouth For this reason, scribes would often write jmj-r using the hieroglyph for tongue, even though they intend the reverse meaning: jmj-r pr steward

8.2.9 SPECIAL USE OF THE NISBE rj rj lower, lying under This derived adjective (nisbe) is often used to denote possession. (see also rj-b lector-priest lit. lying under the festival (scroll) One can think of this usage as ones responsibilities hanging over ones head, so you are under the gun. It is also used to indicate a place. necropolis rj-nr, lit. the place where rt-nr the god is It is also commonly used with bw place:
Genitives 4.4.3)

bw r(j).f
the place where he is lit. the place lying under him

8.2.10 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS MODIFIERS Prepositional phrases (8.1.1) in English can be used as noun modifiers: the gods in the sky This does not require any change to the form of the preposition. Prepositional phrases (8.1.1 )in Egyptian can be used to modify a preceding noun, but to do so the preposition (8.2.1) must be converted into a derived adjective (nisbe)(6.0.3, 8.2.5, 8.2.7). nrw jmjw pt the gods (with)in the sky nrw m pt is not grammatical when following (modifying) a noun. 8.2.10.1 Special Cases The rule in 8.2.10 is sometimes violated. The most common examples are: bk jm yours truly w jm nb every one of them

We have seen how the genitival adjective (4.4.4) n(j) belonging to, a prepositionally derived adjective (6.0.3, 8.2.5) of n to, for(8.2.1.6), is normally used as a modifier only when it is followed by a noun or noun phrase, thus forming an indirect genitive (4.4.3) (see also 7.2.5): z n(j) zj the son of a man In addition, the suffix pronouns (5.1.1) are normally used when the possessor is a personal pronoun (5.1): z.f his son. Egyptian sometimes uses a special construction using the preposition n (8.2.1.6), with a suffix pronoun (5.1.1), and followed by the prepositionally derived adjective jm(j) . ms n.f jmy a child of his, a child belonging to him

t t n.n jmy that front of ours hdmw n.sn jm the footstool belonging to them The preceding noun does not affect the following possessive phrase because n is a preposition, and therefore there is no need to match gender and number (8.2.3). 8.3 Egyptian Adverbs See also English Adverbs (8.1.2). English can form an adverb from an adjective by adding the ending ly. moderate moderately English can also use nouns of time as adverbs: Thats enough for today (noun) Jill will sing today (adverb) English also uses reflexive pronouns as adverbs: Jack did it himself

8.3.1 PRIMARY ADVERBS Primary adverbs are single, non-derived words whose sole usage is as an adverb. There are three of these: rsj entirely, at all rssj grw also, further, gr any more 8.3.2 THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB In addition to the interrogative adjective (6.4) and interrogative pronouns (5.3.1), Egyptian has one interrogative adverb: n(j) where? here

tnj tnw Note that tnw uses the same glyphs as the apparent adjective each (6.5.2). 8.3.3 INTERROGATIVE ADVERBIAL PHRASES For other interrogative adverbs, Egyptian constructs an adverbial phrase using a preposition (8.2) followed by an interrogative pronoun (5.3.1): mj mj how?, lit. like mj j what? r mj r mj why?, lit. because of what? why?, lit. with respect to what?

zy nw when?, lit. which

moment? 8.3.4 FORMING ADVERBS 8.3.4.1 Forming Adverbs in English Adjectives can form an adverb by adding the ending ly. moderate moderately Nouns of time can be used as adverbs: Thats enough for today (noun) Jill will sing today (adverb) Reflexive pronouns are also used as adverbs: Jack did it himself Prepositional phrases (8.1.1)are used adverbially: Jill ran inside the house. Prepositions without an object are used as adverbs: Jill ran inside. Prepositions used in this way are called prepositional adverbs (8.3.4.3)

8.3.4.2 Forming Adverbs in Egyptian Adjectives are formed from adverbs (6.0) in several ways: Often there is no change in form: ADJ ADV nfr good well many often wr much great Often the ending w is added: w greatly, from big Rarely, the ending t is added: wrt very, from wr great Adverbs can be formed by using a preposition (8.1.1) to govern an adjective in noun form (6.3). This results in a

regular prepositional phrase (8.1.1) which can act as an adverb (8.1.2).


(see also 8.4 for examples in English).

r t greatly lit. with respect to a big one m m(w)t anew lit. in what is new Nouns of time are used as adverbs: mjn today sf yesterday t today Noun phrases (4.4) can be used adverbially: hrw pn this day r nb every day

Prepositional phrases (8.1.1) can act adverbially (8.1.2).


(see also 8.4 for examples in English).

m mjn today n t forever Reflexive pronouns can act adverbially. The equivalent to an English reflexive pronoun is constructed in Egyptian by adding a suffix pronoun to word s self. ft r (n)swt t.f in front of the face of the king himself When t. + suffix pronoun modifies another suffix pronoun, it has the meaning own, e.g. your own, his own, etc. m hw.k s.k in your own day and age lit. In your own time yourself

8.3.4.3 Forming Prepositional Adverbs A preposition used without an object is called a prepositional adverb. (see 8.1.1) rdj t jm.s Put something in it. rdj t jm Put something in. Most primary prepositions (8.2.1) can act as prepositional adverbs. These are formed by the addition of j or w to the primary preposition. (see 8.2.2, 8.2.6) Some prepositions form adverbs by adding the prepositional adverb jrj to their regular form. ft jrj
or ftw

accordingly

mm jrj among them


or mm

Compound prepositions (8.2.2.1) are used as adverbs by omitting the object: jj m t come in front rdj r b give in exchange

Compound prepositions formed using an adverb (see 8.2.2.1 #3) always use the adverbial form of the preposition: rw jrj additionally 8.3.5 WORD ORDER AND ADVERBS Adverbs normally precede the prepositions they modify. Adverbs normally follow the adjective or adverb they modify: jqr wrt very excellent r t wrt very greatly 8.3.6 COMPARATIVE ADVERBS Comparatives and superlatives using adverbs is done in English using adverbs derived from an adjective and using more and most in front: greatly, more greatly, most greatly Egyptian uses exactly the same method as in English with exception that sometimes the comparative is indicated with the preposition r, just as it is done for comparatives with adjectives (6.6.2).

8.4 SUMMARY OF PARTS OF SPEECH A word root with different endings can act as different parts of speech: noun the care was poor adjective she is a careful child prepositional phrase he went for care adverb she walked carefully adverbial phrase she walked with care verb she cares for him Other roots may not change form: noun I like the red adjective Its a red leaf prepositional phrase see the lady in red adverb the blood ran red adverbial phrase she is dressed in red English can be as confusing as Egyptian: Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. In the first sentence, flies is the verb, and like an arrow is an adverbial phrase consisting of the preposition like with the noun phrase an arrow. In the second sentence, like is the verb, and a banana is the direct object that the fruit flies enjoy.

A. GODS
jmn Amun, god of creation. jnpw Anubis, god of the
cemetery.

ppj Apophis, giant snake in

the Duat trying to stop Re.

wt- Hathor, goddess of love, beauty, music, rw motherhood and joy. rw Horus, god of kingship, royal title. w Hu, god of the power of
the spoken word.

mt Maat, goddess of how things ought to be. mrt Meret, goddess of song. mnw Min, god of fertility and
power.

mntw Montu, patron god of


Thebes.

nmtj Nemti, ferryman of the


gods to the life beyond.

Re, sun god, master of


creation and life.

sj Sia, god personifying the


perceptive mind.

Tefnet, goddess of tfnt moisture, water, &


dryness.

wyt Wadjyet, cobra goddess


of lower Egypt.

wp- Wepwawet, (parter of the ways) jackal god of wwt Abydos

wnnnfr.w

Wenen-nefer, Onnophris,
epithet of Osiris (He who is continually young) the sun.

wsjr Osiris, seat of the eye of

B. TRANSLITERATION SYSTEMS
EUROPE TRAD BUDGE CDM

) 4 Z F 6,D R 7 ! f p 1 ] U I J

j y w b p f m n r h

y w b p f m n r h

a ,y u b p f m n r h , kh , kh

A j y a w b p f m n r h H x X

X i t j X c z F ; @

z s q k g t d

s s k g t d

s s s q k t , th t , tch

z s S q k g t T d D

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