Prof.ssa Elena Tognini Bonelli Dott.

ssa Anna Lazzari

English for Economics Students

Resource Materials Modulo II

a.a. 2007-08

Corso avanzato di Lingua Inglese Facolt di Economia Universit di Siena

The materials in this book are designed to be used both in class and for self study in the lingua inglese course in the Faculty of Economics, University of Siena. The texts are designed to be a resource on which students can draw to improve their speaking and reading skills in the field of economics.

Contents
General Introduction .. Chapter 1 Abstract Writing .
Appendix 1 - Other sample abstracts Appendix 2 - Concordances ......... Appendix 3 - Transition cues ................... Appendix 4 Patterns with prepositions ......................................... Exercise Key References

3 4
16 21 31 37 41 41

Chapter 2 Oral Presentations .

Communication - A definition Grices Cooperative Principle and the Conversational Maxims Part 1 - Designing Effective Oral Presentations - An Introduction ............ Part 2 - Parts of a Presentation .. - I. Developing a Good Introduction - II. Linking Parts and Ideas . - III. Finishing Off - IV. Answering Questions Part 3 - The Right Type of language . Part 4 - Using Effective Visual Aids . - Reading Mathematical Symbols, Signs and Operators Exercise Key . References .

42
42 42 43 49 49 52 52 55 56 59 65 67 67

Chapter 3 - Reading Graphs and Tables ..

Exercise Key

68
76

Chapter 4 - The Web as a resource for language learning .

77

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

Lingua Inglese Modulo II

Dispensa

General Introduction
Lingua Inglese Corso Avanzato Module I and Module II are strictly interrelated. Whereas Module I focuses on the reading and comprehension of economics texts, and includes a first introduction to the study of specialised discourse (argumentative structure and lexicon), Module II builds on the competence already acquired and is more practically-oriented. Students will be guided to familiarise themselves with both specific text-types and more practical and work-oriented strategies. The following activities are going to be explored:

A. Abstract 1. writing an abstract for a thesis using specific vocabulary B. Oral Presentation 1. searching the web for job vacancies relevant to the field of study and experience 2. writing a CV or a rsum 3. writing a cover letter C. Texts 1. retrieving online texts in their specific area of interest from the web Knowledge of these tools, techniques and strategies will help students develop their language awareness and, therefore, their linguistic autonomy. Indeed, the topics covered in Module II are to be considered just as a way into producing other types of texts that may be required in an academic or professional context. The assumption behind this work is that, both in English and in Italian, each specific text type features a highly formalised structure and formulaic language. We will find a series of basic components that combine with one another in more or less regular ways, and multi-word collocations which almost appear as prefabricated. This is the result of the interaction process occurring in a given community of users and in a particular context. In other words, a text type is a highly efficient response to a specific communicative need. Learning how to find sample texts, how to look for tutorials and online lessons, and how to identify the phraseology in authentic documents is an invaluable resource for producing other types of text (e.g. study papers, business plans, business letters, oral presentations etc.) useful to meet the students present and future needs.

Chapter 1 Abstract Writing

i. Introduction
What is an abstract? An abstract is a concise summary of a larger document thesis, essay, book, research report, journal publication, etc. that highlights major points covered in the work, concisely describes the content and scope of the writing, identifies the methodology used, and identifies the findings, conclusions, or intended results. Why are abstracts so important? The practice of using keywords in an abstract is vital because of today's electronic information retrieval systems. Titles and abstracts are filed electronically, and keywords are put in electronic storage. When people search for information, they enter keywords related to the subject, and the computer prints out the titles of articles, papers, and reports containing those keywords. Thus, an abstract must contain keywords about what is essential in an article, paper, or report so that someone else can retrieve information from it. A well-written abstract helps others, who may not be studying in your discipline, understand the purpose and value of your work; therefore, it should be comprehensible on a basic level to the educated non-expert. Types of abstracts Two types of abstracts are typically used: descriptive abstracts and informative abstracts. Descriptive Abstracts Tell readers what information the report, article, or paper contains. Include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper. Do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations. Are always very short, usually under 100 words. Introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report, article, or paper to find out the author's results, conclusions, or recommendations. Informative Abstracts Communicate specific information from the report, article, or paper. Include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper. Provide the report, article, or paper's results, conclusions, and recommendations. Are short -- from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the original work being abstracted. Usually informative abstracts are 10% or less of the length of the original piece. Allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report, article, or paper. The abstract students are required to write for their thesis is a type of Informative Abstract. For the final exam, students are required to write a dissertation abstract of max. 250 words. (NB. Imagine you have to paste it in an online form containing a maximum of 250 words: the rest will be automatically cut out.)

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

Lingua Inglese Modulo II

Dispensa

Exercise 1. Look at the abstract samples below and answer the following answers. a. b. c. d. Which one is a descriptive abstract? Which one is an informative abstract? Which one is a research abstract? Which one is a dissertation abstract?

Discuss what features differentiate them. 1. Economies with Interacting Agents Alan P. Kirman This paper discusses economic models in which agents interact directly with each other rather than through the price system as in the standard general equilibrium model. It is suggested that the relationship between micro and macro behavior is very different than that in the standard model and that the aggregate phenomena that can arise are rich. The models considered include ones with global interaction in which all agents can interact with each other and ones in which agents can only interact with their immediate neighbors. Both static and dynamic models are considered and the latter includes the class of evolutionary economic models. 2. Economics of Organizing Product Development in the Extended Enterprise Paulo Gomes Firms are increasingly facing the challenge of organizing product development effort in extended settings, i.e., across the boundaries of several firms. This dissertation looks at the implications of this trend to the development cost structure, in particular to the coordination cost. The theoretical framework is based on transaction cost economics, design theory and organizational learning. Building on this literature, the dissertation addresses the following questions: what are the indicators of coordination costs for different types of development tasks? Do these help explain the task sourcing decision? And, do firms learn how to coordinate development tasks? Three empirical models were developed to address these questions. The first model proposes that a set of task attributes derived from transaction cost economics, including a proxy for asset specificity, affect both the task sourcing decision and its coordination cost. Then, I test for differences in the coordination cost of 'generation' and 'test' types of tasks, a classic distinction in design theory. Finally, the dissertation tests a 'learning model' for development task coordination effort. The data was collected from 11 software development projects conducted at a global firm in the medical device industry. The total sample size consists of 71 system development tasks. The main findings were as follows. The proxy for asset specificity, internal problem solving, is a significant predictor of both the likelihood of outsourcing a development task and the associated coordination cost. Moreover, the impact of internal problem solving on the coordination cost is significantly larger for outsourced tasks. The results also reveal asymmetries in the coordination cost for generation and test tasks. Finally, I find evidence that projects were able to reduce coordination effort over time. The findings of the dissertation should be useful in several ways. Recognizing indicators of coordination cost and the asymmetric nature of coordination costs for different types of tasks may provide a more principled approach for organizing extended product development. By systematically exploring the ability to reduce coordination effort through competence

development and management of the task dependence structure, we may be able to discover more efficient ways for engaging external partners in development efforts. 3. Hurricane Katrina - Storm Stretches Refiners Past a Perilous Point Jad Mouawad, New York Times, September 11, 2005, Page A27 This article discusses the impact of the storm on the country's oil refining capacity. At one point the article notes that the storm idled 5 percent of the refining capacity in the United States. It then quotes an analyst who comments that this is just 1 percent of world production, and that there is a world market. Actually, for refined products, like gasoline and home heating oil, to a large extent the market is national or even regional. Many states have very specific rules on emissions of various pollutants. Refineries have to be set up to produce fuel that meets these requirements. In many cases, few, if any, foreign refiners will be set up to meet these standards. While they can change over time, at the moment foreign refiners may have little ability to meet U.S. demand for gasoline or other refined products. It is also worth noting that major U.S. oil companies may benefit by deliberately keeping capacity off line. The loss of capacity will push up prices and possibly raise profits.

Some initial hints

Here are some other points to keep in mind when writing abstracts. Read and discuss them. If an abstract is read along with the title, do not repeat or rephrase the title. It will likely be read without the rest of the document, however, so make it complete enough to stand on its own. Your readers expect you to summarize your conclusions as well as your purpose, methods, and main findings. Emphasize the different points in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the body of the document. Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the document. Choose whether to write in first person style (I or We) or third person style (This dissertation shows). If you prefer first person style, however, avoid using we unless your work has more than one author. Likewise, avoid beginning each sentence with I. In other words, third person style is always preferable. Do not exaggerate with passives. The study tested is better than It was tested by the study. If possible avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols. You would need to explain them, and that takes too much room. Use keywords from the document. For published work, the abstract is "mined" for the words used to index the material--thus making it more likely someone will cite your article. Be coherent and cohesive (see Cohesion section below).

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

Lingua Inglese Modulo II

Dispensa

ii. Structure of research and dissertation abstracts

A properly written abstract consists of the Title of the study and the Body of the abstract. Title Make your title concise, but also descriptive. However, if your abstract is the initial summary of your study (e.g., your dissertation), the title is not to be repeated. Body of the abstract The abstract is a very brief overview of your entire study. It tells the reader what you did, why you did it, how you did it, what you found, and what it means. The abstract is the chief way that scientists decide which research reports to read. The following Abstract Worksheet Form is meant to help you prepare the first draft of your abstract. The sequence of sentences in the worksheet is ordered in a logical fashion, beginning with an introduction and proceeding to your methodology, results, discussion, and conclusions. Think of the most important items that crystallize each part of your project. Leave out unimportant details. As a first draft (using the worksheet), write one or two sentences that summarize each section. For your final draft, make sure the abstract flows logically (again, see below Cohesion section). Give it to friends to read. Ask them to tell you what they think you actually did and what you found. Revise as necessary.

Abstract Worksheet Form

Adapted from How to Write an Abstract, online at http://www.okstate.edu/education/jshs/abstract.htm

Project/Study Title - Keep it concise, but descriptive. Body 1. Topic sentence - Introduction (optional) Introduces the topic of the study and the reasons for its investigation. 2. Subject/Purpose What is this project about? Why is this project interesting or important? 3. Hypothesis/Prediction What did you think you would find? Why? 4. Approach/Methodology Briefly explain the approach/methodology you followed in order to test your prediction. 5. Findings/Discussion What did you find when you performed your test? And are your results consistent with your initial hypothesis and prediction? Why or why not? 6. Conclusion What do these results mean? Why should anyone become excited or interested in your findings?

Exercise 2.
(from Writing up Research - The Abstract, online at http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/el21abst.htm)

Here is an abstract from a published paper. It is 220 words long. Read it through looking for the main purpose of each sentence (for example, introduction, hypothesis/prediction, methodology, main findings, or conclusion). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Helwa, N. H. and Abdel Rehim, Z. S. (1997). Experimental Study of the Performance of Solar Dryers with Pebble Beds. Energy Sources, 19, 579-591. Major problems of the arid region are transportation of agricultural products and losses due to spoilage of the products, especially in summer. This work presents the performance of a solar drying system consisting of an air heater and a dryer chamber connected to a greenhouse. The drying system is designed to dry a variety of agricultural products. The effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process is studied. Composite pebbles, which are constructed from cement and sand, are used to store energy for night operation. The pebbles are placed at the bottom of the drying chamber and are charged during the drying process itself. A separate test is done using a simulator, a packed bed storage unit, to find the thermal characteristics of the pebbles during charging and discharging modes with time. Accordingly, the packed bed is analysed using a heat transfer model with finite difference technique described before and during the charging and discharging processes. Graphs are presented that depict the thermal characteristics and performance of the pebble beds and the drying patterns of different agricultural products. The results show that the amount of energy stored in the pebbles depends on the air mass flow rate, the inlet air temperature, and the properties of the storage materials. The composite pebbles can be used efficiently as storing media.

iii. Language Focus

A. Topic sentence - Introduction The introductory sentence is optional. It allows the writer to focus the readers attention on the topic of the study and the reasons why that subject is worth investigating. Here are some examples: a. According to recent evidence, racial and ethnic discrimination in housing continues to be widespread. [This paper] b. Central city households who subsidize local public sector goods through local property taxes have an incentive to flee from the city or to change the jurisdiction's boundary. [The authors focus on] c. There is an active debate in transition economies about the extent to which employee and foreign ownership ought to be encouraged or discouraged in privatization, but empirical evidence is scarce. [This paper ] d. Since 1978, China has experienced four episodes of economic fluctuations, during which the government used macro controls to restore stability. [This paper ] Exercise 3. Read the examples above and discuss the following points. 1. Are introductory statements general or specific? 2. Are they in first person style or third person style? 3. What tenses are used? B. Subject/Purpose Third person style (see also Appendix 2): The / This paper article thesis dissertation analyzes, investigates, explores, examines, re-examines, outlines, describes, shows, introduces, evaluates, considers

First person style (see also Appendix 2): In this paper article theses dissertation I / we* analyse, investigate, explore, examine, re-examine, outline, describe, show, introduce, evaluate, consider

Exercise 4. Read the sentences below and fill in the gaps with one of the following verbs: develops - calls - argues - provides - looks - consider 1. This paper _______________ an axiomatic basis for a representation of personal preferences in which the utility of an act can be expressed as an expected value of

Only in case the authors are more than one.

conditional utilities of the act given any set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive scenarios, under a unique subjective probability. 2. The authors _______________ a broad class of situations where a society must choose from a finite set of alternatives. 3. This paper ______________ that the analysis of these games involves a key technical issue. 4. This paper ____________ at the effectiveness of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in reducing the time that manufacturing plants spend in a state of non-compliance. 5. This study ___________ into question the established view that lack of information on clean-up cost functions represents a serious problem in designing an optimal charge on polluting waste discharged by N point sources. 6. This paper _____________ a model of corporate hierarchy in which workers accumulate heterogeneous human capital suitable for different positions within the hierarchy. C. Hypothesis/Prediction In an abstract, the founding hypothesis and related prediction can be expressed in several ways. They can also be included in the introductory sentence or in the Subject/Purpose statement. Read the following excerpts and notice how each author has expressed them. 1. Henry George (1839-1897) has left an intellectual legacy which is shrouded under a cloak of controversy. Unprofessional economists who focused attention on the single-tax proposal and condemned Henry George's teaching, root and branch, were hardly just to him ..." (Schumpeter 1954). This essay tries to do justice to Henry George from the point of view of economic theory and relevant economic practical questions in 1997. [] 2. [] Based on a brief theoretical outline, this paper deals with those two issues. It will be argued in favor of an anti-inflation policy by the ECB, based on monetary targets with securities repurchase transactions (repos) as the central instrument. Rediscount quotas, which should only be available for a market based interest rate, should play a secondary role. To secure and stabilize the need for base money, interest bearing minimum reserves should be held at the ECB, and the ECB should be able to offer banks with temporary liquidity needs collateralized credits for a penalty rate. [] 3. [] It is argued that updated preferences necessarily have one affine indifference curve but that other indifference curves are unrestricted. [] 4. [] While the model is consistent with some features in the data, we reject the hypothesis that factor markets worked perfectly and find support for the historian's intuition regarding the disproportionate impact of land inequality in the countryside. [] 5. [] The hypothesis examined is that the greater the investor's flexibility, the easier it is for him to change his portfolio depending on his results, the more willing he will be to accept risks. [] In Appendix 1, there are several examples of PhD Dissertation abstracts. Read them through and notice how other students have expressed their hypotheses and predictions.

10

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Online exercise. Use the Web and a major search engine to look for what verbs and/or what adjectives collocate with the terms hypothesis, theory, model, principle (and their respective plurals). See also Appendix 2 for frequent patterns in the concordance of model and framework. D. Approach/Methodology Sometimes, the Approach/Methodology sentences are expressed in passive form. Exercise 5. Read the excerpts below and underline all the passive verb forms. 1. The single tax proposal is looked at from the point of view of constitutional economics, and the wider applicability of Henry George's basic notions is emphasized 2. Analysis of data on incorporation and investment decisions, the relative sensitivity of the stock prices of firms with different asset mobility to political events, and the market for office space most strongly support hypotheses about credibility, adaption, and demand augmentation. 3. A model of farm marketing is developed for the period 1913-28 and is embedded in a general equilibrium model for the Soviet economy. 4. We test whether patterns of income inequality were consistent with the predictions of a market-clearing, neoclassical model linking land and labor endowment through factor markets to household income. 5. Building on the work of P. N. Courant (1978), the paper develops a housing search model and measures the cost of discrimination by its impact on the gain a household can achieve through housing search. The cost of discrimination is then calculated for a representative sample of households. 6. A discussion of changes in the organizational structure and legal environment surrounding gold production is followed by a description of state gold purchasing and storage activities. 7. In an application to US GDP, it is found that inferences about the nature of the trend in output are not robust to changes in the specification for short-run fluctuations.

Exercise 6. Complete each sentence below with the present tense, passive voice, of the verb in parentheses. 1. The Malmquist productivity index, constructed using nonparametric linear programming methods, _________________ (to employ) for the relevant comparisons. 2. Characteristics of the incidence of employee and foreign ownership and associated firm performance _________________ (to examine). 3. Respondents' stated preferences for attributes related to various electricity-generation scenarios _________________ (to analyse) using a series of pairwise ratings. 4. In the standard case of "adverse-selection," a firm ______________ (to show) to have an unbounded incentive to under-report marginal clean-up costs. 5. First the employment expectations of companies for 1997 and in the medium term __________________ (to describe) for eastern and western Germany. This 11

________________ (to follow) by analyses of the personnel inflows and outflows in the first half of 1996, in which the evaluation differentiates between enterprises with expanding employment, declining enterprises and stagnating enterprises.

Exercise 7. Transform the following sentences from passive into active starting with the phrase given. 1. The notion of civil society is initially considered in the light of intellectual history and differentiated into a number of constitutive concepts such as trust, commercial society, and a civil network of interpersonal relationships. This article ________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 2. A simple game-theoretic framework is applied to analyse international cooperation by focusing on the prisoner's dilemma on the one hand and bargaining in the Coasian sense on the other. We _______________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

E. Findings/Discussion Research findings can be communicated in a series of different ways. However, they are often introduced by the terms result/results or findings. See below how they collocate with verbs and adjectives (see also Appendix 2 for further patterns in their collocation). 1. With verbs The results findings show, state, suggest, uncover, indicate, imply, provide

2. With adjectives Main / partial / empirical RESULT (are) striking, contradictory different, consistent with

12

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Examples 1. The main result states that if the payoff functions are semicontinuous and strongly quasiconcave then an Epsilon-Nash equilibrium in pure strategies exists for positive Epsilon. 2. The results obtained through the estimation of a series of structural VAR models are consistent with this view and indicate also that deflation affected output mainly by increasing real wages. 3. The result holds for a large class of consistent and monotone rules, including the Constrained Equal Award, the Propositional Rule, and many other well known rules.

Results, however, are often supported by some evidence (in Italian, prova/prove). 1. [] The evidence suggests that five price series exhibit stochastic trends, while the remaining six price series appear to be stationary around a deterministic trend. 2. [] Furthermore, quantitative evidence is presented supporting the view that Federal Reserve monetary policy was constrained by international considerations. 3. [] The authors find, on the contrary, consistent evidence that, first, resources went where the benefits to patients were greatest, and, second, resources were appropriately allocated in terms of their opportunity cost once provision exceeded certain thresholds.[] 4. We provide new evidence on the effectiveness of disclosure requirements by examining firm behavior in response to disclosures of TRI emissions. Online exercise. Use the Web and a major search engine to find other occurrences of the term evidence and discuss how and in what context it is used. Then check Appendix 2 for further reference.

F. Conclusions Read the following excerpts and analyse how conclusions are drawn and discussed. 1. In light of these results, we believe that efforts to eliminate SOES based on volatility considerations are unwarranted. 2. Analysis of the conditions that have to be met, illustrated with examples ff attitudes and preferences within Europe, leads to the conclusion that we are unlikely to see the end of the nation state in the near future either in Europe or anywhere else. 3. The main conclusion of the paper is that the Italian depression, comparable to that of other major industrialized countries, was the combined result of a contraction in world demand and of the restrictive monetary policies imposed by the rules of the Gold Standard. 4. Through his careful discussion of the foreseeable problems, the author reaches the conclusion that Hong Kong is "useful pretty much the way it is" to China and doesn't see China disturbing the balance. 13

5. These conclusions for nine consultant specialties reinforce similar conclusions for two other services, whose allocations were made by central government (the Scottish Home and Health Department) and general medical practitioners.

iv. Cohesion
Using Repetition and Reference Words to Emphasize Key Ideas in Your Writing Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and phrases (see below Appendix 3), such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make writing cohesive. Repetition of keywords and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion. Repetition of Keywords We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain keywords from one sentence to the next or from one paragraph to the next. This repetition of keywords also helps to emphasize the main idea of a piece of writing. For example, in the following paragraph, notice and how many times the words owned and ownership are repeated (underline them):
Nobody owned any part of the land. Sotopo's father owned many cattle, and if the cows continued to produce calves, he might as well become the next chief. Old Grandmother owned the beautifully tanned animal skins she used as coverlets in winter. And Sotopo owned his polished hard-wood assegais. But the land belonged to the spirits who governed life; it existed forever, for everyone, and was apportioned temporarily according to the dictates of the tribal chief and senior headman. Sotopo's father occupied the hillside for the time being, and when he died the older son could inherit the loan -- land, but no person or family every acquired ownership. From The Covenant by James Michener.

By repeating the words owned and ownership throughout the paragraph, the writer has tied each sentence to each other and has clearly indicated what the main idea of the paragraph is. In this case, the main idea is ownership of something. And what exactly is being (or not being) owned? By repeating the word land, the author shows us that the entire main idea is ownership of land. Use of Reference Words Another way of tying sentences and paragraphs together involves using reference words that point back to an idea mentioned previously. Among the many reference words that can be used to tie one sentence to another or one paragraph to another are words like this, these, those, such, and that. These reference words should not be used by themselves but should be combined with the important words and phrases from previous sentences or paragraphs. In the following paragraphs, we can see how reference words are used not only to tie sentences and paragraphs together, but also to emphasize the main idea. Underline all the transitional words and phrases and all the reference words you can find in the following paragraph.
Writing a paper is often difficult and many times rewarding. First, I don't always know what to write about, so I often need to research, talk to people, and think about what I know before

14

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

I come up with a strong topic. In addition, writing a paper takes time and energy. Time is needed to select and narrow a topic, to generate information and structure ideas, to knock out draft after draft, and to edit for my usual typos and mechanical errors. Besides the time involved, energy (and lots of food to produce it) is needed so I can produce my best work. Although writing a paper is sometimes difficult, it can be very rewarding. I enjoy seeing words which say exactly what I want them to. l also feel proud when everything "clicks." Finally, knowing that I've done my best work and earned a good grade too are strong personal rewards.

Many words are repeated from one sentence to the next and from one paragraph to the next as well. Can you identify the main ideas of each paragraph based on the words that are often repeated?

v. Some final suggestions

Write the abstract only when the document is finished. Abstracts written before then are just previews. If you are forced to write an abstract before the document is completed, think about its purpose and write a topic sentence. Keep in mind that you'll need to rewrite the abstract when the document is finished because it will no longer accurately reflect the contents of the document. Before starting the abstract, list your thoughts on the document. Group related items together. Prioritise the list and put the most important group first. The first few groups form the core of the topic sentence. The rest lead to supporting sentences. If you can't create a topic sentence (i.e. the introductory statement), write the supporting sentences first. The topic sentence may then become obvious. Write for an audience not necessarily up to speed in your subject area. This is important because you never know who will read your abstract. Choose acronyms, abbreviations, and technical terms carefully as they may confuse many readers. Define the scope of the project in the abstract. Reread your abstract after several days have passed. Remove all superfluous information.

15

Chapter 1 - Appendix 1. Further sample abstracts Working paper abstracts

Complexity and Empirical Economics Steven N. Durlauf This paper explores the state of interplay between recent efforts to introduce complex systems methods into economics and the understanding of empirical phenomena. The empirical side of economic complexity may be divided into three general branches: historical studies, the identification of power and scaling laws, and analyses of social interactions. I argue that, while providing useful stylized facts, none of these empirical approaches has produced compelling evidence that economic contexts exhibit the substantive microstructure or properties of complex systems. This failure reflects inadequate attention to identification problems. Identification analysis should, therefore, be at the center of future work on the empirics of complexity.

A Theory for Long-Memory in Supply and Demand Fabrizio Lillo, Szabolcs Mike, and J. Doyne Farmer Recent empirical studies have demonstrated long-memory in the signs of orders to buy or sell in financial markets [2, 19]. We show how this can be caused by delays in market clearing. Under the common practice of order splitting, large orders are broken up into pieces and executed incrementally. If the size of such large orders is power law distributed, this gives rise to power law decaying autocorrelations in the signs of executed orders. More specifically, we show that if the cumulative distribution of large orders of volume $v$ is proportional to $v^\alpha$ and the size of executed orders is constant, the autocorrelation of order signs is asymptotically proportional to $\tau^{-(\alpha-1)}$. This is a long-memory process when $\alpha<2$. With a few caveats, this gives a good match to the data. A version of the model also shows long-memory fluctuations in order execution rates, which may be relevant for explaining the long-memory of price diffusion rates.

Two-Factor Model of Income Distribution Dynamics Makoto Nirei and Wataru Souma This paper analyzes empirical income distributions and proposes a simple stochastic model to explain the stationary distribution and deviations from it. Using the individual tax returns data in the U.S. and Japan for 40 years, we first summarize the shape of income distribution by an exponential decay up to about the 90th percentile of income and a power decay for the top 1 percent. We then propose a minimal stochastic process of labor and asset income to reproduce the empirical characteristics. In particular, the Pareto exponent is derived analytically and matched with empirical statistics.

Tools of the Trade: The Socio-Technology of Arbitrage in a Wall Street Trading Room Daniel Beunza and David Stark Our task in this paper is to analyze the organization of trading in the era of quantitative finance. To do so, we conduct an ethnography of arbitrage, the trading strategy that best exemplifies finance in the wake of the quantitative revolution. In contrast to value and momentum investing, we argue, 16

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

arbitrage involves an art of association the construction of equivalence (comparability) of properties across different assets. In place of essential or relational characteristics, the peculiar valuation that takes place in arbitrage is based on an operation that makes something the measure of something else associating securities to each other. The process of recognizing opportunities and the practices of making novel associations are shaped by the specific socio-spatial and sociotechnical configurations of the trading room. Calculation is distributed across persons and instruments as the trading room organizes interaction among diverse principles of valuation.

The Network Topology of the Interbank Market Michael Boss, Helmut Elsinger, Martin Summer, and Stefan Thurner We provide an empirical analysis of the network structure of the Austrian interbank market based on a unique data set of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank (OeNB). We show that the contract size distribution follows a power law over more than 3 decades. By using a novel dissimilarity measure we find that the interbank network shows a community structure that exactly mirrors the regional and sectoral organization of the actual Austrian banking system. The degree distribution of the interbank network shows two different power-law exponents that are oneto-one related to two sub-network structures, differing in the degree of hierarchical organization. The banking network moreover shares typical structural features known in numerous complex real world networks: a low clustering coefficient and a relatively short average shortest path length. These empirical findings are in marked contrast to interbank networks that have been analyzed in the theoretical economic and econo-physics literature.

Dissertation Abstracts
Investigating Credit Card Debt: The Rationality of Consumers and The Effect on Consumption Tufan Ekici This dissertation focuses on two critical issues in the United States credit card market: (1) the determinants and the rationality of credit card borrowing and (2) the extent to which household consumption can be accounted for by credit card debt. The first part analyzes the usefulness of price expectations and consumer confidence measures in predicting consumer borrowing on credit cards. It has been argued that there are irrational elements in the credit card market since consumers borrow on cards at very high interest rates. Previous empirical investigations have used the nominal interest rate as a determinant of borrowing. To investigate the issue of rationality, I use a new set of survey data (Ohio Economic Survey) that has information on both price expectations and credit card use. Thus, I can construct an expected real interest rate variable to test for consumer rationality. Censored regression estimation results show that when price expectations are taken into account, consumers adjust their credit card borrowing to the expected real interest rate, which is a rational economic behavior. Credit card borrowing is also found to be significantly related to two key income components of consumer confidence. Thus the behavior of credit card users is shown to be more complex and rational than what has been argued in previous research. The second part of this work investigates the effect of credit card debt on household consumption. The Permanent Income Hypothesis predicts that debt should have no effect on consumption growth. The existing literature offers evidence for the effect of some aggregate debt measures on aggregate 17

consumption growth. I first show that a new index specifically designed to capture credit card indebtedness is able to explain up to 14 percent of aggregate durable consumption growth. The index utilizes data from a monthly household survey (OES) and incorporates some variables which have generally been unavailable to researchers. I then combine two micro data sets, the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) and the Ohio Economic Survey (OES), to test for the extent to which individual households spending decisions can be accounted for by credit card debt. The results will provide insight about the macroeconomic effects of credit card debt and should be useful for the policy-makers. An Economic and Financial Analysis of the Latin American Model of Pension Intermediaries Rafael Romero-Meza In both developed and developing countries, there is currently a great level of public and political awareness about the topic of mandatory pension systems. In the early 1990s, several Latin American countries, facing problems with their pay-as-you-go pension systems, introduced definedcontribution pension models, where participants have individual accounts managed by private pension intermediaries. This dissertation develops policy recommendations to improve the operation of private pension intermediaries as implemented in several Latin American countries. Governments in these countries offer two types of guarantees, on the minimum pension income, and on the rate of return of the funds managed by pension intermediaries, which can offer only one fund per intermediary. Based on both theoretical and empirical analysis, I conclude that the regulation that guarantees a rate of return on workers' pension funds, as it is applied in these countries, is incompatible with a competitive industry of private pension intermediaries. If a government believes that some guarantee must be provided, I recommend both allowing pension intermediaries to offer more than one fund and providing a guarantee only to the low risk portfolio. Moreover, I propose that workers save in the low risk portfolio a fixed amount of money, which should be enough to fund a lifetime annuity that pays the minimum pension income. Any excess over the required saving (10% of income) could be allocated in a portfolio without any guarantee on the rate of return. In addition I propose to allow private pension intermediaries to offer additional services and products. New products with option like features can be created using the techniques developed by financial engineering. Differential Impact of Information Technology on Cost Driver Relationships in Selected Banking Functions Jamshed Mistry A central question in management accounting is the relationship between overhead costs and cost drivers. Management accounting information systems, such as cost driver models, are essential to provide information necessary to support managerial decision-making and control (Kaplan, 1983, 1984, 1993). This dissertation has two primary objectives. The first objective is to develop and estimate a context-specific model of the effect of three categories of cost drivers (volume, operational, and product-design based) on revenues and costs for commercial banking, which can be used to examine the differential effects of the drivers within and between banking functions. The increasing use of Information Technology (IT) has resulted in the creation of another important cost category (IT investment and operating costs) that contributes to overhead costs. Although increases in IT spending are expected to increase productivity and profitability, research examining these effects has yielded mixed results. A number of researchers have labeled this "the productivity paradox" (Brynjolfsson, 1993). Hence, the second objective of this study is to examine the role of IT in moderating the relationship between costs and cost drivers and revenue and revenue drivers. The cost driver model enables examination of how the moderating effect of IT differs within and 18

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

between bank functions. Specific hypotheses regarding the moderating effect of IT are developed by drawing on Weill's (1990) framework to disaggregate IT investment info Strategic and Transactional uses of IT. The model and hypotheses are empirically tested on a cross-sectional sample of 59 banks from the Functional Cost and Profit analysis data set collected by the Federal Reserve Banks. While the sample is small, the data set is particularly useful because it provides both financial and operating data, including direct and distributed costs of separate banking functions, and enables the allocation of support costs, including IT, to functions. Multivariate regression analysis with interaction terms is used to estimate the model. Despite the relatively small sample size and collinearity, the results are generally consistent with the predicted hypotheses regarding: a) the moderating role of Transactional IT on the cost driver relationships in the cost functions and the moderating role of IT on the revenue driver relationships in the revenue functions, and b) the differential impact of IT on the cost and revenue driver relationships in the two separate banking functions. Money and Knowledge: Sources of Seed Capital and the Performance of High Technology Start-ups Susanna Khavul As countries compete in the knowledge economy, investment in high technology entrepreneurial startups often becomes a national priority. High technology startups, however, operate in turbulent high-risk environments, which makes raising funds from traditional market sources difficult. As such, equity seed capital for high technology entrepreneurial startups originates from multiple sources, including personal finance, private investors, venture capital, government, and corporations. This study examines how different sources of seed capital and the levels of ownership control impact the performance of knowledge-intensive new ventures in high technology industries. Building on previous research, the study argues that through their ownership positions, sources of financial seed capital may generate a de facto meso-institutional environment around the start-up firm, affecting its resource position and performance. The study compared the differences in the dimensions of the meso-institutional environment, resource positions, speed to product and speed to market of startup firms with either institutional control, non-institutional control, and mixed ownership. The strength of directional hypotheses was tested in the context of Israel's emergent entrepreneurial high technology sector. The first part of the study was grounded in qualitative case interviews of fifty-two founders/CEOs of Israeli high technology new ventures and twenty-nine intermediaries in the startup process, including venture capitalists, placement agents, and administrators in government funding agencies. The second part of the study surveyed a randomly sampled cross-section of founders/CEOs in Israeli high technology startups who have received financing from multiple sources. The main findings were as follows. Firms where institutions had controlling interest in equity reported significantly higher overall resource positions than either firms with non-institutional control or mixed equity. Firms with institutional control perceived their meso-institutional environments as significantly more legitimizing than either firms with non-institutional control or mixed equity. Firms with mixed equity perceived their meso-institutional environments as significantly more munificent than firms with non-institutional controls; however, there were no significant differences between firms with institutional and non-institutional control. There were also no differences between the three groups in the reported concentration of power and authority. Finally, firms with mixed control of equity had significantly faster times to product that either firms with institutional or non-institutional control of equity. 19

Mitigating the Economic Impact of Refugees in Rwanda and Uganda Richard Alec Jones (PhD in Post War Recovery 2004) This study is concerned with advocating a constructive approach for mitigating the economic impact of refugees in Rwanda and Uganda. The research is underpinned by three main parameters: 1) Poverty/economics 2) Socio-historical factors that prove the link between poverty and conflict within Rwanda and 3) Refugee dynamics in the Great Lakes, particularly from the outfall of the Rwandan genocide in 1994. These show that the main problem to be addressed is that disjointed refugee resettlement and repatriation programmes and poverty reduction strategies mean that impoverished refugees are returning to impoverished communities, where poverty further increases leading to tension and eventual renewed displacement. This phenomenon is known as the Refugee Continuum. The aim is to advocate a project process with accompanying recommendations that are specifically relevant to the realities at the micro and macro level within Rwanda, based on the following hypothesis: The integration of poverty reduction strategies with refugee resettlement and repatriation programmes within Rwanda can be undertaken through a process which eases the transition between immediate returning refugee impact in the short term (promoting relief), with the need for the returnees and established locals' longer term coexistence (promoting development). This is achieved through the integration of the primarily macroeconomic driven priorities of the Rwandan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) with the need to increase the capacity of the communities to absorb returning refugees at the micro level through a Transitory Integrative Project vehicle. Thus linking refugee resettlement and repatriation programmes and poverty reduction strategies. Such an approach minimises the Refugee Continuum and increases prospects for stabilisation and development. The study sets out to understand the nature of poverty, its relationship with conflict and the complexity of poverty reduction in areas of extreme poverty exacerbated by population flows. By linking the theory with practical research in Uganda and Rwanda it attempts to show how people can increase their financial, social, physical, natural and human assets by addressing common livelihood priorities through a specific type of project, set within the ultimate PRSP objective of gradual structural transformation.

20

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Chapter 1 - Appendix 2 - Concordances

The following concordance lists have been produced by processing a corpus (i.e. a collection) of abstracts using specific software. You can download a concordancing program for free from the following website: www.edict.com.hk/PUB/concapp/. A tutorial in Italian about how to use Concapp can be found at the end of this Dispensa (p. 85). Frequent patterns in the concordance of paper (cf. MB Abstracts) In this paper we provide a ranking of European economics institutions We se a unique enterprise level random survey of 150 firms We study the effect of certain types of public compulsory insurance We present a summary of recent microeconometric results We study renegotiation in procurement auctions We develop a stochastic dynamic general equilibrium model We consider the organisation of international antitrust as an issue The authors examine whether homeowning benefits children The author investigates J.C. Harsanyis utilitarianism aggregation The authors show that a non-cooperative game with a finite set of The authors analyse the impact of uncertainty on the level and The author considers the principal multiple agents problem The authors use an implementation approach to see whether The authors test the effectiveness of the arbitrage pricing The authors study a large market in which sellers compete The authors question the validity of using TFP growth rates as a

This paper reviews This paper reviews This paper reviews The paper reviews This paper reviews The paper reviews

the literature discussing historical patterns in defense estimators for multiple regime selection models, which in and appraises UNCED and outlines some of the developments some recent theoretical contributions on the modelization existing studies of the role of emerging market business the main findings on individual decision making under

This paper summarises suggests This paper reports This paper reports This paper reports This paper reports This paper reports

a few useful methods, and shows how they can be a plausible microstructural connection between

new estimates of the elasticity of substitution between an experiment designed to separate these considerations, on an empirical examination of this proposition, by linking the first analysis of the structure of Russian cities after 70 quarterly ex ante forecasts of macroeconomic activity for the popular assumption that real estate commissions the empirical evidence on the degree of spatial spillover the proposal to use options in corporate bankruptcy that the different results by showing that they depend in large some conflicting interpretations of recent literature on 21

This paper reexamines This paper reexamines This paper revisits This paper reconciles This paper reconciles

This paper studies

a broad class of infinite-horizon economies that are A large class of bounded-rationality, probabilistic learning The welfare effect of foreign investment into an economy The effects of regional integration on the location of labour The simplest formulation of the general screening model Three price-based policies for solid waste reduction: (1) The impact of profit sharing and bonus payment on The relationship between the degree of regional integration Whether the price charged to a competitor for the use of The provision of environmental quality in The intertemporal allocation of funds through demand The implications of buyers liquidity constraints Coverage extension in a simple general equilibrium model that integration may turn an honest country into an evading how the model can be solved and the optimal escape clause generic determinacy of equilibria for sender-receiver cheapthat if, the consumption good production function is alphathat it can be characterized in terms of restrictions on play that asymmetric information between lenders and borrower that additive purchasing power parity (PPP) methods, such discussing the goals that should guide the design of a dynamic agency model to offer a resolution of the A precise formalism to state and prove the following result: Census evidence from mid-nineteenth century France to investiUses the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to provide some of A simultaneous model of census tract population and employment Firm level date to examine the effectiveness of agreements a motivation for public involvement in internal improvement evidence that the common factor restrictions (CFR) play an introduction and overview on the economics of international a utility-theoretic interpretation of "Don't-Know" (DK) an axiomatic basis for a representation of personal prefer a theoretical insight into the causes of a recession and a a theoretical model of waste management which is dynamic a theory of diversification and financial structure of banks a simple model to discuss the financing of network

the paper shows This paper shows This paper shows This paper shows this paper shows This paper shows This paper shows This paper starts by This paper uses

This paper provides This paper provides this paper provides This paper provides This paper provides The paper provides This paper provides This paper provides This paper provides

The paper proposes a new method for computing these probabilities, and This paper proposes a signaling model that offers a new perspective on why This paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the effects of This paper presents This paper presents The paper presents The paper presents This paper presents 22 an approach to such multilateral bargaining problems. A a model of the beef sector of the Greek economy. an overview of state trading activities in Russia in light of a new social accounting matrix (SAM) for Argentina and a data system that gives consistent, complete and detailed

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

This paper presents

a general equilibrium model of a multi-city economy where

The paper presents a model which allows identification of long-run response This paper presents a simple game-theoretic model in which players decide This paper presents new evidence concerning the importance of poor relief as This paper presents the first attempt to explore recent changes in office-com The following paper presents a simple neoclassical growth model where corruption is This paper presents an amenity-based theory of location by income. This paper presents the results of a political stock market in the Netherlands This paper presents a simple model of the links between education, democracy This paper presents an extension of the Alesina and Drazen (1991. American This paper offers the paper offers The paper offers This paper offers This paper offers This paper offers a model of the allocation of funds in Chinese state-owned insights into the transition from a socialist economy into a a refined version of the procedure, and it also responds to a counter-argument to Friedman's (In: Essays in Positive a short survey of recent contributions about the informationan alternative analysis that relates voting outcomes to the

The main conclusion of the paper is that the Italian depression, comparable to that of other The main finding of the paper is that the desirability of an electoral area between two The hypothesis examined in this paper is that the greater the investor's flexibility, the easier it is for The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether structural change is a key element in acco The contribution of this paper is to identify the presence of a profit-sharing system and an infor The purpose of this paper is to consider what determines the differences between the combi The purpose of this paper is to consider the effect of the composition of economic activity o The objective of this paper is threefold. First, to estimate the productivity performances realiz A further distinguishing aspect of the paper is its attempt to incorporate the impact of unobservable The purpose of the paper is to reconcile the willingness to pay technique as a means of coll The novelty of this paper is twofold. First, it defines a range of competition policy implemen The purpose of this paper is to assess the importance of spatial variability in physical param The aim of this paper is to construct theoretical models which help to shed light on the The purpose of this paper is to explain empirical observations concerning the impact of exch The objective of this paper is to use input-output analysis to examine the resource allocation This paper investigates This paper investigates The paper investigates This paper investigates This paper investigates The paper investigates This paper investigates This paper investigates The paper investigates This paper explores This paper explores This paper explores this paper explores the empirical significance of underwriter reputation ca the knowledge that people have of the spatial distribu one aspect of party governance, namely the allocatio the relationship between agglomeration and specializ the impact on company behaviour of increases in fina the optimal provision of public goods in the presence institutional reasons for the soft-budget constraint pro convergence for a group of seven countries during the the impact of financial integration on asset return, ris

the possibility of using the classical concept of 'civil soci the hypothesis that high tax rates can distort the decisio two sets of potential determinants of this decision. One the connections between the distribution of land, factor 23

This paper explores some relationships between promotion of competition an The paper explains why bank loans and grants coexist with self-financing, w This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines The paper examines This paper examines The paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines this paper examines This paper examines This paper examines this paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines This paper examines the effect of the MFC rules adopted by Medicaid on bot the quantitative effects of the transitional system of value the intertemporal optimal consumption and investment an evolutionary model in which the primary source of the access of small private-sector firms in Hungary to the relationship between community-level exposure to a issues that senior human resource management execu a local public goods economy where individuals' tastes the effects of age, occupation, population size of place a large population analog of fictitious play in which play how profit maximizing fishers respond to different types incentive and valuation effects of debt financing on land some general notions relating to the comparison of Cou how a public wastewater treatment plant balances obje the empirical validity of this explanation using data on o to what extent licence contracts can internalize the bus the impact of the various reform measures on the produ the hypothesis of Harold Innis (1894 1952) that there is the roles of transportation policy and demographic chan the spatial evolution of computers across 317 metro are the implications of tax evasion for fiscal competition an the argument that the availability of collateral rules out the effects on technology transfer and spillovers derivin the consequences of falling transport costs for intermed the evolution of the role of income distribution in the pro how the presence of a non-negligible fraction of reciproc

This paper discusses some analytical and practical questions raised by MCI This paper discusses the structure of the individual AMT and examines the lo This short paper discusses recent insights of multitask agency theory. It considers The paper discusses the history of the plans beginning in the Soviet period, t This paper discusses some problems posed by foreign currency debt for em This paper develops This paper develops the paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops The paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops This paper develops 24 an estimable model of recreation behavior in which the r an econometric model that incorporates all three compo a housing search model and measures the cost of discri a general-equilibrium model of a system of core-peripher a positive theory explaining pollution tax policy outcome a model of price determination in insurance markets. Ins conditions under which clusters of activity emerge. Auth an analytical framework to assess these effects. Circum a model of regulated open access resource exploitation. and discusses a two-sector general equilibrium growth a model of corporate hierarchy in which workers accumu a model of the choice between bank and market finance a dynamically consistent model of search, matching and a particular technique for extracting market expectations an interpretation of the Asian meltdown focused on mora

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

This paper develops a model of an unregulated banking system based around This paper deals with the problem by specifying an endogenous regime-switch This paper deals with company expectations for l997 with regard to employment this paper deals with those two issues. It will be argued in favour of an anti-inf This paper considers how cooperative solutions to games of sharing fish reso This paper considers the 'weak announcement proofness' criterion of S. A. M the paper considers dynamic allocation in an altruistic overlapping generatio This paper considers model worlds in which there is a continuum of individual this paper considers Australia's post-July 1997 regulatory regime for telecom The paper considers international per capita output and its growth using a pa This paper considers the optimal selling mechanism for complementary item The paper considers economic processes that may lead to the consolidation This paper considers a school choice plan, open enrollment, that allows stud This paper considers interjurisdictional tax competition in a two-period model This paper considers the implications of the decision of the Australian Industr This paper considers a smooth and noisy version of the statistical prediction This paper considers a fixed normal-form game played among populations of This paper considers why firms often ban monetary exchange between their This paper considers bidding behavior in a repeated procurement auction sett The paper concludes by examining welfare issues. This paper examines ho The paper concludes by explaining the relationship between the options appr This paper compares Bertrand and Cournot equilibria in a differentiated duopo This paper compares four equilibrium business cycle models with increasing This paper compares the two societies which have encouraged the study of e This paper combines statistical with economic equilibrium analysis in the co This paper attempts to show how the International Bank for Reconstruction a This paper attempts an analysis of the impact of migration on the scale and The paper attempts to reconcile some views on the Piccione-Rubinstein abs This paper argues that the analysis of these games involves a key technical i This paper argues that successful states in the ancient world depended on th This paper argues that while both technological opportunity and appropriabilit This paper argues that the way fiscal redistribution has managed to countera This paper argues that the sign of external effects of coalition formation provi The paper argues that in centrist parties, the high congruence of interest bet This paper argues that risk is related to long-run volatility of income and there This paper argues that the liberalisation of foreign direct investment (FDI) has This paper argues that unemployment insurance increases labor productivity This paper analyzes competitive allocations of an exhaustible resource in an the paper analyzes the role of crises and foreign assistance in bringing abo The paper analyzes the highlights of the country's economic recovery, explor The paper analyzes the effects of central bank independence on the position The paper analyzes a simple discrete-time noncooperative coalititional barga This paper analyzes the formation of trading groups in a bilateral market wher This paper analyzes repeated games with private monitoring where in each p 25

This paper analyzes the relationship between unemployment duration and th This paper analyzes D. Pearce's (1984) notion of extensive form rationalizabil This paper analyzes the theory that Soviet farm marketing was so price unre The paper analyzes the institutional conditions under which policymakers ca This paper analyzes the effects of information on participation and time-of-us This paper analyzes the deadweight loss of delegated auditing in a three-tier This paper analyzes the deadweight loss of delegated auditing in a three-tier This paper analyzes the optimal interest rate policy in currency crises. Firms The paper analyses the welfare effects of these taxes as well as to what ext This paper analyses the employment effects of revenue-neutral green tax refo . This paper analyses the impact of modifying this assumption by allowing for The paper analyses the switch from pay-as-you-go to funded pensions pen This paper analyses the decision by firms under Cournot oligopoly as to reco This paper analyses the factors determining the scale and location of Japane this paper addresses the effect of rent control laws on two groups considere In addition, the paper addresses the effects of open enrollment on competition between this paper addresses the formalization and implications of the hypothesis th This paper addresses two general questions. First, what is the effect of mark

Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to consider what determines the differences between the combinations of financial and labour systems observed in some large market economies. The purpose of this paper is to consider the effect of the composition of economic activity on innovation. The purpose of this article is to explain the major changes made by the Basle Committee to its previous set of proposals (Basle Committee 1995) which were outlined in Hall 1995. The purpose of the paper is to reconcile the willingness to pay technique as a means of collecting information, put forward in earlier studies, with the growth theoretical approach to social ac The purpose of this study is to compare the performance of the public sector with that of the private sector for the various sub-sectors of manufacturing in Turkey. The purpose of this paper is to assess the importance of spatial variability in physical parameters in the design of efficient pollution regulations. The purpose of this paper is to explain empirical observations concerning the impact of exchange rate changes on industrial prices.

Framework
1 The optimum currency area analysis is reexamined in a Mundell Fleming framework with local-currency pricing. 2 The authors consider Amartya Sen's familiar paradox of the Paretian liberal in a framework where individual rights are represented as a game form. 3 Using a three-period framework, we provide approximate solutions for optimal consumption choices 4 This paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the effects of central bank independence, of the degree of centralization of wage bargaining and of the interaction between those institutional variables, on real wages, unemployment and inflation, 5 The present paper extends the standard framework to cover the case of labour-augmenting technological progress. 26

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

6 This paper develops an analytical framework to assess these effects. 7 This paper applies this framework to an exchange-rate escape clause but is unable to solve his model given a triangular distribution of the supply shocks. 8 In order to understand how self-fulfillment can be realized in a dynamic framework, the authors investigate the relationship between 9 Using this bargaining framework, the paper analyzes the role of crises and foreign assistance in bringing about a settlement to the distributional conflict. 10 Nonconvexities are not fundamental in this framework. 11 We use a framework that nests an increasing returns model of economic geography featuring home market effects' with that of Heckscher Ohlin. 12 We introduce a framework that has known models of oligopolistic competition with differentiated products (the circle, the logit, and the CES) as limit cases. 13 the pros and cons of these different approaches within a coherent conceptual framework that applies contract theory to the regulation of banking. 14 Conversely, it is shown in a general framework that any convex (thus progressive) tax function satisfies the principle of equal sacrifice. 15 o show that the most important predictions of the standard theory hold in the general finite framework studied here. 16 In this framework, prescription drug discounts appear to make some consumers (those in the managed care sector) better off and other consumers (those outside the managed care sector) worse off. 17 This paper analyzes the theory that Soviet farm marketing was so price unresponsive that rapid industrialization within the framework of the NEP would have been choked off by rising farm prices and inadequate sales. 18 We first point out that the current framework of public international law allows for wide discretion in the assertion of jurisdiction. 19 The analysis is carried out in the framework of a general equilibrium model of a mixed economy with production. 20 We find that in this framework, much of the scope for conflict disappears. 21 Although seldom modeled outside the monopolistic competition framework, market incompleteness and imperfect competition are central to the new growth theories. 22 A simple game-theoretic framework is applied to analyse international cooperation by focusing on the prisoner's dilemma on the one hand and bargaining in the Coasian sense on the other. 23 The model provides a simple theoretical framework in which the level of corruption as well as the effects of corruption on income, consumption, and growth are identifiable. 24 This is modeled in the context of a political economy framework in which social cohesion reduces wasteful rent seeking, and thus strengthens incentives for investment in human captial. 25 recently demonstrated a potential conflict between stability and efficiency in this framework. 26 Based on the principal agent framework I develop a simple model of policy loans, which are granted by the government on non-market terms, to formalize this important banking phenomenon in both China and other developing countries. 27 The model serves as the framework for an econometric study of participation in the Conservation Reserve Program by Northeastern landowners. 28 In the absence of an institutional framework facilitating more dispersed ownership, 29 Studies of optimal growth in a multisector framework are generally addressed in reducedform models, defined by an indirect utility function which summarizes the consumer's preferences and the technologies. 30 Instead, an incentive framework and legal environment should be created for the major nongovernment creditors to initiate restructuring.

27

31 The authors develop this conceptual framework and assess the findings from three studies of major commercial banks undergoing privatisation

Result in (Vb)
1 Ruggiero et al- (1997) argue that the 'Pythagorean Theorem' is an inappropriate basis for evaluating baseball managers and has an illogical arithmetic property that can result in a manager's evaluation being dependent upon the strength of his team. 2 Olewiler (1993 and 1995) describe a model in which some competition can result in suboptimal Nash equilibrium. 3 Rather, they may result in the formation of a megalopolis that consists of large core cities that are connected by an industrial belt, i.e., a continuum of cities, where economic activities are dispersed over an interval on the location space. 4 Violation of (ii) may result in cyclical behaviour of actions on each sample path. 5 Violation of (i) may result in an 'anything is possible' result: any stochastic process of actions is consistent with maximizing behaviour and Bayesian updating. 6 and how the soft-budget constraint problem creates conditions which may result in a financial crisis. 7 empirical finding suggests that the missing common factor restrictions may result in a quite different and perhaps misleading inference. 8 In our benchmark, small reductions in working time, starting from the laissez-faire equilibrium solution, always result in a small increase in the equilibrium employment, while larger reductions reduce employment. 9 a one unit increase in (subsidized) free parking will result in more than one additional parker, adding to neighbourhood spillovers. 10 says that the Board believes that this bill would improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the financial services industry and result in better service to consumers 11 programs converge to a fixed point or to a cycle of finite period, and hence result in the conservation of the resource.

As a result
1 some of these payments are made purely as a result of asymmetry in bargaining power and have nothing to do with 2 increased parcel sizes would be associated with lower unit prices as a result of the concavity of the land price function. 3 1.8 million defense-related jobs in the private sector would be lost as a result of the actual and proposed cuts in spending 4 yields the corresponding consistent bankruptcy rule as a result of a unique outcome of Nash equilibria. 5 As a result, international bodies such as the EU, ITU, OECD and WTO are 6 As a result, his finding undermines the credibility of the existing conclusion 7 As a result, Geary Khamis comparisons tend to underestimate

Result (N)
1 2 3 4 5 6 28 The main result states that if the payoff functions are semicontinuous and strong The main result of this study is that a financial constraint may serve as a discipli The main result obtained from the simulation of the theoretical model is that, alt The main result is that regional integration, in the form of a reduction in transport The main result is that if we take a certain order is greater than or equal to The main result is convergence with probability one to a fixed pattern of pure

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

7 This result is consistent with suggestions that agricultural districts where t 8 This result is obtained by using martingale techniques to reformulate the in 9 This result is applied to game theory to obtain a natural interpretation of co 10 This result is shown to be consistent with available evidence on working 11 This result has implications for empirical work. Moreover, this negative effect 13 However, the fundamental reason for this result has nothing to do with vintages; rather, 14 This result follows the presumption that women are poorly motivated by 15 An example shows that this result does not carry over to stationary stochastic environments. 16 Their result is robust to a variety of specification tests. Using panel data 15 The importance of the result is exemplified by the graduate tax. 16 The result holds for a large class of consistent and monotone rules, including 17 The result does not come from an effect of instability on investment.

Evidence
1. New evidence is presented that reaffirms the predominance of local-currency pricing 2. Evidence is found of local spatial externalities between university research and 3. Evidence is presented that it was the Ford Motor Company that first develope 4. Evidence is presented showing that job-finding probabilities of the unemployed 5. First, detailed historical evidence is studied. Second, Innis's ideas are translated into a formal 6. Evidence is lacking on the extent to which groups facilitate rent-seeking or 7. Evidence is then presented showing that inflation is positively correlated with 8. Evidence is also lacking on the extent to which groups hamper the future deve 9. Furthermore, quantitative evidence is presented supporting the view that Federal Reserve 10. Empirical evidence is found in favour of a stable long-run M2 money demand function 11. Evidence from the French experience Thomas Piketty* CEPREMAP, 142 ru 12. It provides evidence from British and German data that is consistent with this view. 13. Evidence from industrial and developing countries: Francesco Giavazzi, 14. This paper uses census evidence from mid-nineteenth century France to investigate how and to 15. Insider power and wage setting in transition: Evidence from a panel of large Polish firms, 16. The effects of wage distortions on the transition: Theory and evidence from China Roger H. 17. Our evidence supports the finding that the social security system has substantially 18. The evidence suggests that migration between industry and agriculture was quite 19. I then argue that the existing evidence suggests that the performance effects of group affiliation 20. The evidence suggests that five price series exhibit stochastic trends, while the 21. Empirical evidence strongly supports this finding for industrialized countries and Europe 22. Evidence shows that firms build their market position by accumulating knowledge 23. However, other evidence shows that general training is financed by firms, especially in 24. The evidence provides considerable support for the diversity thesis but little support 25. The evidence provides ways for the People's Bank of China to improve the effective 26. There exists evidence of a sizable shift of elderly households away from homeownership. 27. The author finds strong evidence of MAR (Marshall-arrow-Romer) (own industry, or localization) 28. The model is consistent with the empirical evidence of SOEs restructuring in transition

29

29. We find strong evidence of significant dynamic own industry externalities for single plant firm 30. Evidence of superior forecasting skill would imply that U.S. monetary authorities 31. found to provide strong evidence of local spillovers at the state level. At the MSA level, a 32. and little evidence of urbanization-Jacobs-knowledge type externalities. Corporate plant 33. With individual country tests, we find evidence of stationarity in only four of the thirteen countries. 34. there is evidence of diminishing marginal productivity gains for both forms of ownership 35. present empirical evidence of significant spillovers from inward investment on technical progress 36. The economic literature provides empirical evidence of the existence of technological cartels, Collocates of evidence: empirical (***), strong (**), recent, existing, systematic, experimental, direct, substantial, abstract, available, new, quantitative, historical.

Given (A + given)
1. We identify conditions such that for a given rationality parameter range the path of choices over 2. If households sort efficiently across locations, then at a given location families receive the same 3. Novel comparative statics show that debt value May increase for a given increase in asset volatility 4. as the probability of entry increases, expected profit for a given firm, conditional on entry, increases over some initial range. 5. to the event that a country joins the European Monetary Union at a given date. 6. signals a higher probability of joining EMU at a given date, or simply reflects improved

(given + the/that)
7. At equilibrium, each player uses appropriate choice probabilities, given those used by the others. 8. with private information about their types, choose utility-maximizing signals given these prices. 9. It also shows that, given the observed matrix of subsequent tenure transitions, these impacts o 10. Given the meager amount of informal assistance available to them, most 11. Given the strong theoretical presumption that state enterprises are less efficient 12. The equilibrium is second best, given the imposition of the revenue constraint on the 13. Second, given that essential local inputs are vulnerable to monopolization and 14. Given that the cities within an economy constitute some form of hierarchical

30

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Chapter 1 - Appendix 3 - Transition Cues

[Adapted from LEO, Literacy Education Online, http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/transitioncues.html]

Transitions help readers connect the ideas in a piece of writing; they're the glue that shows how pieces of your text fit together. Often all you'll need is a word or phrase to lead readers through your text. There are words and phrases which help you 1. lead readers forward from information they've already read to new information 2. move readers into specific examples 3. lead readers through a sequence a. from one time-frame to another b. draw readers' attention to a particular location or place c. let readers know that a digression is about to begin or end 4. draw readers' attention to cause and effect relationships a. to emphasize a cause or reason b. to clarify the purpose of something 5. make readers stop and compare what they've just read to what they're about to read 6. lead readers into statements that clarify or emphasize a. to clarify a point that readers have just read b. to emphasize a point that readers are about to read 7. lead readers into concessions, reservations, dismissals, or conditions a. to concede a point that readers are likely to think of b. to clarify for readers the writer's reservations c. to dismiss a point that readers are likely to think of d. to establish a condition or conditions affecting the subject 8. lead readers into a summary or conclusion a. To repeat a point you've already made b. To summarize what you've already said c. To introduce readers to a conclusion or conclusions Here are some examples.
Old Information Transition ADDITION Actually, Additionally, Again, Also, And Besides Equally important, Finally, First, Second, Third, etc. Further, Furthermore, Incidentally, Indeed, In fact, Lastly, Moreover, Not only this, but this as well What's more, New Information

31

Generalization

Transition EXAMPLES As an illustration, Especially, For example, For instance, Including In particular, Namely, Notably, Particularly, Specifically, To demonstrate, To illustrate,

Examples

One time

Transition TIME After a few hours, Afterwards, At last At the same time, Before Before this, Currently, During Eventually, Finally, First, Second, Third, etc. First of all, Formerly Immediately before, Immediately following, Initially, In the end, In the future, In the meantime, In the meanwhile, Last, Last but not least, Lastly, Later, Meanwhile, Next, Soon after, Previously, Simultaneously, Subsequently, Then,

Another time

One place

Transition PLACE Adjacent, Alongside, At the side, In the background, In the distance, In the front,

Another place

Here/There In the foreground In the back, Nearby,

Digression

Transition

Main point

32

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

back to Transition Main point begin DIGRESSION/RESUMPTION Anyhow, Anyway, Incidentally, To change the subject, Digression

As I was saying, To get back to the point, At any rate, By the way, Transition An effect move in to CAUSE/REASON As Because of For Since Transition Cause/Reason move in to EFFECT/RESULT As a result Because of this, So So that An effect Because Due to For the simple reason that Cause/Reason To return to the subject, To resume,

For this reason, Therefore, Consequently, Thus,

Transition Something move in to PURPOSE For fear that In the hope that In order to So So that With this in mind, Its purpose

Just read

Transition

About to read

33

equal or not equal COMPARISON/CONTRAST Although/Although this is true And yet At the same time, But Conversely, For all that, In comparison, In contrast, In the same manner/way, However, Likewise, Meanwhile, Nevertheless, Nonetheless, Nothwithstanding, On the contrary, On the other hand, Similarly, Still, While this is true When in fact Whereas

Transition Point just read meaning CLARIFICATION In other words, In this case, I mean Put another way Transition Point just read !!!! EMPHASIS As a matter of fact, In any case, In any event, Indeed, In fact, Obviously, That is Undoubtedly, Emphatic point That is to say Under certain circumstances Up to a point Clarification

Transition Point just read but maybe CONCLUSION Accordingly, In short, Concession

34

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

As a result,

In summary,

Consequently, On the whole, Finally, Hence, In brief, So Therefore, Thus,

In conclusion, To conclude,

Transition Point just read even so RESERVATION Admittedly, As a matter of fact, Even so, Even though Despite this Indeed, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding, Regardless Reservation

Transition Point may be true BUT DISMISSAL All the same, At any rate, Either way, In either case, In either event, Whatever happens, Dismissal

In any case/event, Whichever happens,

Transition The subject is true IF CONDITION Although But However, Nevertheless, Although this is true, Even though, In spite of Since This condition is met

Transition A point =

Point stated differently

35

REPETITION As I have noted, As indicated above/earlier, As I stated, As mentioned, As noted earlier, In brief, In short, In summary, On the whole,

Transition Points made nutshell SUMMARY All in all, All together, As I mentioned, As I stated, Briefly, By and large, Finally, Given these facts, In brief, In conclusion, In short, In summary, On the whole, Overall, Since So Summing up, Then, Therefore, To conclude, To put it briefly, To summarize, Summary

Transition Points made the end is coming CONCLUSION Accordingly, As a result, In short, In summary, Conclusion

Consequently, On the whole, Finally, Hence, In brief, So Therefore, Thus,

In conclusion, To conclude,

Exercise. Read the sample abstracts given in Appendix 1 and analyse how their authors use transitional words and expressions. 36

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Chapter 1 - Appendix 4 Patterns with Prepositions WORD COMBINATIONS

(From: http://www.edict.com.hk/vlc/GrammarCourse/Lesson2_Preposition/words.htm)

Pattern

Example

accuse someone of doing ( : He was accused of stealing the money. for) agree with someone or an idea I agree with you. I don't agree with capital punishment. agree about a discussion topic My wife and I agree about most things. agree on a decision agree to a suggestion / price etc apologise to someone arrive at / in somewhere ( : to) ask for something believe in someone / something / doing We agreed on a date for the meeting. I wouldn't agree to such a high price. She apologised to everyone.

apologise for doing something She apologised for coming late. When does the plane arrive in London? They asked for a pay rise. Do you believe in God? She doesn't believe in dieting. I believe in you - I know you'll help me. (= trust)

belong in / on somewhere (= The plates belong in the cupboard. be in the proper place) belong to someone (= be owned) belong to something (= be a member of) care about something Those books belong to me. She belongs to a tennis club. He doesn't care about the money.

care for someone (= like, love) I don't think she she cares for him. congratulate someone on / for He congratulated the team on winning the match. (for winning) doing crash into something depend on something / someone die of / from The bus crashed into a lorry. I'm not sure if we'll go, it depends on the weather. He depends on his parents to pay the fees. Many people have died of AIDS in the past 20 years. ( from AIDS)

37

divide into dream of (= imagine, want) dress in ( : with) drive into ( : against) enter into an agreement, discussion

Lord of the Rings is divided into several books. He dreamt of becoming a singer.

dream about (while sleeping) Last night I dreamt about you. She's the woman dressed in red. The taxi drove into the back of a bus. China has entered into an agreement with Russia to buy corn.

explain something to someone I tried to explain the rules to him. fight / struggle with get into / out of a car etc get onto / off a bus, train etc insist on doing be lacking in laugh at laugh about listen to look at look after look for For years he has had to struggle with drug addiction. She must have dropped her scarf when she got into the taxi. All the passengers had to get off the train when it broke down. George insisted on paying for everyone. She is lacking in good manners. The audience didn't laugh at his jokes. This isn't something to laugh about - it's a serious matter. Listen to the tape and answer the questions. Don't look at me like that. Can you look after my cat while I'm away? I've been looking for my keys, but I can't find them anywhere.

make something of / be made This watch is made of plastic. of be married to someone operate on someone pay for be pleased with be pleased about / at I've been married to Jenny for two years. They operated on him yesterday. I'll pay for the drinks. She's not very pleased with you at the moment. She's very pleased about passing the exam.

prevent someone from doing The noise from the storm prevented me from sleeping. run into someone (= meet) search for be shocked at / by 38 I ran into Bill Brown the other day. I searched for my keys but couldn't find them. I was shocked at the news of his death.

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

shout at (= aggressive, angry) Please don't shout at me like that. shout to someone (= call) smile at someone be sorry about (= sympathy) be sorry for (= apologise) be sorry for someone speak to / with someone suffer from surprised at / by take part in ( : at) She shouted to the children to come indoors. When she smiled at me I realised she wasn't angry. I'm very sorry about his accident. I'm sorry for being late. I'm so sorry for John - he's had a terrible time. I'll speak to him about it. (with him) She suffers from insomnia and depression. I was so surprised at him getting a high grade. I have to take part in the meeting.

think of / about doing ( : to) I'm thinking of studying for an MA degree. (about studying) (= not decided) throw something at someone The angry crowd through bottles at the referee. (= aggressive, angry) throw something to someone Throw the ball to me. (= in a game) translate into trip over This needs to be translated into Chinese. He tripped over the cat when he came in.

Nouns
Pattern
details of difficulty in doing discussion about example of ( : for) (the) idea of doing increase in independence from interest in lack of marriage to proof of reason for responsibility for

Example
I'll give you the details of the proposal later. The taxi driver had some dificulty in finding the right street. We had an interesting discussion about politics. The Tei Ma bridge is a great example of suspension engineering.. I don't like idea of going there for a holiday. There has been a serious increase in violent crime this year. America won its independence from Britain in the American Revolution. I really have no interest in classical opera. There is a general lack of support for the suggestion. Henry VIII's marriage to Ann Boleyn only lasted 2 years. You can see a proof of the theorem in your textbook. What is the reason for his disappearance? They must bear some reponsibility for the accident.

difficulty with something He seems to have a lot of difficulty with the students.

the thought of doing ( : to) I hate the thought of having to do it all again.

39

Adjectives
Pattern
afraid of ( : by) angry with / at someone angry about something anxious about something anxious for something anxious to + infinitive bad at something ( : in) blue with clever at disappointed with someone / something dependent on someone different from frightened of frightened by good at ill with a disease impressed with / by independent of interested in kind to someone nice to someone ( : with) polite to someone ( : with) responsible for responsible to someone rude to someone ( : with) tired of doing tired of something typical of ( : for) wrong with

Example
My daughter is not afraid of spiders. I'm very angry with her for not telling me. They're very angry about the penalty decision. They're very anxious about the test tomorrow. We're anxious for an end to the violence. She's anxious to find a better job. I'm not bad at chess, but I haven't played for sometime. My hands were blue with cold without my gloves. I'm not very clever at writing exercises. I'm very disappointed with the new teacher. We are disappointed with the latest sales figures. He is dependent on his parents for financial support. My brother is different from me in lots of ways. I've been frightened of dogs ever since I was attacked by one. She was frightened by a big spider in the bedroom. I used to be quite good at chess. She's been ill with flu this week. The boss is very impressed with your work. (by your work) She left home so she could be more independent of her parents. She's very interested in classical opera. She's been very kind to my daughter. Mr Brown isn't very nice to his pupils. Please be polite to our guests. You are responsible for getting the coffee this week. You will be responsible to Mr Brown. She was very rude to me the other day. I'm tired of eating noodles - I want something different. I'm tired of noodles - I want something different. This food is typical of Szechuan. Something is wrong with this computer.

40

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Chapter 1 - Exercise Key

Exercise 1. a. 1 and 3, b. 2, c. 1, d. 2. Exercise 2. Title (1-2); Topic sentence (3-4 - This sentence gives the general problem the research is attempting to help solve - rather than the specific research problem - in order to provide a rationale for the research); Subject/Purpose (4-6 - up to The drying system is designed to dry a variety of agricultural products. included); Expansion on the research problem (The effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process is studied. - Here the authors give the parameter they will be focusing on in order to measure the effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process. Their research problem, therefore, is to find out the effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process), Methodology (7-13 - up to processes), Results presentation and findings (13-17 - up to materials), Main conclusion of the research (17-18). Exercise 3. 1. General, 2. Third person (impersonal) style, 3. In examples a., b., c. present tense. In example d. present perfect and past (discuss why). Exercise 4. 1. provides, 2. consider, 3. argues, 4. looks, 5. calls, 6. develops. Exercise 5. 1. is looked at is emphasized, 3. is developed is embedded, 5. is then calculated, 6. is followed by. Exercise 6. 1. is employed, 2. are examined, 3. are analysed, 4. is shown, 5. are described is followed. Exercise 7. 1. This article initially considers the notion of civil society in the light of intellectual history and differentiates it into a number of 2. We apply a simple game-theoretic framework to analyse international cooperation by focusing

Chapter 1 - References
Writing up Research - The Abstract, online at http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/el21abst.htm. How to Write an Abstract, online at http://www.okstate.edu/education/jshs/abstract.htm. LEO - Literary Education Online: Transition Cues, online at http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/ transitioncues.html.

41

Chapter 2 Oral Presentations

Oral presentations are increasingly common both in academic life and in the workplace. They are used to communicate ideas and information about a variety of topics and help reduce both time and costs in the field of management and marketing. Furthermore, it has been shown that oral presentations can improve communication and foster the exchange of information and ideas.

Communication - A definition
Communication is the process of transferring ideas or thoughts from one person to another for the purpose of creating understanding in the thinking of the person receiving the communication.

Principles of Effective Communication

1. 2. 3. 4. Establish the true purpose (instruction, persuasion, amusement, etc.) Clarify your ideas before communicating Be aware of prevailing factors (time, place, mood, etc.) Determine the method (oral or written) and channel (e.g. phone letter, presentation or meeting) 5. Make the communication effective and unbiased 6. Transmit the message concisely (short and clear) 7. Make sure there is feedback 8. Be a good listener 9. Follow-up the effect 10. Make sure the right information reaches the right people in the right form at the right time

Grices Cooperative Principle and the Conversational Maxims (1975)

Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Maxims of quantity 1. 2. 1. 2. Make your contribution as informative as required. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Do not say what your believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Maxims of quality

Maxim of relation 1. 1. 3. 42 Be relevant. Avoid obscurity of expression. Be brief. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 4. Be orderly.

Maxims of manner

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Designing Effective Oral Presentations An Introduction

While hard work and good ideas are essential to success, your ability to express those ideas and get others to join you is just as important. Much of this verbal expression will be one on one or in small groups but periodically (and for some of us often) you will be involved in more formal and public speaking in front of larger numbers. If this thought makes you nervous you are not alone. Many speakers lack the skills and confidence to make effective presentations. We have all been victims of speakers (eg. teachers) who put us to sleep. Despite knowing how ineffective many speakers are, many of us have found that, despite the best intentions, we haven't fared much better. We knew the topic and the ideas were written down, but the presentation still didn't go well. Was it the way you delivered the speech? Was it because the audience didn't seem interested? But why the audience was not interested?
[From http://oldweb.uwp.edu/academic/english/martinez/Spring2004/ENG267/267oral.htm.]

Warm-up Activity You are asked to present your own hometown. Consider the following options, and discuss about the questions below. The presentation context may be:

An international trade fair for tourism; Your hometown tourist office; Your university/school; A foreign university/school; The Italian embassy or Italian Institute of Culture in ____________ (add a foreign country/city); Other: ______________________________________.

Your audience may be made up of:

Fellow students (e.g. Erasmus students) who will spend the next 3-6 months in your hometown; Fellow foreign students who may want to come and visit your hometown; Tourist operators; Foreign tourists; Foreign officials and/or diplomatic representatives of _______________ (add a foreign country); Other: _____________________________________.

1. What might be your role in the different context/audience combinations mentioned above? 2. What might be the different aim/s of your presentation in different context/audience combinations? 3. What topics may you be wanting/needing to touch on in each situation? 4. Would you always use the same type of language? If not, how would your language change?

43

Understanding the Speaker/Audience Relationship

Being an effective speaker (but also an effective writer) requires you to

Understand the context for your presentation; Analyse your audience; Understand and articulate your purpose clearly; Develop sufficient and appropriate supporting material; Organize the material so it is easy for the audience to follow; Choose a speaking style, level of language, approach to the subject, and tone suitable to your role as well as your audience and purpose; Select graphics or other visual aids that will enhance your audience's understanding of your message.

But listening is a different processing method than reading, so you will need to know how to adapt guidelines for organization, style, and graphics to fit the speaking situation. However, you will see that writing and speaking are, nevertheless, similar communication activities.

Analysing the Context

Analysing the communicational context is often difficult to separate from analysing an audience; in a sense, audience is one facet of the larger situation. In analysing the situation, you need to know why your presentation is required.

What is the broader concern underlying the need for the presentation? What primary issues underlie the presentation? How does your presentation relate to these issues? What will be happening in the organization when you make your presentation? How does your presentation fit into the organizational situation? If you are one of several speakers, what kinds of presentations will the other speakers be making? In what surroundings will you be making the presentation? What will happen in the situation before and after your talk? How does your talk relate to other participants' actions?

For example, delivering a presentation at a regular meeting of project directors is different from briefing other people in your team about what you've been doing. Making a presentation at a company picnic is different from delivering a presentation at the annual meeting of a professional society whose focus is on current issues in a discipline.

Analysing the Audience

Just as readers determine the success of written communication, audiences determine the success of oral presentations. Writing or speaking is successful if the reader or listener responds the way you desire: the reader or listener is informed, persuaded, or instructed as you intend and then responds the way you want with good will throughout. Just as writing effectively depends on your understanding your reader as thoroughly as possible, effective speaking also depends on your understanding your listener.

44

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

You cannot speak or write effectively to people without first understanding their perspective. You must know how your audience will likely respond based on their o educational and cultural background, o knowledge of the subject, o technical expertise, o position in the organization, o principal uncertainties or questions in this situation.

To achieve your purpose for communicating, you must present your message appropriately. Technique counts. When you analyse your audience, focus on their professional as well as their personal profiles. Your audience will pay attention to some things because they're members of a department or class; they'll react to other things because of their likes, dislikes, and uncertainties. You have to keep both profiles in mind. Your analysis will suggest what you should say or write, what you should not say, and the tone you should use.

Determining the Goal of Your Presentation

Oral presentations, like written presentations, must be designed around a specific purpose. You must conceive your purposes in terms of your audience's perspective. Like the report or letter, the oral presentation must make purpose clearly evident at the beginning. By knowing what they will be hearing from the beginning of the presentation, the audience can more easily focus their attention on the content presented and see connections between parts of the talk. As you begin your presentation, state your goal in terms of your audience's background and attitude; announce your purpose early in the presentation to prepare your audience for the main ideas to come. You may want to restate the purpose in words familiar to the audience. Both written and oral communication often have multiple purposes. The main purpose of your presentation may be to report the status of a project, to summarise a problem, to describe a plan, or to propose an action, but your long-range objective may be to highlight or document important specific issues within the topic about which you are speaking and to further establish your credibility within the organization. You may want the audience to dislike another proposed solution, to desire a more comprehensive solution, or decide there isn't a problem after all.

Planning Your Presentation - Drawing a Logic Tree

The first step in preparing a successful presentation is to draw a picture of it - that is, develop your ideas as a "logic tree." In constructing a logic tree, a presenter starts with the main idea, the one thing that he or she wants the audience to remember or do. See Fig. 1. If you think you have more than one main point or you want to 'talk about' a topic, you need to step back and decide what your message is. Or you may need to make several presentations to convey each idea separately. After choosing the main idea, the presenter writes the major points that support that idea on the "branches" of the logic tree. The supporting points should answer the question that the audience asks when they hear the main idea. 45

Assume, for example, that the main idea is "We should buy the Kumquat spreadsheet program." The branches of the logic tree should contain the reasons for that recommendation. See Fig. 2. In a persuasive presentation, these reasons are based on the decision makers' criteria (the standards used in making a decision). If, on the other hand, the main idea is a procedure, then the branches should contain the series of steps in that procedure. Each branch or supporting point, in turn, may have further supporting statements that appear as "twigs."

The Category Trap

When first constructing a logic tree, a presenter is likely to fall into the old habit of developing a topical outline. In a topical outline, a presenter lists ideas by category or sequence, typically with an introduction and conclusion. This approach often results in "talking about" a topic rather than telling the audience what they need to know. The logic tree forces a presenter to focus on the audiences concerns and carefully determine what supporting data they need. (Each branch of the tree should address one of the decision makers' concerns; in the example above, the first branch addresses concerns regarding cost.) Ultimately, the logic tree can save the presenter time because it focuses one's thinking, reduces the tendency to procrastinate, and allows one to move ideas around easily to accommodate last-minute changes.

From Tree to Presentation

After organizing a presentation in a logic tree, the presenter creates a riveting beginning, a punchy ending, and relevant visuals. For the actual delivery, the logic tree gives the presenter a clear picture of how ideas relate to each other. If at any time, decision makers indicate either verbally or with body language that they agree with a point, the presenter can cut the supporting details and move on.

Choosing Visual Aids to Reinforce Your Meaning

Because we live in a time when communication is visual and verbal, visual aids are as important to oral communication as they are to written communication. Visual aids

help your audience understand your ideas; show relationships among ideas; help the audience follow your arguments [your "train" of thought]; and help your audience remember what you said.

In addition, the presentation that uses visual aids effectively is more persuasive, more professional, and more interesting. Many of the guidelines for using visual aids in oral presentations mirror those for written documents: they need to fit the needs of the audience; they must be simple; they must be clear and easy to understand. 46

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Summing up. Designing effective OPs - Questions You Need to Answer

Thus, when you learn that you are to give an oral presentation, the first step in preparing for the presentation is to analyse each point listed above by answering the following questions, just as you did in planning your written communication. Once you have done so, you are ready to design, structure, and organize your presentation so that it will effectively satisfy the constraints that arise from your consideration of each point. Situation

What situation creates the need for this presentation? Who is involved? What is the scenario for this situation? Where will I be speaking?

Audience

Who is my audience? What do I know about my audience's background, knowledge, position in the organization, attitudes toward me and my subject?

Purpose

What is my purpose in giving this oral presentation? Is there (should there be) a long-range purpose? What is the situation that led to this presentation? Given my audience's background and attitudes, do I need to reshape my purpose to make my presentation more acceptable to my audience?

Content

What issues, problems, questions or tasks are involved in the situation? What ideas do I want to include or omit? Based on the audience and the context, what difficulties do I need to anticipate in choosing content? Can any ideas be misconstrued and prove harmful to me or my organization? What questions does the audience want answered?

Graphics

What kinds of visual aids will I need to enhance the ideas I will present? Which points could be understood better with a visual? Where should I use these in my presentation?

Style

What kind of tone do I want to use in addressing my audience? What kind of image of myself and my organization do I want to project? What level of language do I need to use, based on my audience's background and knowledge of my subject? What approach will my audience expect from me? How formal should I be? 47

Exercise 1. The True and False of Presentations

After reading the Introduction above, discuss the following statements and decide if you agree or disagree with them. 1. Come with lots to say. Its better to make your audience feel they got their moneys worth, even if you have to go over your time limit and skip the question session. 2. Never tell jokes during your presentation. Your listeners will think you not really serious about what youre saying. 3. Dont put too much information on your visual aids. 4. Deal with questions as they come up. This makes the listener feel you appreciate his/her interest and want him/her to understand. 5. Dont use a long complicated word if a simple one will do. 6. For best eye contact, select one person in the third row and look at him/her throughout your presentation. 7. Title your chart or graph with the most general label possible so that your viewers can discover the interesting aspects only when you reveal them. 8. If several people start a side conversation while you are speaking, raise your voice to try to drown them out.

48

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Part 2. Parts of a Presentation

The Rule of Tell'em Tell'em what you are going to tell'em, Tell it to them, and then Tell'em what you told them. The translation: Start with an introduction; including an "agenda" or set of goals for the presentation, provide the content and information; and summarize the presentation.
Dont be afraid of being repetitive. The attention span of your audience may be very very short!

Classical Model
Introduction
Greet your audience Introduce yourself Introduce your talk Outline your talk Present main parts divided into Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 etc, Summarise main points Conclude your talk Invite questions

Body

Summary Conclusion Question time

I. Developing a Good Introduction

The first few minutes of a presentation are very important. You can win or lose an audience in the opening 60 seconds. Its important, therefore, to be relaxed, confident and positive. It is also important to begin with a bang, with impact! So, some speakers start their presentation with a story in order to grab the audience. Others use provocative questions or humour to capture everybodys attention. But, it can be much more difficult to do this in a foreign language and when you are working with certain international audiences. Lets look at a standard model for an introduction, which will work in all contexts. The components of the Classic Introduction enable you to appear 49

relaxed, confident and positive, and to give real and useful information to your audience enabling them to follow, participate in and understand your presentation. Any good introduction (and just the introduction!) should touch on all of the following points: Greetings Name and position The title / subject The objective The main points Mention the visual aids you will use Time you will take When you would like questions Reference to your audience Link to first section

LANGUAGE FOCUS. MAKING A START - INTRODUCING YOURSELF AND YOUR TALK

Greeting, name and position
Good morning. My names . Im the new Finance Manager of/at. Ladies and gentlemen. Its an honour to have the opportunity to address such a distinguished audience. Good morning. Let me start by saying just a few words about my own background. I started out in as . Welcome to . I know Ive met some of you, but just for the benefit of those I havent, my names

Title / Subject
Id like to talk (to you) today about Im going to present the recent explain our position on brief you on inform you about describe The subject focus topic of my talk presentation paper (academic) speech (usually to public audience)

Purpose / Objective
We are here today to decide. agree. learn about. The purpose of this talk is to update you on 50

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

put you in the picture about give you the background to This talk is designed to act as a springboard for discussion. start the ball rolling.

Length
I shall only take minutes of your time I plan to be brief. This should only last minutes.

Outline / Main parts

Ive divided my presentation into four parts / sections. They are The subject can be looked at under the following headings: We can break this area down into the following fields. Firstly / First of all Secondly / Then / Next Thirdly / And then we come to Finally / Lastly / Last of all

Questions
Id be glad to answer any questions at the end of my talk. If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt me. Please, interrupt me if theres something which needs clarifying. Otherwise, therell be time for discussion at the end.

Reference to the audience

I can see many of you are I know youve all travelled a long way. You all look as though youve heard this before.

Exercise 2. Dont be repetitive!

Use one of the following expressions to replace each of the expressions in italics in this introduction. dont hesitate go through a chance in more depth I take care my purpose is Im delighted divide sections

Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. Its a pleasure a to be with you today. My names is Gordon Matthews and Im in charge b of corporate finance at our headquarters here in Brussels. We are here today c to review d some key figures and to outline financial strategy over the next five years. So what I intend to do is to break down e this presentation into three parts f: first, the financial review; second, the options facing us; and finally, the strategy I propose. If you have any questions, please feel free g to interrupt me, but I should also say therell be an opportunity h to discuss issues at greater length i after my talk. 51

II. Linking Parts and Ideas

Since the designing stage of your presentation you should have divided it into a series of parts (or sections, or subtopics, name them as you prefer), and during your introduction you should already have mentioned them in order to get you audiences mind-frame ready to receive your presentation properly. Whenever you pass from the introduction to the first section of your presentation or from one section to the following, however, you should always underline that passage. Remember: an oral presentation is a type of text (from Latin textus, thing woven, from texere, to weave). A text, then, must made up of threads that hold the whole together. A type of threads is constituted by linking words and expressions, which help you make it more coherent and easier to understand. Dont forget to use them appropriately.

LANGUAGE FOCUS. LINKING EXPRESSIONS

Sequencing, ordering
firstly secondly thirdly then next finally/lastly Lets start with Lets move/go on to Now we come to That brings us to Lets leave that That covers Lets go back to

Giving reasons / causes

Therefore So As a result Thats why

Contrasting
but however

Comparing
Similarly, In the same way

Contradicting
In fact Actually

Concluding
In conclusion To conclude

Highlighting
in particular especially

Digressing
By the way,

Giving examples
for example for instance such as

Generalising
usually generally as a rule. 52

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Exercise 3. Make up a text!

Link the ideas in these sentences by adding an appropriate word or phrase. a. Our competitors are becoming stronger. One of them, Falcon, has a joint venture with a Japanese firm. Ive divided this into two parts. The issue of profit-sharing. The question of share option schemes. This year we have lost market share. We expect to remain No. 1 in the market. There are some vital factors to consider. The risk of a take-over bid. Falcon has reduced its costs by relocating. We must consider cutting the cost of our premises. Weve had a difficult year. Weve still made a healthy profit. We expected to lose money in the Far East. This was our most profitable market. The yen dropped against the dollar. We made considerable profits on the exchange rate. There have been some failures on occasions. We have been very successful.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

III. Finishing Off

Once you have presented the various parts, you have to lead your audience towards the end of your presentation. The final part of a presentation should always consist of the following parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. A clear signal that you are about to end; A brief, clear summary of what you have said; A conclusion or recommendation (when appropriate); An invitation for questions, to make comments or start a discussion.

LANGUAGE FOCUS. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Signalling the end
That brings me to the end of my presentation.

Recommending
So, I would suggest that we. 53

That completes my presentation. Before I stop / finish, let me just say That covers all I wanted to say today.

Id like to propose (more formal) In my opinion, the only way forward is

Summarising
Let me just run over the key points again. Ill briefly summarise the main issues. To sum up Briefly

Closing
Thank you for your attention. Thank you for your listening. I hope you will have gained an insight into

Concluding
As you can see, there are some very good reasons In conclusion Id like to leave you with the following thought/idea.

Inviting questions
Id be glad to try and answer any questions. So, lets throw it open to questions. Any questions?

Exercise 4. Be orderly!
The sentences a-e below are the end of a presentation, but they are in the wrong order. Put them into the right order. a. So, Id now be glad to answer any questions. b. I sincerely hope youll go away with a more complete picture of the principal activities of UNEXCO. c. Very briefly, these are three. Firstly, fund-raising; secondly, publicity; and thirdly, political lobbying. d. So, that brings me to the end of this presentation. e. Finally, Id like to leave you with something which I heard recently. You cant please all the people all the time, but we should certainly be able to feed all the people all the time.

Exercise 5. Be logic!
Make full sentences by matching the correct halves. a. Before we come to the end, b. Id be glad to answer c. To summarize, d. We can conclude e. In my opinion, f. Id like to suggest 54 1. there are four major features. 2. we start the discussion now. 3. by quoting a well-known saying. 4. we should reduce our costs. 5. any questions now. 6. Id like to thank you for your participation.

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

IV. Answering Questions

Being able to deal with questions is an important skill for presenters. At the beginning of your delivery you should already have informed your audience about whether you prefer they interrupt you during your talk or wait for question-time at the end. In any case, the following are some useful advice to overcome your question-time nervousness. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Welcome the question. Listen carefully to the question without interrupting. Take time to think before answering. If you are not sure you have understood the question, ask for rephrasing or clarification. Reply positively. Be brief and clear. Accept criticism positively. After your answer, check out whether your questioner is satisfied. If you dont have an answer to your question, don't try to bluff your way through a response. No speaker is expected to have all the answers, but see below for some linguistic advice.

Welcoming questions
Thats a good question. You made a really interesting point. Thats a really interesting point.

Clarifying a question
If I understand you correctly, you are saying / asking Could you go over it again? I didnt quite catch that. Im not sure what youre getting up.

Checking the questioner is satisfied

Does that answer your question? May we go on? Is that clear?

Avoiding giving an answer

Perhaps we could deal with that later. Im afraid thats not my field. Im sure Mr . could answer your question. today. Can we talk that on another occasion? I dont have figures with me. Thats interesting but I prefer not to answer that

55

Part 3. The Right Type of Language

Remember: Always adapt the language you use to your intended audience!

LANGUAGE FOCUS. WRITTEN AND ORAL LANGUAGE - PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL

STYLES

Differences between

written and
Long sentences Complex vocabulary Complex arguments Impersonal style

oral language
Shorter sentences Simpler vocabulary Simpler arguments Personal style

Active and passive forms (the passive form is less personal than the active)
Tense present simple present continuous present perfect past simple future Active I think We are discussing The boss has said John called a meeting I will refer to this later Passive It is thought It is being discussed It has been said A meeting was called This will be referred to later.

Personal pronouns
Active verbs use personal pronouns I think / We are working on

Be careful not to overuse I. We is a good alternative for talking about companies - We will launch the product in June.

Reference to the audience

As Im sure you know We have all experienced You may remember As Im sure wed all agree

Everyday language
Using slang and everyday expressions can make an impact on the audience and add drama:
Wheres the caring side of employment gone? Ill tell you where. Its hiding behind a damned set of targets and objectives thats where it is!

However, you need to know your audience very well to use this kind of language. 56

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Exercise 6. Its an oral presentation, dont use written English!

Read the extracts a-d below, and decide which are examples of written language and which are examples of spoken language. Find examples in each extract to support your answers. a. You can see here, 35% of the group of managers classified as participative reached senior management positions. On the other hand, 74% of the more individualistic managers achieved senior management status. b. An individualistic style appears to be closely associated with rapid career path progressions, whereas a group or participative style, despite its evident attractiveness to all members of staff, is correlated with a relatively slow career progression. c. Although lip service is paid to the concept of participative management, their real perceptions of leadership qualities completely contradict this view. It can be further seen that d. So, we find there is a massive contradiction. Good managers are supposed to be participative - to make sure they consult and discuss. Good leaders are supposed to be strong individuals able to make decisions on their own. Exercise 7. Make these sentences more personal by using the active not the passive. 1. The issue of restructuring was discussed. 2. It has been found to be rather unreliable. 3. It is reported that shares are due to rise. We _______________________________________ I _________________________________________ The press ___________________________________

Exercise 8. The following pairs of verbs have the same meaning, but which one is less formal? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. to acquire to pull into action to remunerate to reduce to get into to buy to implement to pay to cut down to access

Exercise 9. Match the more formal verbs with their less formal (spoken) equivalents. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. to purchase to appreciate to capture to deteriorate to rationalize to withdraw a. to pull out b. to get worse c. to take d. to understand e. to buy f. to make simpler

57

LANGUAGE FOCUS. EMPHASIZING AND MINIMIZING

In order to make your talk more lively and personal, emphasize or minimize your message.

Emphasizing
Strong adverbs intensify adjectives: Weve had an extremely good year. Adverbs can be total, very strong or moderate. Total: absolutely fantastic Very strong: extremely good Moderate: fairly safe completely awful very bad reasonably expensive entirely depressing really interesting quite cheap

Minimizing
Loot at the way the following expressions of degree and uncertainty modify, or minimize, the message. Intonation is also very important in giving more or less emphasis to what we say. It seems we will have to delay the delivery. The Chief Executive Officer appears to have left the country. Were going to reduce our staff a bit. There might be another way. I tend to think we should stop now.

Its just a little bit further. Perhaps we should consider resigning. To some extent, the company has failed. to realize its potential

Exercise 10. Add an adverb to these sentences to emphasise the message. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. This has been a good year. We have had a difficult time. We have seen a disastrous decline in our profits. It was easy to achieve our objective. The announcement was unexpected. Ive got some bad news. (very strong) (moderate) (total) (moderate) (total) (very strong)

Exercise 11. Complete these sentences with words that will minimize the message. a. We ____________________ see things differently. __________________ weve had __________________ dissimilar experiences. b. ______________________, youre right. But __________________ we ______________ consider the long-term view. c. Theres ________________________ time. __________________ we ______________ discuss this question now.

58

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Part 4. Using Effective Visual Aids

The most common mistake presenters make with visuals is overloading them. When using visuals, you want the audience to look at the screen, quickly get the message, and then focus on you. When viewers have to spend time reading, you become the voice-over to a video, and lose your effectiveness as a presenter. Visuals are supposed to support or aid you in giving the presentation - not replace you.

Simplify Data
Planning a presentation always involves two phases: 1. Solving the problem. Analyse the audience, organize the data, and decide what message to convey. 2. Developing the presentation. Choose the form and substance of each visual to best communicate the message. One form is the text, or word-only, visual, which serves as a roadmap to guide the audience through a presentation. In case you choose to present text visuals, remember the golden rule: Five or six lines per slide. Five or six words per line. The text visual is rapidly giving way to the conceptual visual, which uses a picture or design to convey an idea. But the real workhorse of most presentations is the chart or graph that shows relationships among variables; this form enables the audience to grasp complex data at a glance. You should create charts to help you see what's happening, but the tendency is to grab these charts and use them in the presentation. Most of the time doing this doesn't work. Assume, for example, that you chart sales, manufacturing costs, administrative costs, operating income, and earnings for the past seven years. In the process, you discover that administrative costs have risen faster than manufacturing costs over the past three years - an important message. You should then abandon the earlier chart in favour of one that compares only the two costs in the shorter time span. Furthermore, the chart you make in solving the problem may not be the best chart to convey the message. In order to make an effective visual, you have to pare the ideas down and simplify.

Make Charts Communicate

Simplifying a chart often requires changing the chart form - switching from a line graph to a horizontal bar chart, for example, because it communicates the message more effectively. How do you know when to use which chart? That depends on how well you've stated the message. Too often, a presenter makes the mistake of putting a label, such as 'Sales 1990-1995,' at the top of a chart. Your heading should always tell people what you want them to look for on a chart. An

59

action statement or message will do that for you. An action statement has a verb and is a complete sentence, such as "Sales reverse downward trend except in West."

Choose the Chart

Once you have an action statement as a heading, look at the verbs in the statement to get an idea of the best chart to use to present your data.

Showing change over time. Look for a key word such as "grow," "decline," or "trends." If, for example, you want to show how college entrance test scores have changed over 30 years, use a line chart. Line charts are best when a variable has more than four or five data points, and you want to emphasize continuity over several months or years. The slope of the line tells viewers in a glance the direction of the trends. However, if you have fewer than five data points and you want to emphasize quantity at discrete times - for example, how administrative costs have risen faster than manufacturing costs over three years - use a column chart (vertical bars). Since the audience naturally associates left-to-right with the movement of time, vertical bars work better than horizontal bars for time series data.

Comparing items at one point in time. Look for a key word such as "ranks" or "compares." If, for example, you want to show the highest profit, the lowest interest rate, or the most products sold, or you want to rank variables from largest to smallest, use a horizontal bar chart.

Bar charts are often the best way to compare a set of individual items or several sets of related items. The bar's length corresponds to its ranking; the bar's label identifies the item.

60

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Comparing parts of a whole. Look for key words such as "percentage," "portion" or "share." If, for example, you want to show the proportion of state government budget spent on education, use a pie chart. However, the number of pie slices should not be more than five, and each slice should be easy to see and interpret. A pie chart is best when you want to highlight one part of the whole. Place this component in the 12 o'clock position and "explode" it out of the pie for emphasis. When you want to show relative proportions of two, three, or four wholes, a segmented bar chart may work equally well or better. In this chart form, each bar represents 100 percent, and each segment a percentage. A series of vertical segmented bars shows how percentages change over time. Comparing data by geographic location. Look for key words such as "country" or "state." If, for example, you want to show sales by region, use a map. Distinguish among regions by using different colours, shadings, or symbols. Other commonly used forms include the organization chart (which shows functional relationships in a group or structure), the flow chart (diagram of process), and the Gantt chart (which shows the duration of different tasks across a calendar span). Making these simple charts - as well as more complicated forms - has become considerably easier with presentation software. With a few keystrokes, the user can change bar width, colour, type size, and other elements. However, presenters should resist the temptation "to use every bell and whistle." Don't let the artistic possibilities interfere with the message.

In conclusion, the guidelines for designing effective visuals, regardless of whether they are overhead transparencies, slides, or computer images, are the following.
1. Convey one message per chart. Make the message the heading. 2. Make the chart easy to read. Label the X and Y axes and label the lines, bars, or pie wedges. Make the most important text largest, the most important data lines or sections darkest. 3. Be accurate. Always start a numerical axis at zero. Compare only like variables. 4. Eliminate all unnecessary details. Avoid grid lines, data points, boxes, and other devices unless they relate to the message. 5. Use no more than four colours per visual. 6. Avoid vibrating fill patterns, such as contrasting lines, wave patterns, and criss-crosses. 7. To focus attention, use colour, shading, or images such as arrows to highlight key words or concepts. 8. Write in upper and lower case. Words written in all capitals letters are hard to read. 9. Make bars and columns wider than the spaces between them. 10. Use presentation software sensibly. When necessary, adjust the default mode to simplify a visual.

61

LANGUAGE FOCUS 1. INFORMATION PRESENTATION

Introducing the exhibit
Id like to show you this graph. I think this bar chart will be of interest to you. Have a look at this diagram.

Labelling the exhibit

Its a graph showing the seasonal sales of Its an organization chart of Its an advertisement for Its a picture of

Describing the structure of the exhibit

The horizontal axis shows The curve illustrates The vertical axis represents

Describing the main features of the exhibit

You will see immediately that A very interesting point is Its most significant feature is

Interpreting an exhibit
This seams to suggest that This implies that In my opinion this means that It is quite clear that

Presenting opinions
My view is that My opinion is that I think that

Making recommendations
I think we should I suggest that weI recommend that I feel we ought to

2. DESCRIBING TRENDS, CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Describing change - Upward movements
To increase / rise / climb / go up To grow / expand To rocket / boom Our sales rose last year.

62

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

To increase and to expand can also be used transitively:

We increase sales; We raised our prices.

Note: Transitive verbs can be used when we want to express an action which affects an object: We raised our prices. Intransitive verbs cannot be used to express an action, only a result: Our price rose.

Describing change - Downward movements

To decrease / fall / drop / decline / go down To contract To slump / collapse / plunge To decrease and to drop can also be used transitively: Profits have fallen recently

We have decreased our costs; We have dropped our prices. We reduced his salary; We had to cut 200 jobs.

To reduce and to cut can only be used transitively:

Describing an end to movement

To flatten out / level off Sales have flattened out.

Describing no change
To remain stable / constant To stay the same / at the same level Sales have remained constant

Three other verbs - to maintain, to hold and to keep - are used transitively: We plan to maintain our dividend (at the same level); We need to hold our costs down; We plan to keep our prices low.

Degree of change
dramatically / considerably / significantly / moderately / slightly Sales have fallen considerably; Profits rose slightly.

Speed of change
rapidly / quickly / suddenly / gradually / steadily / slowly Absenteeism had dropped slowly; Sales went up rapidly.

63

Exercise 12 - Read the following sentences and decide whether they describe upward, downward or stable economic and financial trends.
1. In the Netherlands, the price of futures rose by 6% in early morning trading. 2. American consumer confidence has remained stable over the last quarter. 3. The price of WRT securities fell to $2.30 yesterday. 4. Britains current-account deficit widened to 3.1 billion in the fourth quarter of 2002. 5. Japans economy was stagnant in the first quarter of 2004. 6. The monthly trade balance in Germany has slipped into deficit for the first time since January 2001.

Exercise 13 - Read the following sentences and decide whether the movements described are large or small.
1. The euro areas 12-month trade balance declined markedly in January. 2. There was a dramatic fluctuation in the exchange rate of the Yen against the Euro yesterday at closing. 3. Argentinas economy is rebounding strongly from its recession and financial crisis. 4. The dollar dropped significantly overnight. 5. Private inter-bank rates have been minimally affected by the latest discount rate reduction. 6. There has been a slight increase in consumer prices in America.

Exercise 14 - Read the following sentences and decide whether the movements described are quick or slow.
1. There has been a sharp decline in stock value in Great Britain. 2. GDP growth in Australia is increasing steadily. 3. There has been a sudden jump in demand for consumer commodities. 4. The dollar plunged to $1.27 against the euro. 5. Oil prices have skyrocketed in the last three months. 6. Unemployment in Italy has increased gradually since 2000.

Exercise 15 - You can use noun phrases instead of verbs to describe trends. For example:
Prices have risen considerably There has been a considerable rise in prices.

Change the following sentences to include a noun phrase.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The market has expanded slightly. Prices are going to fall dramatically. Our export sales collapsed suddenly. Sales are increasing steadily. Salaries have dropped gradually. Profits will certainly rise significantly.

64

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

3. READING MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS, SIGNS, AND OPERATORS

Mathematical signs
+

Segni matematici
pi meno pi o meno (moltiplicato) per diviso (per) uguale a diverso da circa uguale a maggiore di molto maggiore di minore di molto minore di maggiore o uguale a minore o uguale a appartiene a equivalente di implica parentesi tone parentesi quadre parentesi graffe infinito radice (quadrata di) radice cubica di parallelo a perpendicolare a gradi minuti secondi differenziale di x derivata di y rispetto a x derivata parziale di u rispetto a x valore assoluto / modulo di x valore medio di x integrale (indefinito) di integrale (definito) di, fra i limiti b e a n fattoriale prodotto vettoriale di A e B prodotto scalare di A e B (operatore) nabla laplaciano sommatoria di seno coseno tangente 65

x = > >> < << () [] {} 3

dx dy/dx u/x x x ba n! AxB AB

2

sin cos tan

plus minus plus or minus multiplied by divided by is equal to / equals is not equal to is approximately equale to is greater than is much greater than is less than is much less than is greater than or equal to is less than or equal to is an element of is equivalent of implies parentheses brackets braces infinity (square) root of cube root of parallel to perpendicular to degrees minutes seconds differential of x derivative of y with respect to x partial derivative of u with respect to x absolute value of x mean value of x integral of integral of, between limits b and a factorial n vector product of A and B scalar product of A and B del; nabla Laplacian operator summation of sine cosin tangent

ADDITION ( + )
plus add and sum

SUBTRACTION ( - )
minus subtract take away difference

MULTIPLICATION ( *, x )
times multiplied by product

DIVISION ( /, : )
divided by divide quotient dividend

Examples
1+2=3 3-1=2 2x3=6 6:2=3 22 = 4 4=2 23 = 8 3 8=2 24 = 16 16-4 = 2 25% 90 1/3 1/5 3 0.1 3.15

Spoken form
1 plus 2 equals 3 or 1 and 2 is 3 3 minus 1 equals 2 or 3 take away 1 equals 2 or 1 from 3 equals 2 2 multiplied by 3 = 6 or 2 times 3 = 6 or two threes are 6 6 divided by 2 = 3 or 6 over 2 = 3 or 2 into 6 is/goes 3 2 squared is 4 (the square) root (of) 4 is 2 2 cubed is 8 the cube root of 8 is 2 2 to the power 4 is 16 16 to the minus 4 is 2 25 per cent 90 degrees a half or one half a third of one third a quarter or one quarter three quarters three fifths three and three quarters nought point 1 or point 1 three point one five

66

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Exercise Key
Exercise 1. Answers may differ. Anyway 1. Personally, Id disagree. Never go over your time limit (it is also a matter of politeness) and the question session is a very important moment to relate to your audience (and you are there for your audience, not for yourself!) 2. It depends on context and audience. Discuss 3. Agree 4. Agree, but it depends on how you are managing your questiontime (see below) 5. Agree 6. Disagree (hoping your audience is made up of more that one person) 7. Disagree (see below) 8. Good subject for discussion ;-)). Exercise 2. a. Im delighted b. I take care c. My purpose is d. go through e. divide f. sections g. dont hesitate h. a chance i. in more depth. Exercise 3. Some suggestions a. For example / In particular b. First of all secondly c. However / Nevertheless d. In particular / For example e. Similarly, f. But / In spite of that g. In fact / Actually h. As a result i. However, as a rule Exercise 4. d. - b. - c. - e. - a. Exercise 5. a. 6., b. 5., c. 1., d. 3., e. 4., f. 2. Exercise 6. a. and d. are examples of spoken language, b. and c. of oral language. As for why, thats up to you ;-)). Exercise 7. 1. We discussed the issue of restructuring 2. I have found it to be rather reliable. 3. The press reports that shares are due to rise. Exercise 8. 1. to buy 2. to pull into action 3. to pay 4. to cut down 5. to get into. Remember: Phrasal and prepositional verbs are usually used in informal contexts; whilst words (both verbs and nouns) derived from Latin or Greek roots are usually used in more formal/specialist contexts. Exercise 9. 1. e., 2. d., 3. c., 4. b., 5. f., 6. a. Exercise 10. 1. an extremely good year 2. a rather difficult time 3. an absolutely disastrous decline 4. quite easy 5. completely unexpected 6. very bad news. Exercise 11. 1. We tend to see things differently. Maybe weve had slightly different experiences 2. To some extent, youre right But perhaps we might consider the long-term view 3. Theres just a little bit of time. Perhaps we might discuss this question now. Exercise 12. 1. upward 2. stable 3. downward 4. upward 5. stable 6. downward. Exercise 13. 1. large 2. large 3. large 4. large 5. small 6. small. Exercise 14. 1. quick 2. slow 3. quick 4. quick 5. quick 6. slow. Exercise 15. 1. There has been a slight expansion in the market 2. There is going to be a dramatic fall in prices 3. There was a sudden collapse in export sales 4. There is a steady increase in sales 5. There has been a gradual drop in salaries 6. Certainly, there will be a significant rise in profits.

References
Designing Effective Oral Presentations, online at http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/oral_presentations.htm. Hunter College Guide to Writing, online at http://oldweb.uwp.edu/academic/english/martinez/Spring2004/
ENG267/267oral.htm.

The Art of Communicating Effectively, online at http://virtual.yosemite.cc.ca.us/jtolhurst/ESGIS/

Presentations/The_Art_of_Communicating_Effectively.htm.

Presentation Planning - Draw a Logic Tree, online at http://www.strategiccomm.com/logictree.html Using Charts, online at http://www.strategiccomm.com/usecharts.html. Jeremy Comfort, Effective Presentations, London, OUP, 1995. Anna Lazzari, Luisa Panichi, English in Economics and Business, Milan, Hoepli, 2005.

67

Chapter 3 Reading Graphs and Tables

Types of graphs A graph is a visual, concise means of presenting information; a table presents facts and figures in compact form. There are three basic kinds of graphs (or charts): a circle or pie graph, a bar graph, and a line graph. Circle/Pie Graph In studying circle graphs, you should determine: 1. what the entire circle represents, 2. what the various parts (slices) of the circle represent and 3. how the percentages compare. Line Graph Line graphs are made up of three important parts: the vertical axis, the horizontal axis, and the diagonal line, which shows the relationship between the figures on the vertical axis and those on the horizontal. When more than one line is represented, different line styles can be used (solid line, dashed line, dotted line). Other plotting symbols (circles, asterisks) can be used to distinguish the lines. In studying line graphs, you should: 1. determine the topic of the graph and 2. look at the axes and diagonal line/s to understand the relationship that is being illustrated. Bar Graph Also bar graphs are made up of the vertical axis, the horizontal axis and clusters (or groups) of bars representing discrete categories. When studying bar graphs, you should ask: 1. what the purpose/subject of the graph is, 2. how the various parts relate to this subject and 3. what the relative percentages that each bar represents are. Tables Tables are made up of columns and rows. When reading tables, you should: 1. determine the purpose and 2. establish what each category and subcategory represents. Exercise 1. Reading a table. The following is a transcript from a spoken lesson on The purchasing power of money. Read it through and underline all the expressions useful to describe a table. Report such expressions in the Language Focus page below.
Look at table 2-7. The top row shows the nominal earnings of workers between 1971 and 1983. You can see that their earnings have increased fourfold but this does not mean that they can buy 4 times as many goods in 1983 compared to 1971. This is of course because of the increase in the cost of living. The RPI, which you can see in the second row. These earnings are nominal earnings. Real earnings, on the other hand, measure the quantity of goods that workers can actually buy. This leads to the basic statement that when the price of good rises the purchasing power of money - the Pound, in our case - falls. It falls because one pound buys fewer goods. Now, another way of describing the difference between nominal variables and real variables, is this: We can say that real variables measure nominal variables as if the purchasing power of money had been constant, in other

68

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

words, stayed the same. Again, in another way, we can say that we distinguish between measurements of nominal variables in current pounds and real variables in constant pounds. If we have another look at table 2-7, we can see that the top row is an index of weekly wages in current pounds. We can say this because it is an index which describes the money people actually get. The third row, we can think of as an index of earnings in 1971 pounds, it is therefore an example of measuring variables in constant pounds. Measuring variables in constant pounds, as we do here, is designed to adjust for changes in the general price level. Actually, its just another way of saying that variables are measured in real terms.

Exercise 2. Reading a scatter diagram. The following is a transcript from a lesson on how to draw a scatter diagram from data represented in a table. Read the lesson through and underline all the expressions useful to describe such a diagram.
This afternoon, ladies and gentlemen, Im going to give you an introduction to another tool of economic analysis. This is what we call the scatter diagram. Im going to continue to use our example of the London underground, because I thing is going to be easier for you to understand what a scatter diagram is and what it does. Heres an example of the scatter diagram. Lets have a quick look at it. This diagram actually presents some of the information you were asked about the other day, in table 2-8. Its the same information but presented in a different way. Now, essentially, a scatter diagram shows how two variables are related. Take another look of the diagram. Along the vertical axis, we measure the units of column 3 of table 28. That is the 1973 cost per passenger per kilometre. Along the horizontal axis, we measure passenger kilometres in billions per year, each year. Thats the units given in column 4 in the table. Now we plot the points representing data in the last two columns of table 2-8. That is of course, column 3 and 4. Lets consider the data of 1973, for the moment. The table shows the real fare per passenger kilometre in 1973 to be 1.5 1973 pence. So, we find the point in vertical axis corresponding to 1.5 1973 pence. Now, at this height, we move horizontally to the right. Along the distance that corresponds to 5225 billion passenger kilometres. At this point we put a cross. Perhaps you can see that each cross in the diagram corresponds to a raw of the table. Each cross shows both the price (thats column 3) and the quantity (column 4). So the scatter diagram has one cross for each of the years between 1973 and 1983. Now, what do you think? Personally, I think its easier to interpret the scattered diagram than the table, even though the information is exactly the same. Some of you may not agree. But with a bit of practice Im sure youll find the same. Notice for example that the scattered diagram suggests that, on average, our higher Tube fares are associated with lower passenger use. Although the relationship is not exact. You can see that in the diagram. The crosses dont lie along any smooth line or curve, do they? Look at line A-A, which Ive drawn in for you. This line might describe the average relation between fares and passenger usage. But why some crosses lie to the left of the line and others to the right of it. Perhaps, if the real prices of other forms of transport - like taxes, buses and so on - remain the same we will get all our crosses on the line. But when real taxes and buses fares are high, this moves more people travelling on the Tube. And our crosses will lie to the right of the line A-A. And the opposites true. When taxes and buses fares are low, fewer people may travel by Tube, and this would lead to our crosses lying to the left of the line. Using our model, our theoretical model, we can predict that the reasons our crosses lies to the left and right of the line, the degree to which they lie to the left or the right of the line, depends on real taxi fares, real bus fares and so on.

69

Exercise 3. The four quadrant diagram. The following is a description of a four quadrant diagram. Read it through and underline all the expressions useful to describe such a diagram.
The four quadrant diagram is a graphical device to visually depict the equilibrium condition in the goods market (IS) and the money market (LM). It is used to simplify the analysis and to show how each market is affected by the parameters, exogenous variables (like autonomous investment or government expenditure) and, predetermined endogenous variables (if used). In both the IS and the LM systems, the upper right-hand quadrant is the same, allowing the simultaneous results of both markets to be analysed in a "super-equilibrium". The "super-equilibrium" is actually best used to understand disequilibrium adjustments. Points on the IS curve reflect equilibrium in the product market and, those on the LM curve reflect equilibrium in the money market. For points not on the IS and/or LM in the upper right-hand quadrant, a disequilibrium condition is obtained and subsequent adjustments are expected --- with the adjustment gradient having the following expected characteristics. Disequilibrium in the Product Market In the upper right hand quadrant, at points to the right of the IS curve, the product market is in disequilibrium. The economy is operating at a level of income that is too high (above the level of equilibrium income). Production (Y) exceeds sales (AE) and, due to unintended inventory accumulations, income will decline --- resulting in an adjustment gradient towards the IS curve. Disequilibrium in the Money Market In the upper right hand quadrant, at points above the LM curve, the money market is in disequilibrium. The actual interest rate is above the equilibrium interest rate that would be obtained at that level of income (the point of the LM curve). Consequently, there is an excess supply of money.

Exercise 4. Types of line. Look at the graph below and read its description. How are the several types of line employed described?

Figure: The different components of the energy budget are shown. The internal energy of the fluid is represented with a thin solid line in the upper half of the figure. We set the free constant in the internal energy such that we start with zero total energy (thick solid line). Most of the internal energy is balanced by the gravitational energy (thin solid line in the lower half of the figure). We show also the kinetic energy of the fluid (thin dashed line) and the surface work exerted at the border of the computational domain (dotted line). The dash-dotted line represents the energy of the neutrinos in the computational domain and the dashed thick line represents the accumulated energy of the escaped neutrinos. The total energy is nicely conserved during core collapse and exhibits a systematic increase of order 10% of an explosion energy during the crucial phase around 100ms after bounce.

70

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Exercise 5. Expressing time and quantities. Read the statements below and underline all the expressions describing time and quantities.
1. Fear over deflation in America deepened. In April, consumer prices fell by 0.3% in their first monthly decline since December 2001, thanks mostly to a fall in energy prices from their war-related highs. In the year to April, consumer-price inflation fell to 2.2% and core consumer-price inflation slid to its lowest level in 37 years. Not all parts of the American economy are experiencing weak inflation: in the year to April, the price of services rose by 3.2% and health care prices rose by 4%. On the other hand, producer prices in April fell by 1.9%, the largest drop on record. In the first quarter of this year, the French economy grew by 0.3%. In the Netherlands, unemployment rose in April to 5.1%. Consumer-price inflation ran at 3.1% in Britain in April, up from 1.5% a year ago. Britains current-account deficit widened to 3.1 billion ($4.8 billion) in the fourth quarter of 2002, up from a revised 1.1 billion in the third quarter. But the deficit for the year, $15.5 billion, was the smallest since 1999. British GDP growth for 2002, meanwhile, was raised to 1.8%, up from previous estimate of 1.6%. The euro areas 12-month balance fell in January to a surplus of $95.5 billion, and the monthly trade balance slipped into deficit for the first time since January 2001. The euro areas 12- month current account balance shrank to $53.5 billion in January. Since 1990, we have delivered an annual compound rate of return of 11.1%, compared to 8.5% for the composite benchmark. As shown in the bar chart, the fund has also outperformed its composite benchmark over ten, four and one-year time periods. The 10-year results are a better reflection of what we expect to deliver over the long term. Total assets as of June 30, 2002 were $20.9 billion in comparison to $21.7 billion as of June 30, 2001, decreasing by approximately $0.8 billion due to depreciating equity markets and benefit payments in excess of current contributions. The long-term growth in assets since the inception of the fund in 1946 is shown in the line graph.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Exercise 6. Study the graph below, and then answer the questions about it

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What is the purpose of this graph, and how many years does it cover? Of the professions listed, which one will grow the least? By approximately what percentage will human services workers grow? Which occupations are expected to increase by about 80 percent or more? Which occupation will increase more, travel agents or medical assistants? Approximately what is the difference in percentage points between the fastest- and the slowest-growing occupations?

71

Exercise 7. Study the table below, and then answer the questions about it

1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the purpose of this table? What does the rows and the columns represent? Which country on the table has consistently had the greatest number of divorces? What has been the trend for divorce rates in the United States between 1980 and 1994, and what was the total percentage change between those years? 5. In which country did the divorce rate change the least over the years shown?

Language Focus
Exercise. Using as a source the descriptions in Exercises 1-6, fill in the gaps. Introduction This pie ________ ________ ________ Description graph _________ _________ _________ describes depicts shows ______________________________________

Along the _______________/___________________ axis,

is represented

we measure .. is ________________ along the _________________ axis The ________________ / _________________ axis represents In the _________________________ quadrant, The ____________ / _____________ / ____________ line represents .. . is represented with the ___________ line 72

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Expressing time and quantities in since

from

/ to

for

by

to

a ___________________ increase of ___________ in

Amounts and comparisons: Italy's real exchange rate has appreciated by more than 20% relative to Germany's if the dollar fell by 10% against the euro prices in America rose by 5% more than those in Europe the price of American goods relative to European ones measured in a common currency would fall by only 5% then Italy's real exchange rate against its neighbours will rise even though the nominal rate is fixed. since 1999 they have fallen by 10% relative to the average relative unit labour costs have risen by 9% in Italy a huge loss of competitiveness relative to Germany the D -mark rose against other European currencies etc.

Verbs and nouns: upward and downward movements:

UP NOT MOVING MOVING Adjusted , shifted, variation, DOWN Fall/fell, depreciated, a loss, loose/lost, clamping down, reduce, squeezed, a fall, decline, crush.

Appreciated, Fixed, set in stone, rise/rose/risen, held up an increase, surged, boosted, increase/d, a rise, a leap, gone up, spur, grow.

NB difference between raise and rise

73

Describing change - Upward movements To increase / rise / climb / go up To grow / expand To rocket / boom Our sales rose last year.

To increase and to expand can also be used transitively:

We increase sales; We raised our prices.

Note: Transitive verbs can be used when we want to express an action which affects an object: We raised our prices. Intransitive verbs cannot be used to express an action, only a result: Describing change - Downward movements To decrease / fall / drop / decline / go down To contract To slump / collapse / plunge To decrease and to drop can also be used transitively: Profits have fallen recently Our price rose.

We have decreased our costs; We have dropped our prices. We reduced his salary; We had to cut 200 jobs.

To reduce and to cut can only be used transitively:

Describing an end to movement To flatten out / level off Sales have flattened out.

Describing no change To remain stable / constant To stay the same / at the same level Sales have remained constant

Three other verbs - to maintain, to hold and to keep - are used transitively: We plan to maintain our dividend (at the same level); We need to hold our costs down; We plan to keep our prices low.

Degree of change dramatically / considerably / significantly / moderately / slightly Sales have fallen considerably; Profits rose slightly.

74

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Speed of change rapidly / quickly / suddenly / gradually / steadily / slowly Absenteeism had dropped slowly; Sales went up rapidly.

Exercise 8 - Read the following sentences and decide whether they describe upward, downward or stable economic and financial trends. 1. In the Netherlands, the price of futures rose by 6% in early morning trading. 2. American consumer confidence has remained stable over the last quarter. 3. The price of WRT securities fell to $2.30 yesterday. 4. Britains current-account deficit widened to 3.1 billion in the fourth quarter of 2002. 5. Japans economy was stagnant in the first quarter of 2004. 6. The monthly trade balance in Germany has slipped into deficit for the first time since January 2001. Exercise 9 - Read the following sentences and decide whether the movements described are large or small. 1. The euro areas 12-month trade balance declined markedly in January. 2. There was a dramatic fluctuation in the exchange rate of the Yen against the Euro yesterday at closing. 3. Argentinas economy is rebounding strongly from its recession and financial crisis. 4. The dollar dropped significantly overnight. 5. Private inter-bank rates have been minimally affected by the latest discount rate reduction. 6. There has been a slight increase in consumer prices in America. Exercise 10 - Read the following sentences and decide whether the movements described are quick or slow. 1. There has been a sharp decline in stock value in Great Britain. 2. GDP growth in Australia is increasing steadily. 3. There has been a sudden jump in demand for consumer commodities. 4. The dollar plunged to $1.27 against the euro. 5. Oil prices have skyrocketed in the last three months. 6. Unemployment in Italy has increased gradually since 2000. Exercise 11 - You can use noun phrases instead of verbs to describe trends. For example: Prices have risen considerably There has been a considerable rise in prices.

Change the following sentences to include a noun phrase. 7. The market has expanded slightly. 8. Prices are going to fall dramatically. 9. Our export sales collapsed suddenly. 10. Sales are increasing steadily. 11. Salaries have dropped gradually. 12. Profits will certainly rise significantly. 75

Chapter 3 - Exercise Key

Exercise 8. 1. upward 2. stable 3. downward 4. upward 5. stable 6. downward. Exercise 9. 1. large 2. large 3. large 4. large 5. small 6. small. Exercise 10. 1. quick 2. slow 3. quick 4. quick 5. quick 6. slow. Exercise 11. 1. There has been a slight expansion in the market 2. There is going to be a dramatic fall in prices 3. There was a sudden collapse in export sales 4. There is a steady increase in sales 5. There has been a gradual drop in salaries 6. Certainly, there will be a significant rise in profits.

76

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

Chapter 4 - The Web as a resource for language learning

The Web is the largest repository of texts and other resources now available. Much of this material can be used for linguistic purposes, that is to improve your knowledge of a foreign language. In these pages, I will cover the following topics: 1. 2. 3. 4. What resources a student can find on the Internet (general overview) How to find what you are looking for (Web search strategies) How to evaluate what you have found How to use those resources for linguistic purposes (some hints and exercises)

Part 1. What is on the Internet for second language students a. Grammar books and lessons
General English http://www.wordpower.ws/grammar/gramtoc.html (A comprehensive grammar book) http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/ (Online course by the BBC) http://www.english-online.org.uk/backindex.html (English for Everybody. Home page) http://www.english-online.org.uk/course.htm?name=beg&link=begcourse.htm (English for Everybody. Beginners course. Grammar) English for Special Purposes (in this case, Business English) http://www.better-english.com/grammar.htm (Business English Grammar Exercises) http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/business/index.shtml (Still BBC, but for Business English) http://www.linguarama.com/ps/vocab.htm (Linguarama, vocabulary. But check also the other topics --> buttons on the left) http://www.english-online.org.uk/specialcourse.htm?name=biz&link=bizcourse.htm (Still English for Everybody. Business English)

Listening Exercises
http://www.esl-lab.com/ (One of the largest ESL listening training resources on the Web for three different levels.) http://www.rong-chang.com/sites/elllo.htm (hundreds of listening exercises. From the Text Page, you can also download the .mp3 file --> Right-click on Play audio and then Save File to Disk) http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/index.cfm (The Voice of America, read and listen to American English articles) http://www.economist.com/audio/ (Podcasts from The Economists website. Freely downloadable) 77

b. Dictionaries
http://www.m-w.com/netdict.htm (Merriam-Webster, with pronounciation) http://www.foreignword.com/Tools/dictsrch.htm (access to many online dictionaries, for many different languages)

c. Glossaries and acronyms

http://stommel.tamu.edu/~baum/hyperref.html (general) http://www.urbandictionary.com/ (funny, American slang) http://www.glossarist.com/glossaries/business/ (Business glossaries) http://bizglossaries.tripod.com/ (Business glossaries) http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/Global/F/glossary/ (specialised) http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/business/specials/glossary/index.html (many newspapers and magazines feature online glossaries) http://accurapid.com/journal/e_iglossary.htm (rare but not impossible, an English-Italian Glossary in International Finance and Trade) http://www.acronymfinder.com/ (an acronym finder)

d. Tutorials (lessons, How tos). For instance, how to write...

... a marketing plan ... a press release ... business letters ... a business plan ... an oral presentation http://www.knowthis.com/tutorials/marketing/marketingplan1.htm http://www.pandecta.com/write_press_release.html http://www.business-letters.com/business-letters.htm http://www.bplans.com/dp/ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/oral_presentations.htm

e. Samples (i.e. examples) of...

business letters business plans marketing plans http://www.4hb.com/letters/ http://www.bplans.com/sp/businessplans.cfm http://www.bplans.com/sp/marketingplans.cfm

f. The websites of important institutions (source of texts and documents):

The European Union The World Bank The World Trade Organization: Accounting Associations: Financial Management Ass. Management http://europa.eu/ http://www.worldbank.org/ http://www.wto.org/ http://aaahq.org/ (American) http://www.eaa-online.org/r/default.asp?iId=JDLFL (European) http://www.efmaefm.org/index.shtml http://www.eiasm.org/index1.html

g. Jobs ! Or rather, job adverts

78 http://www.monster.com/geo/siteselection.asp http://jobprofiles.monster.com/ (professional profiles) http://www.careerbuilder.com/ http://hotjobs.yahoo.com/

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

What is available but should never be used are online translators. See for example www.google.com --> Language Tools. Try an automatic translation from English into Italian, for example, and read the output text. Funny, isnt it? But certainly not a good translation. These are only examples of what is available there, over the Internet, but all these resources cannot meet all the needs you may have in your working or academic career. What you should then do is become an expert web searcher.

Part 2 Web Search Strategies

The information on the Web is organised into linked pages that are located on different computers connected to the Internet1. Anybody can post pages on the Web, but unfortunately the Web is not indexed in any standard manner, so, unless you know the exact address of the page you are looking for, you might face some difficulty in locating it. The gateways to the Internet are of two types: a) the so-called subject directories and b) search engines. a) Subject directories are web pages that offer a collection of links to Internet resources submitted by site creators or evaluators and organized into subject categories. They can be general sd (e.g. About.com, www.about.com; The Librarians Internet Index, www.lii.org, etc.), or specialised (Intute, resources for education and research, www.intute.ac.uk; Voice of the Shuttle, for humanities research, vos.ucsb.edu). Subject directories are human centered services. The people who maintain the directories decide which sites will be linked from each service. This procedure gives the pages linked a sort of authority (one of the problems of the Internet is its lack of it). b) Search engines (e.g. Google, www.google.com; Yahoo, www.yahoo.com; Altavista, www.altavista.com, etc.). A search engine is a complex type of Web based software made up of three parts: 1. The so-called spiders (or robots, of bots) that crawl the Web from link to link, identifying and perusing pages. Spiders index most of the words on publicly available pages and record them in a database. 2. A huge database, where web pages are recorded and indexed. 3. A search form (the part of search engines actually visible to the end user). When you type keywords on the search form, the software queries its database and returns all the pages containing those keywords. Search engines are thus machine centered services. Spiders grab Web pages, computer programs index the content, and a search mechanism queries the index and ranks the results.

Actually, even though Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are now used as synonyms, originally they were not. In general terms, the Internet refers to the physical aspect of the global network (computers and interconnecting cables), whereas the Web refers to a mass of information, an abstract space filled with digital knowledge (the so-called cyberspace). Moreover, the Internet is an American invention, the Web is European (its protocol was developed at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland.)

79

It is worth noticing that search engines do not provide direct access to the Internet, but only to the pages they have saved in their database. So, the larger the database the more pages are available. Furthermore, a search engine does not give access to the Internet as it is at the moment. The indexing process takes some time, so recently posted documents may not yet be accessible via search engine. What is interesting from a linguistic point of view is that words are indeed keys to texts. The trick to find what you are looking for is thus thinking about what words or phrases may be contained in the document you are trying to locate. If you are searching for documents in English, therefore, use words in English. If you dont know a key term in English, try to find it using one of the dictionaries or glossaries I listed above. Search engines, moreover, allow their users to combine words according to a search syntax that can even be very complex. Not all search engines work in the same way, so, once you have chosen the engine you prefer, look for its Advanced search page and/or Web Search Features, and learn to use the different options offered. Personally I use Google, simply because its database is the largest available at the moment, and also its search options are quite sophisticated. All the examples below come from Google searches performed on March 12th, 2006.

Basic search syntax

1. AND principle. Search engines look for documents containing all the keywords typed in the search form. The more keywords you type the less documents you retrieve. Try the following exercise. Use a major search engine and start typing one word, then check how many results you have found. Then add another word, and check the number of results. If you keep on adding terms, the number of results will continue to decrease. EXAMPLE:
europe europe union europe union currency europe union currency euro Results [...] about 402,000,000 Results [...] about 147,000,000 Results [...] about 11,400,000 Results [...] about 1,340,000

2. Put your most important keyword first in the string, and be specific. EXAMPLE:
NY Stock Exchange glossary glossary accounting bookkeping

3. Exclude terms. Use the minus (-) signs in front of words (NO space between the sign and the keyword) to force their exclusion in searches. For example, if you want to find information about the Association of European Operational Research Societies (EURO), type:
euro -currency

If you dont exclude the term currency, the majority of results will be pages about the Euro as a currency. 4. Learn to use the phrase search. Use double quotation marks (... ...) around phrases to ensure they are searched exactly as is, with the words side by side in the same order. Notice the difference in the number of results with the following searches: 80

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

cover letters cover letters business cover letters business cover letters

Results [...] about 44,800,000 Results [...] about 1,070,000 Results [...] about 54,200,000 Results [...] about 9,380

Can you identify the pattern? 6. Think of the different forms words may have in documents and combine them differently. EXAMPLE:
how to write resumes samples resume writing samples examples

7. Combine search phrase and asterisks (used as wildcards), to find and reuse concordances, i.e. the words that go together. The search engine will match one or more entire words of text so that the query matches a contiguous sequence of words. Try for example
how to * oral presentations dissertation * model abstract

to see all the verbs that can be used in such expressions. Search engines offer also other options, usually through the Advanced Search page (for Google, see http://www.google.com/advanced_search?hl=en). For example, you can perform a search within a specific website. For example see the difference in the number of Results between the search for the term stock market all over the Internet and within the World Trade Organization (www.wto.org) website only:
Results [...] of about 44,700,000 for stock market. Results [...] of about172 from www.wto.org for "stock market".

You can also perform a search in pages written only in a selected language:
Results [...] of about 148,000 Italian pages for "stock market".

Or in pages within a specific domain (see below for a list of domain names):
Results [...] of about 1,030,000 for "stock market" site:.uk. Results [...] of about 302,000 for "stock market" site:.us. Results [...] of about 85,000 for "stock market" site:.hk. Results [...] of about 832,000 for "stock market" site:.edu.

This allow you to search for culture bound terms to see how they are used in a different language. For example, if you want to see how ABI, Associazione Bancaria Italiana, is mentioned in English documents, simply try the following search within pages written in English only:
abi italian banks

and you will find several examples of ABI, the Italian Banking Association. NB. A good online tutorial about Web Search Strategies is at the address http://www.learnwebskills.com/search/main.html. 81

Part 3 - How to evaluate findings

Let me start by saying that the value of what you find depends on the purpose of your research. First, ask yourself: a) Has the site been published by an entity that makes sense? For instance, www.imf.org (the International Monetary Fund) b) Is the news from the source you expect? For example, www.economist.com/index.html (The Economist) c) Is this advice from a valid agency? E.g. www.usaid.gov (the US Agency for International Development) Second, learn to read Web Addresses. Top-level domains tell you more than you think. A top-level domain (TLD) is the last part of an Internet domain name; that is the letters which follow the final dot of any domain name. TLDs are currently of two types: generic top level domains (gTLD), used at least in theory by a particular class of organization. It is three or more letters long; country code top-level domains (ccTLD), used by a country or a dependent territory. It is two letters long.

Here is a list of the gTLD domains that have been in operation for the past several years and are generally accepted by all:

.edu restricted use by educational sites (usually a university or college) .com general use by commercial business sites .gov restricted use by U.S. governmental/non-military sites .mil restricted use by U.S. military sites and agencies .net general use by networks, internet service providers, organizations .org general use by U.S. non-profit organizations and others

In mid November 2000, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) voted to accept an additional seven new suffixes, which are already in operation or preparing to come into operation:

.aero -- restricted use by air transportation industry .biz -- general use by businesses .coop -- restricted use by cooperatives .info -- general use by both commercial and non-commercial sites .museum -- restricted use by museums .name -- general use by individuals .pro -- restricted use by certified professionals and professional entities

There are over 243 ccTLDs. Most ccTLDs correspond to the two-letter ISO 3166-1 country codes, but there are several differences. Each country appoints managers for its ccTLD and sets the rules for allocating domains. Some countries allow anyone in the world to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Austria (at) and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (cc). Other countries or dependent territories allow only citizens to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Canada (ca). 82

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

For a complete list of all Internet Top-Level domains, see the following entry at Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Internet_top-level_domains. A meaningful structure is also in the next-to-last word of the domains. For example, .ac. is short for "academic" in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Japan (Oxford University: www.ox.ac.uk) .uni. stands for Universities in many European countries Australia uses .edu. for its universities, as in www.usyd.edu.au .co. is for commercial entities. For example, Hitachi, Japan is at www.hitachi.co.jp.

NB. Many American universities publish online guidelines about How to evaluate Web pages. The following are two of the best examples: Berkeley: http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/Evaluate.html Cornell University: http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/evaluate.html

Part 4 Using the web for linguistic purposes Hints and exercises
Apart from all the tutorials and grammar-books available online, the Web is an incredible source of useful information, texts and ready-made language. And the grand majority of Web pages are in English. Looking for background information and/or language samples can help you in many ways. Below are listed some examples of difficulties you can solve with the help of the Internet. I wont give you any ready-made aswer. If you have read this lesson through to the end, you should be able to find solutions by yourself ;-))).

a) Finding background information

You may need to find general information on some topic, or verify whether what you have been told is correct. For example, you want to apply for a job in the US and you know (I told you...) that in the US there are differences between curriculum vitae and resume (both in structure and usage). Unfortunately you dont know what they are. Try to find the answer on the Web.

b) Looking for How tos

We have seen that online there are numerous tutorial. You have already applied for a job and you have been successful: your rsum and cover letter have been picked up by a prospective employer. Now you have been called for an interview but you dont know what to expect. Try to find some info about how to * a job interview.

c) Disambiguating from context

Sometimes, while reading, we find expressions and words that are not present in dictionaries and glossaries. In these cases, you can rely only upon context. Read the two texts below and do some search on the Internet to see whether you can guess the meaning of the two underlined expressions from the texts you find. Keep track of your searches.

83

1. Shillers book Irrational Exuberance argues that the boom represents a speculative bubble, not grounded in sensible economic fundamentals. Part one of the book considers structural factors behind the boom. A list of twelve precipitating factors that appear to be its ultimate causes is given. Amplification mechanisms, naturallyoccurring Ponzi processes, that enlarge the effects of these precipitating factors, are described. Part Two discusses cultural factors, the effects of the news media, and of "new era" economic thinking.[...] 2. The first mutuals were formed just 40 years after the Declaration of Independence. They were founded to provide banking services and credit access for ordinary citizens whom the established banking community ignored. Whether state- or federally- chartered, mutual institutions continu to serve everyone.

d) Looking for examples of how culture-bound terms are officially used in other languages.
Try to guess how Farnesina could be in a possible English translation of the following text (From La Repubblica, March 10th, 2007): Il comunicato della Farnesina conclude quindi precisando che "non si dispone peraltro di informazioni accertate su altri aspetti della vicenda riferiti oggi dai mezzi di informazione". Verify your hypothesis on the Internet. See how the following associations are mentioned in English texts: ANCI (Associazione Nazionale Comuni di Italia) OIC (Organismo Italiano di Contabilit) ConfCommercio Look for English texts about the Italian tax IRAP. By the way, see also how Italian laws are mentioned in English.

e) Checking what you have written.

On the Web, there are billions of texts. If a phrase you have typed on a search form returns no links, probably that chunk of language has never been used before. And, presumably, what you want to say should be expressed in a different way. Obviously, this trick works only at phrase level: noun + verb, verb + prepositions, preposition + verb, adjective + noun, etc. Actually, just because a long sentence gives you no results, it does not mean it could not exist. The longer the sentence, the more numerous are word combinations. But if an adjective and a noun have not yet been used together, probably they do not form a collocation and their usage would sound odd to a native speakers ear. So, break down your long sentences into shorter components and check them one by one. The following expressions are taken from last years students abstracts. Unfortunately, they do not exist in English. You can verify it easily by typing them (double quotes included) on a search engine form. To help you, I have underlined the wrong part. Can you correct the mistakes? 84

Tognini Bonelli - Lazzari

a.a. 2007-08

Dispensa Modulo II

sending competitors out of business Euro signed bonds The company is formed by 7 departments

f) Frequency counts
Would you use the expressions to do investments or to make investments. Check on the Internet. Which one is more frequent? Same exercise as above: ethic banking or ethical banking? And again: do an internship or make an intership?

85