LEARNING DISABILITIES Introduction Most students classified as intellectually impaired are not described by clearly identifiable syndromes, but

many times, their impairments have known etiologies. Further, many students are not diagnosed as mentally disabled until well into their preschool or early elementary school years. Early identification of marker characteristics that predispose children to mental impairment allows for environmental intervention to reduce or prevent eventual developmental delay. For some children, the primary factors that produce mental impairment can be found in their environments. For still other children, the interaction of organismicallybased influences and environmental variables also result in mental impairment or seriously delayed development. These variables, organismic and environmental, that contribute to mental impairment and delay are termed "risk factors" in development. Research to identify and to help control (intervene, mitigate, and prevent) risk factors and the adverse outcomes of mental impairment are the aims of this theme. Intellectual impairment means significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning which exists concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects a student's educational performance (34 CFR, Ch. III, Sec. 300.7). According to the above definition, three IQ criteria must be met before an individual should be classified as mentally retarded: 1. subaverage intellectual ability (IQ 70 or lower) 2. problems in adaptive functioning 3. manifested before the age of 18 Mental Impairment is one of the most frequently occurring disabilities that occurs in the inclusive classroom. In the US, some 13.3% of all students in special education are classified as being mentally impaired. For example, in West Virginia, there are 15.4% who are mildly impaired, 4.8% moderately impaired, 0.7% severely impaired, and 0.5% profoundly impaired. Total percent of mentally disabled in West Virginia is 21.4%. In terms of IQ range, four groups are classified (by IQ) as:

Students who are mildly impaired have an IQ range of 51-70 and are in many ways quite similar to their peers who are not impaired. Students who have moderate impairments have an IQ range of 36-50 and are more obviously developmentally delayed. Students who are moderately impaired can learn to take care of their personal needs and perform hands-on vocational tasks. Students who are severely impaired have an IQ range of 21-35 and are more dependent on others for basic needs. Students who are severely impaired can learn basic self-care and can contribute partially to self-support usually under supervision. Students who are profoundly impaired have an IQ range below 20 and may be largely dependent on others for their care.

General Strategies

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed. Preparation for experience in the learning environment best occurs when all students of different backgrounds and abilities learn and socialize together in classrooms and other school settings. In these instances where all have a chance to achieve and receive instruction designed to develop and enhance successful living within the school and general community. Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy. Never assess a student's capabilities solely on the basis of their IQ or other standardized test scores (especially at the limits of the IQ definition). Each student with an impairment needs to be in an age/achievement appropriate learning environment with peers who are not impaired. After some time in the learning environment, which includes a mentally impaired student, the teacher, as an observer, should record the behavior that varies from the "norm" and which may indicate the need for referral for counseling and/or psychological intervention including drug therapy, if necessary. Develop a protocol for the student to tell you when he/she anticipates a need for assistance. When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You" graciously. Encourage classmates to accept the student with a mental impairment. Be aware that a student with an impairment may frequently be treated with therapeutic medications that affect performance and speed. Acknowledge that high, but realistic, expectations should be maintained to encourage full realization of social and educational potential. Personal interactions with mentally impaired students: o Speak directly to the student with an impairment as you would any other student. o Involvement with other children: The teacher should, where possible, get to know the non-impaired students, engaging them and providing them a connecting link between these students and the students with impairments. The teacher shouldn't be seen as the person who relates only to the student with an impairment. o Modeling for others: The teacher should be aware that his or her interactions with the impaired student will serve as a model for interactions with students who are impaired. This may be particularly important in assisting others in areas such as communicating with the student with an impairment about behavior that does not appear appropriate in science teaching/learning activities. o Backing off: Often, interactions occur without the involvement of a teacher. At times, in fact, the presence of an adult may inhibit interactions, and it may be necessary to "Back off" and let things happen on their own. o Interactions in the context of school activities: It is important to observe the interactions of the student with others in the learning environment. For instance, what types of interactions occur, and at what times? Some activities are more conducive to getting students together than others. The teacher should note and promote opportunities for interactions, even if that means revising

plans for teaching skills to allow for spontaneous interactions and play. Remember that not all interactions are verbal. Cheering together, sitting together and watching an event or doing an activity, or working as a team field or laboratory to build something are all examples of nonverbal/verbal interactions. Learning strategies, such as mnemonics, provide quite good ways to access information, It can be an essential component in learning for many students with disabilities (a mnemonic is defined as a word, sentence, picture, device, or technique for improving or strengthening memory).

Teacher Presentation

Use a large amount of concrete materials to: o Proceed in small sequential steps and review each frequently o Provide prompt and consistent feedback. Stress the mentally impaired student's successes. Agreements such as: attentive listening, mutual respect, the right to pass, and appreciation, should be enforced.

Laboratory

Depending on the degree of impairment, provide opportunities to practice skills in both normal environments versus contrived experimental situations. Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. Provide opportunities to practice field skills in natural environments.

Reading

Before considering other treatments for reading/spelling problems, peripheral sensory deficits in vision and audition should be investigated. Provides direct instruction in reading skills, such as decoding. Offer appealing and "standard" print and electronic texts. Provide positive explicit and corrective feedback. Reinforce attempts as well as successes. Field Experiences

Depending on the degree of impairment, provide opportunities to practice skills in both environments. Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. Research

At the appropriate level of communication, review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student. Provide opportunities to practice skills in both normal environments versus contrived situations or natural environments, as appropriate. Testing

Encourage students to use relaxation and other stress reducing techniques during exams. Allow more time for the examination.

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Introduction Communication Disorders involve a wide variety of problems in speech, language, and hearing. For example, speech and language disorders include stuttering, aphasia, dysfluency, voice disorders (hoarseness, breathiness, or sudden breaks in loudness or pitch), cleft lip and/or palate, articulation problems, delays in speech and language, autism, and phonological disorders. Speech and language impairments and disorders can be attributed to environmental factors, of which the most commonly known are High Risk Register problems, which include drugs taken during pregnancy, common STD's such as syphilis, and birthing trauma to name a few. Communication disorders can also stem from other conditions such as learning disabilities, dyslexia, cerebral palsy, and mental retardation. Individuals with communication disorderto the student with a disability as you would any other student.

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

Students with communication disorders should be encouraged to discuss their functional difficulties and needs in private during the first week of classes and to talk about ways to compensate.

When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You" graciously.

Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems. Be a good speech model. This will indicate to all that good communication is desirable.

An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be established and maintained in the classroom.

Consult a Speech Language expert concerning each child with a communicative disorder in your class and work with him/her throughout the class.

Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy. Give students with speech impairments opportunity to speak in class.

Give them time to express themselves, do not interrupt or try to fill in gaps for them. Speak to them naturally.

Teacher Presentation

Maintain contact with student. Allow students to tape lectures. Provide and interpreter (signed English or American Sign Language) to those who require another form of communication.

Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions. Be patient. Be a good listener.

Laboratory 1. Allow more time for the student to complete activities. 2. Place the student within reasonable distance from the instructor to meet their needs. 3. Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the student in doing the same. Together, work out alternate procedures while trying not to disengage the student from the activity. 4. For students who cannot use the computer because of other physical limitations in their hands or arms, explore avenues for obtaining adaptive access software, (including Unicorn keyboards), special switches, Power Pads, eye controlled input systems, touch screens, footmice, and other special equipment. 5. If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided. 6. Use a peer-buddy system when appropriate.

7. Lastly, consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.

Group Interaction and Discussion

Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems. An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be established and maintained in the classroom.

Encourage and assist in the facilitation of participation in activities and discussions. Allow more time for the student to complete activities.

Research

Review and explain to the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student.

Use appropriate lab and field strategies according to the nature of the research. Allow more time for the student to complete activities. With the student, work out alternate procedures which do not disengage the student from the activity.

Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the student with a communication disability in doing the same. Together, work out alternate procedures while trying to disengage the student from the activity.

If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

Field Experiences

Discuss with the student any needs, problems or alternatives he/she anticipates in the field learning environment.

Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.

Make special advance arrangements with curators during passive visiting field trips. When information gathering involves a physical action that the impaired student cannot perform, try a different experience yielding the same information.

In the field, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

Testing

Allow more time for the student with communication impairments to complete tests in their optimal mode of communication.

Design tests that are appropriate for the student's disorder (written, drawn, or oral.) Writers could be provided for test taking if the individual requires such assistance. Check to be sure that test instructions are completely understood by the child and provide any additional assistance that may be needed.

MOTOR IMPAIRED/ORTHOPEDIC DISABILITIES

Introduction Motor impaired/orthopedic disabilities includes a heterogeneous grouping of conditions with a wide range of causes. Examples of some of the more common causes are: Nervous system disorders Traumatic spinal cord injury Stroke Muscular Dystrophy Cerebral Palsy Epilepsy Muscular-skeletal disorders Rheumatoid arthritis Cardiovascular disease Coronary heart disease Respiratory Disorders Emphysema Asthma Endocrine-metabolic Diabetes Amputation of all types. One of the first considerations in the effective science education of individuals with motor/orthopedic impairments is a brief understanding of his/her impairment and the degree of educational limitation it causes. With such information, a set of mitigative strategies can be derived that are fully appropriate to that particular student, however, some of the strategies may not work for every student. (After "Mainstream Teaching of Science: A Source Book", Keller et al.) General Courtesy

Accept the fact that a disability exists. Not acknowledging this fact is not acknowledging the person.

Ask the student to tell you when he/she anticipates a need for assistance. Don't lean on a student's wheelchair. The chair is a part of the body space of the student who uses it.

Don't patronize students who use wheelchairs by patting them on the head. This is a sign of affection that should be reserved only for small children, and most of them do not like it either.

Encourage students who use crutches or canes to keep them within easy reach and make such a space available.

Only push a wheelchair when asked. Have custodians use non-skid floor polish for students who use crutches and wheelchairs.

If spills occur, keep floors clear of liquids. If writing is difficult, use a tape recorder.

Speak directly to the student with a disability, confidentially, as you would other students.

Students should be encouraged to talk confidentially with their instructors during the first week of classes to discuss their functional difficulties and needs, and to talk about ways to accommodate.

Using a wheelchair when the person can walk with the aid of cane(s), brace(s), crutch(es), or a walker does not mean a student is "feigning" the degree of disability. It may be a means to conserve energy or move about more quickly.

When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "no thank you" graciously.

When talking to a student who uses a wheelchair for more than a few minutes, or so, sit down or kneel to place yourself at that student's eye level.

Reserve parking space that is accessible and close to the building. Allow course waiver or course substitution for certain students. Always plan any field trip in advance to ensure accessibility. Words like "walking" or "running" are appropriate. Sensitivity to these words is not necessary. Students who use wheelchairs use the same words.

General Strategies

Bring to the student's attention Science Role Models with Disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

If the functional limitation involves the lack of arm use then the use of Dragon-Dictate may be extremely useful. It may be used for such things as computer aided drafting and design(CADD) and other computer applications.

Arrange for library personnel to assist access to card catalouges, bookshelves, and microfiche and other equipments.

Consider accessibility factor to classroom so that student is able to get to class on time.

Be familiar with the building's emergency evacuation plan to assure that it is manageable for the students.

Teacher Presentation

If breaks between classes are short (10 minutes or less), the student who has a mobility impairment may frequently be a few minutes late. Students and instructors may want to plan for these occasions, so students don't miss important material.

Observe potential obstacles so you can be aware of what is accessible and what is not accessible to students in wheelchairs.

Students may need to tape lectures (difficulty with writing or unable to write). Table-type desks, with adequate leg space, which have enough clearance for wheelchairs can be moved into classrooms.

Laboratory Adaptations such as: latching devices, keylocks, headmaster, and light talkers that simplify access to computers can greatly help the motor/orthopedic science student. 1. Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. 2. Allow more time for the student to complete the lab activities. 3. Alter the height of tables to "fit" the students (e.g., a small ramp to a flat platform for high desks). 4. Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the student with disability in doing the same. Together, work out alternate procedures while trying not to disengage the student from the activity. 5. Assign a lab partner who can help to reach or manipulate objects as needed. 6. Be aware of, and prevent the possible overheating of students who have poor heat regulation.

7. Have students in wheelchairs participate in activities as fully as possible. 8. Built-in lab tables (or small ramp/platforms) may need to be modified to accommodate wheelchairs. 9. For students who cannot fully use a computer because of physical limitations in their hands or arms, explore avenues for obtaining adaptive access software, altered keyboards (including Unicorn keyboards), special switches (latching devices, keylocks), and Power Pads, eye-controlled input systems, or touch-screens in conjunction with a light talker, trackballs, footmice, and other special equipment. 10. If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided. 11. If breaks between classes are short (10 minutes or less), the student who has a mobility impairment may frequently be a few minutes late. Students and instructors may want to plan for these occasions, so students don't miss important aspects of the activity. 12. In the laboratory, place water, gas, and electric facilities in accessible locations. 13. Increase size of wheels, dials, handles, and buttons on lab equipment. 14. Lower supplies and equipment for easier access, or simply give them to the student as needed. 15. Perhaps a change in aisles (by relocating desks and/or chairs) is needed for wheelchair access. 16. For hoods in laboratories, have operating knobs and switches within easy access. 17. Provide an accessible means for the recording of data, charts, or graphs. 18. Select non-manual types of laboratory teaching techniques (e.g., electronic probes vs. pipette bulbs). 19. Table-type desks, which are high enough for wheelchairs can be moved into labs. 20. Use a peer-buddy system. 21. Use electric hot plates instead of Bunsen burners as heat sources. 22. Use laboratory sinks that are accessible from 3 sides for those with one side or those who are paralyzed. 23. Use low-force electric micro switches for lights and equipment. 24. Use modified lids on the tops of containers (wider and bigger). 25. Use a portable eye wash. 26. When information gathering involves a physical action that the student cannot perform, try using a different type of experience that will yield the same information.

Group Interaction and Discussion

Include student in open discussions. Allow more time for the student to complete activities. Use ramps and raised platforms for student's access. Lower chalkboard and/or corkboard.

Reading

Acknowledge understanding by blinking, nodding, or a pointer. Use a tape recorder. Use small sections of large text or readings. Use easels, portable reading racks, a standing table, and adjustable seats and desks. Allow more time for the student to complete the activities.

Field Experiences

Anticipate areas of difficulty and involve the student with a disability in doing the same. Together, and in the planning stage, work out alternate procedures while trying not to disengage the student from the activity.

Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.

Be sure students in wheelchairs can fully participate in activities. When the activity involves field work or field trips, many of the students using a wheelchair will probably need other travel arrangements because they often need to rely on attendants, ramp adapted vans for transportation, or power lift vans for transportation to and from field activities.

In the field, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

Increase size of wheels, dials, handles, and buttons on field equipment. Use a peer-buddy system. Use modified lids on the tops of containers (wide, bigger, and easier to open). When information gathering involves a physical action that the physically impaired student cannot perform, try a different experience yielding the same information.

Make special advance arrangements with curators during passive visiting field trips.

Make sure that field activity sites are accessible. Check the following:
o o o o o o

Are there nearby parking spaces reserved for persons with disabilities? Is there a ramp or a step-free entrance? Are there accessible rest rooms? If the site is not on the ground floor, does the building have an elevator? Are water fountains and telephones low enough for a student in a wheelchair? Arrange with curators of museums, science centers, etc. for alternate activities if it is not possible to have the student in a wheelchair do the activities.

Discuss any needs, problems, or alternatives with the student.

Research

Review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student.

Depending on the site of the research check the previous two sections. Use appropriate laboratory and field strategies.

Testing

Allow more time for the student to complete the activities. Provide a seperate place for the test if necessary. Give completely oral tests or completely written tests, whichever is more appropriate to the students needs.

Allow students to tape record answers to tests or type answers, as needed. Writers should be provided for test-taking if the student is unable to write (or give oral tests out of the earshot of other students).

Students may write slowly and need extended time for tests.

Develop a portfolio of the student's work, both singly and as part of a cooperating group. Orally quiz him/her to establish the extent to which the student contributed to the group-based accomplishments.

HEARING IMPAIRMENTS Introduction Over time, the average hearing impaired student shows an ever increasing gap in vocabulary growth, complex sentence comprehension and construction, and in concept formation as compared to students with normal hearing. Hearing impaired students often learn to "feign" comprehension with the end result being that the student does have optimal learning opportunities. Therefore, facilitative strategies for hearing impaired students are primarily concerned with various aspects of communication. Other problems arise because deafness is an invisible disability. It is easy for teachers to "forget about it" and treat the student as not having a disability. It has also been shown that hearing impaired students with good English skills also have good science concept formation. (After "Mainstream Teaching of Science: A Source Book", Keller et al.) Deaf: "A hearing impairment which is so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects educational performance." Hard of Hearing: "A hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not included under the definition of 'deaf'." Deaf-Blind: "Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational problems that a child cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for deaf children or blind children." (All definitions are from IDEA.) General Courtesy (Note: all of these strategies will work on some of the students--some strategies will not. The degree of impairment and the background training of the student will affect the usefulness of the various strategies).

Since facial expressions, gestures, and other body language will help convey your message: Get the attention of a student with a hearing impairment before speaking and communicating and always face the student. If not facing a student with a hearing impairment, gently touch a student on the shoulder or on the arm to indicate that you want to talk to him/her. Do not be alarmed if the student does not understand and you cannot understand him/her. Generally, you will become accustomed to each other in time. When communicating, always face the student with a hearing impairment. Facial expressions, gestures, and other body language will help convey your message. For reinforcement repeat new vocabulary in different contexts. Sequence topics so that new material is related to that previously learned. The use of visual aids is most helpful since vision is the student's primary means of receiving information.

Use written announcements (assignments, due dates, exam dates, changes in the class schedule, special event dates, etc.). If ambiguities or difficulties arise in the home concerning assignments or lessons, have the parents make a note of these difficulties. Follow-up in written detail. Provide an outline in advance of the lesson/activity to give to the student in advance, also list your expectations. Write all homework assignments, class instructions, and procedural changes on the chalkboard. Use captioned films, videos, and laser disks. Use interpreter where needed (see general strategies). Avoid seating the student in heavy traffic areas. Do not touch or pet a hearing dog. These animals are working animals and it may be hazardous for the hearing impaired student if the dog is distracted. Avoid vibrations and excessive noise. Make chalkboard notes legible. Do not talk while writing on chalkboard. Eliminate background noises. Sounds taken for granted and normally ignored by hearing individuals, are amplified by a hearing aid and interfere with the communication of the person who is hard of hearing. Establish, with the student, a procedure in case of an emergency. For example, agree that for a fire drill (or fire) the teacher will write on board "Fire drill FIRE--go out backdoor." (Also, if you have a signing student, learn the signs for emergency, fire, go, etc.) Get the attention of a person with a hearing impairment before speaking. If necessary, use written notes to communicate. Supplement audible alarm systems with simple visual alarms such as flashing lights. When teaching a student with a hearing impairment, ask where he/she would like to sit, in order to communicate in an optimal manner.

General Strategies

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed. Obtain feedback from your hearing impaired students at every opportunity as an indicator of the student's level of understanding. If the student lip-reads: o Have students sit closer to the lecturer. o Look directly at the student. o Speak slowly, naturally, and clearly. o Slowing down slightly may help. o Do not exaggerate your lip movements or shout. o If you have a mustache, keep it well trimmed.

If the student uses an interpreter: o Speak directly to the student rather than to the interpreter.

Signing may be distracting at first, but you and the other students will soon become accustomed to the interpreter's presence. o Give the student and the interpreter outlines of the lecture or written material, in advance, so that they can become familiar with new technical vocabulary. o Interpreters should not give their opinion of a student's progress as this can violate the student's rights. o Provide scripts of video and laser media when possible for both the interpreter and the student with a hearing disability (with or without captioning). o The interpreter is not to answer lesson related questions from the student with a hearing impairment. The student should direct all lesson related questions to the instructor. o The interpreter should stand closer to the section of the chalkboard that is being used by the instructor, thereby allowing the student to simultaneously see both the signs and the writing on the board. When writing materials for hearing impaired students: o Break up long sentences. o Reduce difficult vocabulary load. o Reduce concept density. o When using a pronoun be sure that the antecedent is very clear. o Do not omit words such as: "that" where such words will clarify a sentence connection. o Stay with simple coordinating conjunctions (e.g., but, so, for, and) and avoid less common transitional words (e.g., however, as a consequence, nevertheless, although). o Keep cause-and-effect expressions in a very simple in form. o Keep conditional expressions which influence the meaning of a statement to a minimum (such as; if, when, assuming that, suppose, provided that, etc.). o If there is no other way to avoid using a difficult word, include a brief explanation in parentheses, however keep parenthetical explanations to a minimum. o If an important basic or technical word is to be taught: o Make meaning and application absolutely clear. o Use context as a memory aid. o For a new term, repeat the word numerous times in a variety of contexts. Certain language forms are generally to be AVOIDED: o Passive voice verbs. o Negative forms of verbs and other expressions of negation. o Too many modifying forms, such as prepositional phrases, relative clauses. (If a relative clause must be used, the relative pronoun [who, which, that, where, etc.] should be next to the word to which it refers). o Stylistic embellishments, such as rhetorical inversions. o Colloquial and idiomatic expressions. o Cut wordiness while retaining simple English. o Avoid the use of idioms.
o

Teacher Presentation

Guidelines For Making Teachers Presentations and Materials Accessible to Persons with Hearing Loss INTRODUCTION The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that materials and information be available in alternate formats whenever possible and reasonable to do so. It is a good idea to assume that there will always be people in your audience who have difficulties seeing your material or hearing your presentation. When you make your presentation accessible to persons with hearing or vision loss, everyone in your audience will benefit. Strategies to Create Information Access for Persons with Hearing Loss ENVIRONMENT * Provide the audience with a clear and direct view of your mouth and face. * Speak from a well-lighted area of the room. * Reduce background noise by turning off slide projectors or other types of apparatus when not in use. * Speak clearly and naturally and at your normal pace, unless you are asked to slow down. * For those with mustaches, trim so the lips show clearly INTERPRETERS * Sign language interpreters are certified professionals who use American Sign Language or Signed English to interpret spoken English for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. * If a sign language interpreter is used, introduce yourself to the interpreter and go over technical and specialized vocabulary before beginning presentations. * Interpreters at conference presentations should stand on one side of the platform at the front of the room, even with extra lighting if needed, in order to be clearly seen from anywhere in the audience. * When replying to a query from a hearing impaired individual using an interpreter, speak to the hearing impaired person, NOT to the interpreter.

CAPTIONING * Captioning is the on screen text display of spoken words or sounds that are part of

a video or film presentation. Captioners are usually trained as stenographers and use special software to add captions to a previously produced video. * Video or film production services can also include captions as part of your original production. * If showing a videotape, have it captioned. (Open captions are preferred for this purpose as closed captions can be seen only with the use of a decoder.) If there is a script or transcription already available, this will make the captioner's job easier. * If captioning is not feasible, arrange for an interpreter to sign the audio portion of the tape. If possible, make the tape available to the interpreter a day, or so, before your presentation. AUDITORY MATERIALS * Audiotapes, videotapes, and other auditory materials can be translated into print format to make them accessible to people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. When transcribing video, be sure to mention any sounds and actions that may occur independent of the spoken text, and indicate settings or changes of scene as well. To find a transcriber, look in the Yellow Pages under "Transcribing Services." * If available, use Assistive Learning Devices. These devices consist of a transmitter that sends electronically enhanced sound to receivers worn by individuals who are hard-of-hearing. * If available, use A Computer-Aided Realtime Translation (CART), which, usually originally trained as a court or stenographer, uses a stenotype machine with a phonetic keyboard and special software. A computer translates the phonetic symbols into English captions almost instantaneously. Presenters should provide conference organizers with a copy of their presentation or outline and a list of any unusual or technical words that will be used. The CART reporters will add these words to their computer to make translation faster and more accurate. For conference workshops, captions should be output to a large screen located to one side of the presentation area. Lights in this section of the room should be kept low so that the words on the screen can be easily read.

Avoid standing in front of windows or light sources that may silhouette the instructor and hinder visual cues. Begin explanations with concrete examples, working from the concrete to the abstract. Present only one source of visual information at a time. Erase the chalkboard except for the items being discussed to reduce "visual pollution." Engage the attention of the student with a hearing impairment before communicating with the class. If possible, face the light source and keep your hands away from your face when speaking. Use an FM audio trainer for hard-of-hearing students. If a lip reader, refer to General Strategies. Use captioned films/videos/laser disks, whenever possible.

If the student with a hearing impairment does not understand, try repeating. If the student still does not understand, rephrase a thought or use a different word order. Repeat the questions other students in the class asked so that students with hearing impairments know what you are refering to. Maximize the use of visual media. It is crucial that students with hearing impairments have good note takers. It is impossible to simultaneously lip-read and take notes, or to watch/read an interpreter and take notes. Carbonless note taking paper can be used. The paid or volunteer note taker needs to take legible notes and then give the student with a hearing impairment the original (or a copy). Obtain feedback from your student at every opportunity as an indicator of the student's level of understanding. For reinforcement repeat new vocabulary in different contexts. Sequence topics so that new material is related to that previously learned. The use of visual aids is most helpful since vision is the student's primary means of receiving information. Use written announcements (assignments, due dates, exam dates, changes in the class schedule, special event dates, etc.). If ambiguities or difficulties arise in the home concerning assignments or lessons, have the parents make a note of these difficulties. Follow-up in written detail. Provide an outline in advance of the lesson/activity to give to the student in advance, also list your expectations. Write all homework assignments, class instructions, and procedural changes on the chalkboard. Use captioned films, videos, and laser disks. Use interpreter where needed (see general strategies). Avoid seating the student in heavy traffic areas. Reduce excessive noise as much as possible to facilitate communication.

Laboratory 1. Refer to the section on interpreters and lip reading above in the General Strategies. 2. Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. 3. Avoid seating the student in heavy traffic areas. 4. As you demonstrate a procedure or technique, deliberately alternate between speaking (use FM audio trainer for hard-of-hearing) and manipulating the materials. This allows the student who is hearing impaired to look at one thing at a time. 5. If the student does not understand, try repeating; if the student still does not understand, rephrase a thought or use a different word order. 6. Keep visual pollution on chalkboard to a minimum. Leave on the chalkboard only what you are discussing. 7. Write new vocabulary words on the chalk board before a lesson or laboratory. 8. Make chalkboard notes legible. 9. Do not talk while writing on chalkboard. 10. Maximize the use of visual media and demonstrations. 11. Repeat new vocabulary in different contexts for reinforcement.

12. Assign students with hearing impairments to a laboratory station that allows an unobstructed view of the chalkboard and the instructor and/or interpreter. 13. Begin explanations with concrete examples, working from the concrete to the abstract. 14. Insure that the student with a hearing impairment receives information about any changes in experimental procedure by writing on the board or paper. 15. Label equipment and materials to aid in the learning of new vocabulary items. 16. Provide concise, step-by-step directions prior to the laboratory activity and preview it with the student, if possible. 17. Provide indicator lights for the on/off status of equipment. 18. When a partner is needed, the teacher should assist in finding an understanding lab partner for a student with a hearing impairment. 19. Use captioned film/video/laser disk material. 20. Obtain feedback from your hearing impaired students at every opportunity as an indicator of the student's level of understanding. 21. Use signaling devices to alert the student to a significant sound in the lab. 22. Use an overhead projector to show step-by-step instructions. 23. Mask all the instructions except the one that you want followed next. 24. Write all homework assignments and laboratory procedural changes on the chalkboard. 25. Present only one source of visual information at a time. 26. Use written announcements (assignments, due dates, exam dates, changes in the class schedule, special event dates, etc.). 27. In advance, provide an outline of the activity and give to the student your expectations. 28. If non-captioned videos or movies are shown, a dim light is needed so that the student who uses an interpreter can see the interpreter's signing.

Reading

Provide or adapt reading materials at appropriate reading levels and provide resource material at these same reading levels (see writing section in the general strategies). Use highly visual materials (e.g., many figures, pictures, diagrams) in reading assignments. Use reading materials that follow the writing guidelines given above in the General Strategies section.

Writing styles for hearing impaired individuals:

When writing materials for hearing impaired students:

Break up long sentences. Reduce difficult vocabulary load. Reduce concept density. When using a pronoun be sure that the antecedent is very clear.

Do not omit words such as: "that" where such words will clarify a sentence connection. Stay with simple coordinating conjunctions (e.g., but, so, for, and) and avoid less common transitional words (e.g., however, as a consequence, nevertheless, although). Keep cause-and-effect expressions in a very simple in form. Keep conditional expressions which influence the meaning of a statement to a minimum (such as; if, when, assuming that, suppose, provided that, etc.). If there is no other way to avoid using a difficult word, include a brief explanation in parentheses, however keep parenthetical explanations to a minimum. If an important basic or technical word is to be taught: Make meaning and application absolutely clear. Use context as a memory aid. For a new term, repeat the word numerous times in a variety of contexts.

Certain language forms are generally to be AVOIDED:

Passive voice verbs. Negative forms of verbs and other expressions of negation. Too many modifying forms, such as prepositional phrases, relative clauses. (If a relative clause must be used, the relative pronoun [who, which, that, where, etc.] should be next to the word to which it refers). Stylistic embellishments, such as rhetorical inversions. Colloquial and idiomatic expressions. Cut wordiness while retaining simple English. Avoid the use of idioms.

Group Interaction and Discussion

Be quite clear as to which topic is being discussed. Expect and encourage the student to participate in class by answering questions, giving reports, and volunteering for other verbal activities. Clearly identify who is speaking or asking a question (pointing is OK). In group or team settings, develop procedures so the student who is hearing impaired can express his/her communication needs to others. In group situations or discussions which include a student who is speech reading (lip reading) it is very helpful to have students sit in a horseshoe or circle for better inclusion of students with hearing impairments. Repetitions or summaries of the most relevant classroom questions, responses, and discussions are helpful to the student with a hearing impairment. Show special awareness. Call the person who has a hearing impairment by name to initiate communication, (or a nod or a hand gesture is acceptable). You may need to get the student's attention by tapping him/her gently on the shoulder, arm, or waving your hand or using a similar visual signal. A circle is the best seating arrangement for a hearing impaired student. Seat the student with his/her "better" ear towards the class.

Field Experiences

Adapt as many activities as possible to a visual mode. Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. Whenever possible, allow for direct access to and manipulation of materials. Use flash cards for clarity in field exercises. Use an Interpreter.

Research

Review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student. Use appropriate lab and field strategies.

Testing

Refer to the writing section of the general strategies prior to writing test questions. After tests or quizzes, give answers by using the overhead projector or give answers in writing. Avoid overly complicated language in exam questions and clearly separate items when spacing them on the exam sheet. (See last part of Reading section above on writing for students with hearing impairments.) Avoid the use of abbreviations or idioms, except for standard ones. Due to difficulty with vocabulary, students may require extra time. Interpreters may be asked to interpret a test. Because of the complex language involved, an interpreter can often rephrase a question so that a student is able to better understand the intent of the question. Interpreters should not be used as proctors for tests. Supplement oral or signed explanations with written material. Use short sentences because they are easier and quicker to comprehend than longer sentences. Keep the test reading materials at appropriate reading levels.

Provide small group setting with preferetial seating, auditory amplification, and screens to block out distraction, allowing students to hear more clearly.

VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS Introduction

There are two main functional categories of visual impairments: Low Vision and Blind. Low vision students usually are print users , but may require special equipment and materials. The definition of legal blindness covers a broad spectrum of visual impairments. The extent of visual disability depends upon the physical sensory impairment of the student's eyes, the age of the student at the onset of vision impairment, and the way in which that impairment occurred. Vision also may fluctuate or may b e influenced by factors such as inappropriate lighting, light glare, or fatigue. Hence, there is no "typical" vision impaired student. The major challenge facing visually impaired students in the science educational environment is the overwhelming mass o f visual material to which they are continually exposed, viz., textbooks, class outlines, class schedules, chalkboards writing, etc. In addition, the increase in the use of films, videotapes, computers, laser disks, and television adds to the volume of v isual material to which they have only limited access. To assist in overcoming a students' visual limitation requires unique and individual strategies based on that student's particular visual impairment and his/her skill of communication (e.g., Braille, speed listening, etc.). (After: "The Mainstream Teaching of Science: A Source Book", Keller et al.)

General Courtesy

Speak to the class upon entering and leaving the room or site. Call the student with a vision impairment by name if you want his/her attention. Seat the student away from glaring lights (e.g. by the window) and preferably infront of the class. Use descriptive words such as straight, forward, left, etc. in relation to the student's body orientation. Be specific in directions and avoid the use of vague terms with unusable information, such as "over there", "here", "this", etc. Describe, in detail, pertinent visual occurrences of the learning activities. Describe and tactually familiarize the student to the classroom, laboratory, equipment, supplies, materials, field sites, etc. Give verbal notice of room changes, special meetings, or assignments. Offer to read written information for a person with a visual impairment, when appropriate. Order the appropriate text books for the students in their preferred medium. Identify yourself by name, don't assume that the student who is visually impaired will recognize you by your voice even though you have met before. If you are asked to guide a student with a visual impairment, identify yourself, offer your services and, if accepted, offer your arm to the student's hand. Tell them if they have to step up or step down, let them know if the door is to their left or right, and warn them of possible hazards.

Orally, let the student know if you need to move or leave or need to end a conversation. If a student with a visual impairment is in class, routinely check the instructional environment to be sure it is adequate and ready for use. When communicating with a student who has a vision impairment, always identify yourself and others who are present. Do not pet or touch a guide dog. Guide dogs are working animals. It can be hazardous for the visually impaired person if the dog is distracted. Be understanding of the slight noise made by a portable translator. Also use an auditory or tactile signal where a visual signal is normally used. It is not necessary to speak loudly to people with visual impairments. Always notify changes of class schedule in advance. General Strategies

The degree of impairment and the student's background and training (like the degree of proficiency in Braille) will affect the usefulness of the various strategies and suggestions. The student with a vision impairment will most likely need assistance in all aspects of science programs. The various strategies given below will work for most vision impaired students-some may not. Accessible description will be necessary for pictures, graphics, displays, or field sites, etc.; the student's identification queries; and differentiation of items where touch will not discriminate; and in orientation and mobility aspects in unfamiliar situations.

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual achieved by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed. A wide selection of magnifying devices are available that can be used by visually impaired students to assist in reading or working with objects that need to be observed. A screen reader, low vision projection screen, or an item like outSPOKEN or a similar system can be used to read a computer screens. A screen magnifier may be used to enlarge print on a computer screen. General Information Access for Persons with Vision Loss 1. Visual material needs to be accompanied by a verbal description. If you are demonstrating how to use a piece of equipment, be sure to describe the equipment and what you are doing to operate it. Read overheads aloud and describe the content of slides (see note below about large print). In a conference presentation setting, you will probably want to provide all descriptions yourself. If you are showing a videotape, describe the action. If

2.

3. 4.

5.

you distribute videotapes as handouts, any action or an explanatory text that is crucial to understanding the text of the presentation should be narrated. If there are multiple speakers (such as a panel), have each speaker introduce himself or herself to the audience so that the speakers' voices are keyed for the audience as to their identity. Be certain that your presentation can be clearly heard by everyone in the room and repeat all questions from the audience, prior to answering. Handouts should be available in large print, audiotape, computer disk, and/or Braille formats. If this is not possible prior to your presentation, note the various individuals' preferred formats and then make your materials available to them within a short time after your presentation. Large Print * - People who have some functional vision may be able to see print if it is large enough. Prepare print information on white paper with sharp, black ink. Standard print is generally 10-12 point type. Large print is 16-18 point and up, generally an enlargement setting of 160-175% on a copy machine. In the case of documents that already exist in print form, use a copy machine to enlarge each page onto 11 x 17 paper. Try darker settings on the copy machine to increase contrast without producing streaks. Many computer programs offer a variety of font types and sizes. (On most newer versions of browsers, you can select Text Zoom from View Menu of the browser for larger view).

Teacher Presentation

By verbally spelling out a new or technical word, you will be helping the student with a vision impairment, as well as for other students. An enlarged activity script, directions, or readings of a detailed lesson can be used for a low vision person and for use in describing tactile 3D models . Use an overhead projector to show step-by-step instructions. Mask all the instructions except the one(s) that you want to present. Use an opaque projector whenever possible to enlarge a text or manual. All colored objects used for identification related to a lesson, experiment, or other directions should be labeled with a Braille label maker or otherwise tacitly coded for most students with vision impairments. Describe, in detail, visual occurrences, visual media, and directions including all pertinent aspects that involve sight. Use a sighted narrator or descriptive video (preferably the latter) to describe aspects of videos or laser disks. Describe, in detail, all pertinent visual occurrences or chalkboard writing.

Where needed, have lesson or direction materials Brailled, use an enlarged activity script, or recorded ahead of time, for class handouts. Have tactile 3D models, raised line drawings, or thermoforms available to supplement drawings or graphics in a tactile format when needed. Whenever possible, use actual objects for three dimensional representations. Modify instructions for auditory/tactile presentation. Use raised line drawings for temporary tactile presentations. Use an overhead projector, chalkboard, graphs, or slides as you would normally, but provide more detailed oral descriptions, possibly supplemented with thermoforms where appropriate. Allow student to use a tape recorder for recording classroom presentations or the text. Make all handouts and assignments available in an appropriate form: e.g., regular print, large print, Braille, or on a cassette, depending on the students optimal mode of communication. Use a monocular or a private eye (electronic miniature television) or similar devices for long range observations of chalk board or demonstration table presentations.

Laboratory 1) Describe and tactually/spatially familiarize the student with the lab and all equipment to be used. 2) Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. 3) Use an enlarged activity script, directions, or readings for a low vision student (or taped script for a student who is blind) for use with tactile 3D models. 4) Make all handouts and assignments available in the appropriate form for the student: e.g., regular print, large print, Braille, or tape depending on the students optimal mode of communication. 5) Assistance may be needed for converting certain laboratory materials from a visual to a tactile format. 6) Have the student with a vision impairment do a trial run on the equipment before the activity. 7) Allow more time for the laboratory activities.

8) Always try to keep materials, supplies, and equipment in the same places. 9) Use a microprojector or similar device to help the visually impaired student to examine images from a microscope. 10) Place the student and/or tape recorder an appropriate distance from the activity to permit hearing and/or the recording of results or observations. 11) Use an overhead projector or opaque projector to show step-by-step instructions. Mask all the instructions except the one(s) that you want followed for students with vision impairments. 12) Use Descriptive Video for videos or laser disks. If Descriptive Video is not available, use a sighted narrator to describe movies, videos, laser disks, or slides. 13) Provide means for the acquisition and/or recording of data in an appropriate mode for the student. 14) Use tag shapes for showing relationships (such as distance comparisons) buttons, or other markers on a "layout" board. 15) A Braille label maker will be useful for identifying materials and containers in the laboratory for the vision impaired student with a vision impairment who reads Braille. 16) Make equipment available that the student with a vision impairment can access in interpreting and understanding the results of laboratory exercises (e.g. audible readout voltmeters, calculators, talking thermometers, magnifiers, etc. 17) Use a hot plate for heating instead of Bunsen burner. 18) Label material, supplies, and equipment with regular print, large print, and/or Braille, as appropriate for the vision impaired student. 19) Pair the student with a vision impairment with a sighted student. Then have the nonimpaired student describe the activities and outcomes as they are observed. 20) A low vision projection screen can be use to magnify images up to 720X. 21) Use a portable communication board to provides auditory scanning of laboratory materials such as: pictographic symbols, letters, and/or words. 22) When using a computer, the student with a visual disability can use a voice input device or a remote voice system to verbally enter commands. 23) Prior to the enrollment of a student with a visual impairment in class, obtain laboratory equipment that have available ability to produce adaptive outputs such as: a large screen, print materials, or various audio output devices. 24) Various Braille devices can be used to assists vision impaired students when reading.

25) For "reading" the outputs of balances and other instruments, one can use a Braille N' Speak device (Blazie Engineering) 26) Have a lab assistant help you if necessary to make sure that students with visual impairments are being assisted.

Group Interaction and Discussion

Describe and tactually/spatially familiarize the student to the classroom. Place the student and/or recorder an appropriate distance from the activity to permit recording of material. Use a tape recorder. If the student is partially sighted, be sure he/she is seated where lighting is appropriate. Use a note taker who takes notes in the appropriate mode.

Text Reading Systems

Paid or volunteer readers or writers can assist a student with a visual impairment with texts, materials, and library readings . Offer to read, or arrange to have read, written information for a person with a visual impairment, when appropriate. Arrange, ahead of time, for audio book acquisition of the text or other reading materials through the Talking Book Service, Recordings for the Blind and Dyslexic, text reading systems, or audio output devices. Various Braille devices can be used to assists vision impaired students when reading.

Field Experiences

Make all handouts, safety information, and assignments available in an appropriate form (e.g., regular print, large print, tactile Braille, or cassette). Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives. Use a sighted guide. Do detailed description and narration of objects seen in science centers, museums, and/or field activities.

The use of a laser cane or mowat sensor can be useful in assisting the student in unfamiliar surroundings. An enlarged activity script, directions, or readings for descriptions of a field/activity for a low vision person to use with field observations. Suggest that the student use a standard tape recorder.

Research

Review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student. Use appropriate lab and field strategies according to the nature of the research. Various Braille Devices can be used to assists vision impaired students when reading. Suggest that the student use a tape recorder with a sighted person on the various activities. Research on Mowatt sensor

Testing

Make arrangements for tactile examinations, if touch is not normally permitted (say, in a museum) then contact the curator for tactile access to a museum display items or say, in a zoo for access to a plant/animal species and/or collection). Place the student being tested close to the activity if tactile examination is necessary. Present examinations in a form that will be unbiased to visually impaired students. Ask the student for the approach he/she finds to be most accessible. One possible accessible method is to record test questions on tape and have the students record their answers on tape in an area which has minimal disturbance for other students. Use an enlarged activity script, directions, or readings to go along with the testing material. Allow more time. Allow calculators to be used during the test. Make use of larger print (e.g. 14 pt; 20 pt sized or as needed).

Make use of visual magnification (magnifier or magnifying machine), audiocassette, Braille/Braille graphs/Braille device for written responses, large block answer sheet.

How to Teach Children With Physical Disabilities

The key to successfully educating students with physical disabilities is making the classroom environment accessible. A well-planned classroom design and the right technology greatly enhance the learning environment for the physically disabled student. The teacher, parents, doctors and school counselors should work together as a team to design an individual education plan for each disabled student.

Instructions
Difficulty: Challenging Step1 Speak with the student, the student's parents and the school counselor, and evaluate school and medical records to gain an understanding of the student's physical limitations. Step2 Design the classroom so that it is accessible to the student. If the student uses a wheelchair, desks need to be placed far enough apart from each other to allow the student access through the classroom. If the student has a visual or hearing disability, she may need to be seated in the front of the classroom. Each child has individual needs. Be creative and flexible about the classroom layout. You may find that it needs to be changed a few times throughout the year to meet the student's needs on a continuing basis. Step3 Provide the student with assistive technology to aid him in his education. There are many different assistive devices available for the physically disabled--from ergonomic pens to touch-screen computers to voice recognition software. Speak with school counselors and doctors to learn about assistive technology products currently available. Step4 Familiarize yourself with the assistive technology products so that you can instruct the student how to use them. Depending on the physical limitations of the student, she may take quite a bit of time to master the new technology. Step5 Educate the student's parents about assitive technology devices and how to use them, which enables the parents to assist the student in mastering the technology.

Parenting Children with Learning Disabilities IDENTIFICATION AND NAVIGATING THE SCHOOL SYSTEM Determining whether your child has a learning disability is a complicated process. After going through all of the assessments and evaluations you may feel overwhelmed if a learning disability is identified. Its not uncommon to feel relieved that you now have a word for what youve known all along. On top of dealing with the emotional issues that are coming up, you have to figure out what youre going to do about it, and what your options are. The first thing to do is to take a deep breath.

This overview will provide you with important information about the resources at your disposal to help you through this. As you will see, the public school system has a legal responsibility to provide your child with free services. This guide for parents and caretakers includes tips for coping during this stressful time and suggestions on how to work with teachers and school administrators in securing the best education for your child.

Gifted Children Who Have Learning Disabilities Characteristics of high intellect can mimic other disorders causing misdiagnosis Many gifted and talented children (and adults) sadly have been misdiagnosed by mental health professionals and other health care providers as having a disorder that they really dont have. This occurs because there are many characteristics of gifted children, both social and emotional, that are mistaken to be a symptom of different disorders. Characteristics of Gifted Children Mistakenly diagnosed as having: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Possible alternative cause of behaviors: Borderline hypoglycemic conditions can mimic hyperactivity when combined with a childs temperament of intensity and sensitivity

Gifted children have intense emotional responses that can look like increased motor activity (hyperactivity) and physical restlessness Gifted children are strong willed, and power struggles Oppositional Defiant Disorder with parents and teachers are common, especially when they receive criticism. Sadly they are often criticized for the same characteristics that make them gifted: sensitivity, questioning and doing things differently Gifted children get upset with others if their rules arent Obsessive Compulsive Disorder followed. They are perfectionistic, bossy, intense about wanting consistency in their environment, have a sense of urgency, and are intolerant when people make mistakes. They have a drive to understand and question everything Depressive Disorders and Bi-polar Gifted children feel alienated and alone which can cause depression Disorders Their concern for social and moral issues can cause Anxiety Disorders anxiety Social situations are sometimes awkward for them Social Phobias because their academic development levels are so much more advanced then their social development. Often their judgment lags behind their intellect Sensory Integration Dysfunction Gifted children are extremely sensitive to emotions, sounds, touch, and taste

Characteristics of Gifted Children Disorder of Written Expression Many gifted children have poor handwriting. Their thoughts go so much faster then their little hands can move

Relational problems and giftedness Parents often lack information about characteristics of gifted children, and as a result the relationship between parent and child can suffer. These children can be both exhilarating and exhausting. Their behaviors can appear extreme, they are impatient, argumentative, and have temper tantrums. It is common for them to engage in sibling rivalry, power struggles within the family or with authority figures, or disengaging by withdrawing or underachieving. The childs behaviors can be seen as mischievous, impertinent, weird or strong willed. The child is often criticized or punished for behaviors that really represent curiosity, intensity, sensitivity, or the lag of judgment behind intellect. They are easily bored while waiting for the other children in the classroom to keep up with them and as a result can become disruptive because of their frustration and impatience. Most gifted children show a scatter of abilities The difference between the highest and lowest scores on individual subscales within intelligence and achievement tests is often quite notable in gifted children. When the child is tested using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - III, it is not uncommon to find subscale differences greater than seven scale score points for gifted children, particularly those who are highly gifted. Most psychologists interpret these score discrepancies to indicate a learning disability, and in a functional sense they do represent that but most gifted children show a scatter of abilities ranging from Very Superior to Average level of functioning depending upon the area tested. Is it a learning disability? In children with a full scale IQ score of 140 or greater, it is not uncommon to find a difference of 20 or more points between Verbal IQ and Performance IQ. Most psychologists think that such a discrepancy is a serious cause for concern and is an indication of a serious brain dysfunction or learning disability. However, for the highly gifted individual, such a discrepancy is far less likely to be an indication of a pathological brain dysfunction, although it would suggest that the child has an unusual learning style and they may have a learning disability. Without intervention, self esteem issues are almost certain in the life of a child who is both gifted and has a learning disability. You can help your child have a more appropriate sense of themselves by reassuring them that there are specific reasons for their behaviors and sharing with them what the realities are of their particular and unique abilities.

Tips for how children with learning disabilities can succeed at school Ways to help a student with a learning disability succeed at school

Accommodations - these can be as simple as being seated in the front row, having extra time on tests, or can involve electronic equipment and auxiliary personnel Compensatory strategies - ways to use their cognitive strengths to offset weaknesses. If they have poor auditory memory but strong visual memory, have them draw or write down the instructions Special education - instruction taught by specially trained personnel in smaller classes which focuses on working on specific skills Self-advocacy skills - empowering students to ask for what they need in order to learn in the most effective way. Motivate the child to ask questions if they dont understand the instructions

Working with your child at home When you work with your child at home on academic and life skills, you help them recognize their own strengths and increase their self-esteem. Examples of activities you can implement at home fall into several categories accommodations, organization, critical thinking, and emotional support. Ways to cope

Take frequent breaks when doing homework Know your childs primary learning style and adjust accordingly. For more information on primary learning styles see Helpguides article: Learning Disabilities Types, Symptoms and Interventions Accommodate for the childs primary learning style by allowing them to pace around, listen to background music, attach visual displays to the walls, or wear earplugs or headphones if distracted by noise Provide a computer for written assignments if the child has difficulty writing

Organization

Model and teach them how to make to do lists and prioritize their homework Set aside a regular time each week for organizing workspace, belongings, schoolwork, and activities; make a game of it or provide a reward Give your child a task that requires organization: grocery shopping required for a recipe, planning a birthday party on a budget, using a map to figure out the route from one place to another

Critical thinking

Play games of strategy Talk about current events and ideas with multiple points of view Encourage all sorts of age-appropriate reading and writing

Emotional support

Praise your child for the positive qualities they exhibit during the whole process of doing homework not just when they finish their homework Engage them in social problem-solving: how to resolve conflicts with friends, teachers, and kids who may be bothering them at school Encourage activities that your child enjoys and excels in Keep open lines of communication so your child feels comfortable discussing feelings with you Regulate your stress and help your children learn to regulate theirs (see Helpguides article: Coping with Stress: Management and Reduction Techniques) Let your children know that you enjoy their company by playing and talking with them. Its important not to ignore other children in the family. Many activities geared for learning disabled children can include and benefit children without disabilities as well

The role of schools in accommodating learning disabilities If you know your rights and are informed, you have a better chance of getting the services you are entitled to under the law. Your child may be eligible for many kinds of accommodations and support services, but the school might not provide them unless you ask for them. You can request that the school district pay for tutors and other service personnel, you can teach your child at home, or even request tuition for a private school (nonpublic school) that specializes in teaching children with learning disabilities. Understanding your rights under certain laws which protect the learning disabled can help you be a better advocate for your child. Federal law on disabilities: access and accommodation Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and its successor, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), are civil rights laws that prohibit barriers to people with disabilities in a number of institutions, including public schools, which receive federal funding. They define disability as a substantial and pervasive physical or mental impairment that affects one or more basic life activities, including learning. The ADA and Section 504 are limited: they keep schools from denying education to children with learning disabilities and require reasonable accommodations for eligible students with a disability to perform essential functions, such as extra test time or large-print books. However, they dont mandate specialized education for children with disabilities and therefore cant guarantee that the schools will have the environment needed to maximize your childs learning potential. Special education law Because Section 504 clearly didnt provide for the educational needs of disabled students, in 1975 Congress passed Public Law 94-142, which was revised as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997, and updated in 2004. Also there is a commentary to the regulations published in 2006. This is the federal law that mandates a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment, for children who meet the laws criteria

for disability that impedes educational performance. Services provided by IDEA include special education facilitated by specially trained teachers and even interventions provided by companies outside the public-school system, such as nonpublic agencies that provide behavior intervention services. If it is written into the childs Individualized Education Program (IEP), the child can work with a behavioral intervention therapist one on one in the classroom. IDEA calls for a more rigorous evaluation process and much more paperwork than the ADA does, along with regular reevaluation and the direct participation of parents. Having a child identified with a learning disability warrants classroom accommodation, specialized teaching and related services. Understanding Individualized Education Programs While some accommodations cost nothing and are easy to carry out in the classroom, many interventions that help learning-disabled students require that they have a formal diagnosis. Such identification can give these students access to special education, equipment, and support personnel that they would not be entitled to otherwise. So once your child has been diagnosed with one or more learning disabilities, its in your childs best interest for you to pursue a formal identification through the IEP process. IDEA is the Federal governments special education law. Prior to receiving special education services in the public school system, a child must have an IEP. The IEP enables teachers, parents, school administrators, related services personnel, and students (when appropriate) to collaborate and design a customized educational program for the students unique needs to help them participate in the general curriculum and make continued progress. The IEP is the blueprint which guides the delivery of special education services for the student with a disability. What to expect in the IEP process For an overview of the steps involved in creating an IEP and to find out what type of information is included in an IEP, see Helpguides article: What to expect in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) process (PDF). Accommodations to assist students at school Once the IEP has been written by the IEP team and they have identified your childs goals for the year, and how those goals are going to be accomplished, you will have a better understanding of what options are available for your child. The following are some of the recommendations you may see on your childs IEP: Special accommodations offered to students with learning disabilities A special education class for a period of time each day; an assignment to special education classes full time; or a transfer to a special school for students with learning disabilities (nonpublic school). For a list of Special education nonpublic schools in your area go to the website for your state's Department of Education. For example, in California see: Nonpublic Schools Database.

Support personnel Related services Equipment Individualized accommodations

Behavioral interventionists, 1:1 shadows, tutors, note-takers, readers, proofreaders, and transcribers Speech and language therapy; occupational or physical therapy; psychological or social services; and transportation Word processors, voice synthesis and voice recognition programs, recording devices, talking calculators, audio books, electronic dictionaries and spelling aids Preferential seating; alternative homework assignments; permission to repeat material out loud or softly; extra time on tests; worksheets and quizzes with extra space

Communicating with your childs school How to get your childs needs met Being a vocal advocate for your child can be challenging. Youll need superior communication and negotiation skills, and the confidence to defend your childs right to a proper education. If you need help, one option is to hire a parent advocate who can speak on your behalf. Following, are a number of helpful tips that can help you communicate clearly and effectively with your childs school: 1. Clarify your goals. Before entering into a meeting with school personnel, write down what you want to accomplish. Decide what is most important, and what you are willing to negotiate on. Take the list with you and dont be afraid to consult your notes this can help keep your mind on track and reduce feelings of distraction or intimidation. 2. Be a good listener. Allow the school officials to explain their opinions and desires. If you dont understand what someone is saying, ask for clarification. Statements such as What I hear you saying is can help ensure that both parties are communicating well. Also, make sure your own points are being clearly understood. If you dont think they are, ask them to reflect back to you what you just said. 3. Offer an alternative. You have the advantage of not being a part of the system. Therefore, you may have solutions or ideas that no one has thought of. Perform your own research, find examples of what other schools have done to help the learning disabled, and bring this research to your meeting. At the very least, it will provoke some healthy brainstorming. 4. Keep the focus. The school system is dealing with a large number of children, you are only concerned with your child. Help the meeting stay focused on your child and their individual needs. Mention your childs name frequently, dont drift into generalizations, and resist the urge to fight larger battles. 5. Stay calm, collected and positive. Go into your meeting assuming that everyone is on your side. It doesnt help anyone to start out in a negative state of mind. However, emotions may get the best of you because you are fighting for your childs education. If your temper flares up or you say something you regret, dont let it ruin the entire meeting. Simply apologize and get back on track.

6. Dont give up easily. If you are unsatisfied with the school administrations response to your requests, ask them to reiterate why they cant come to a compromise. Let them know you understand their position, but that you believe there is a better way to help your child. Adjusting to a newly diagnosed learning disability What to tell family and friends One of the trickiest aspects of adjusting to a newly diagnosed learning disability is how it affects other members of the family. Extended family and friends may not understand the disability and mistakenly think your childs behavior is stemming from laziness, being spoiled or hyperactive. Siblings of a child with a learning disability may feel that their brother or sister is getting more attention then they are. Dealing with your other children at this time can be particularly challenging. No matter how much your children understand on an intellectual level, they can easily feel jealous or neglected when parents are so focused on the sibling with special needs. Parents can help curb these feelings by reassuring all of their children that they are loved, and by including siblings in any special routines established for the child with a learning disability. Some parents attempt to keep their childs learning disability a secret. Unfortunately, even with the most heartfelt intentions, this secrecy can come off looking like shame or guilt to others, including the child who has the learning disability which can be detrimental to their self esteem. Many people actually find that sharing the details of a learning disability diagnosis with those closest to them can help fuel positive feelings of support and reduce isolation. Once friends and relatives are aware of whats going on, they are far less likely to say harmful things to you or your child regarding their behavior or progress. Keep in mind that some people may need time to fully grasp the meaning of a learning disability. Certain members of your family may be more resistant to the idea at first and need a bit more time to adjust. If problems within the family do crop up, you may be able to turn to people outside the family for help. Parent support groups, in which you can talk with other parents who have the same kinds of problems, can make you feel less isolated and offer encouragement, information, and advice. Family counseling, psychotherapy for the family as a group, allows everyone in the family to air their feelings and to seek solutions that address everyones needs. Becoming a more involved parent Parents of children with learning disabilities must be especially involved with the educational process, both at school and at home to ensure optimal progress is made. There are ways to strengthen alternate skills to compensate for cognitive challenges. There are things that can be done to retrain parts of the brain to take over for the affected areas of the brain, a term called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity describes the brains dynamic capacity to change and reorganize neural pathways after new experiences and learning occurs. For more information on neuroplasticity, see Helpguides article: Learning Disabilities Types, Symptoms and Interventions. Related links for parenting children with learning disabilities

Evaluating and managing your childs learning disability Developing an IEP - Developed to help teachers and parents develop and carry out an IEP including templates and forms. (iep4u.com) Overview of the IEP Process Detailed explanation provided by the U.S. Department of Education outlining the steps involved in the IEP process for children with learning disabilities. (ed.gov) Questions Often Asked by Parents About Special Education Services Describes what makes a child eligible or not eligible for special education services under the IDEA and takes you through the IEP process when dealing with a learning disability. (NICHCY.org) IDEA Parent Guide Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. A great resource for navigating the meetings, tests, and negotiations that will help make the school an active partner in your childs education. (National Center for Learning Disabilities) Understanding the IEP Process and Developing Your Childs IEP In-depth information about how schools compile IEPs for children with learning disabilities and the role parents play in developing them. (LD OnLine) LD Evaluation Process Excellent series of articles to help you understand how students are tested for learning disabilities. (SchwabLearning.org) Nonpublic schools database in California Locator of private schools specializing in learning disabilities. Help and support for parents of children with learning disabilities National Center for Learning Disabilities Parent Center Extensive information for parents of learning disabled kids, including being your childs advocate in the school, and coping strategies to use at home. Parent Tips Overview of the learning disability testing process and advice for parents, plus detailed information about how to evaluate and the best ways to teach a child with a learning disability. (LD Online) Talking about LD & AD/HD Collection of articles that offer ideas about how to talk with children about learning disabilities and personal success stories of those who have learning disabilities. (SchwabLearning.org) Supporting Family Members A great range of articles discussing the important topic of how learning disorders affect families. (SchwabLearning.org) Misdiagnosis and dual diagnosis of gifted children Provides the characteristics of a gifted child and how gifted children, some with learning disabilities, are commonly misdiagnosed. (www.sengifted.org) Jeanne Segal, Ph.D., Deborah Cutter, Psy.D., Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A. and Tina de Benedictis, Ph.D., contributed to this article. Last modified: March 08.

What strategies can be used for teaching science to students with disabilities? Teachers in inclusive classrooms regularly face the difficult task of having to modify the curriculum to reach all of their students, many of whom have special needs. Students with disabilities, whether physical, emotional, or cognitive in nature, respond to the curriculum differently from other students. For example, depending on the disability itself and other factors affecting their ability to succeed academically, students may need modifications such as advance and graphic organizers, instructional scaffolding, additional practice and time to complete assignments, and/or alternative media (e.g., large-print materials, audiotapes, or electronic materials). Without specific modifications, the standard curricular materials can be inadequate for these students, and too frequently they can find themselves blocked from access to essential aspects of the curriculum. Teachers must adjust the materials or their presentation to break down the barriers and assist these students in learning. The IDEA Amendments of 1997 require that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum. This legislative requirement makes the accessibility of curricular materials an issue of even greater importance than it otherwise would be. To meet the goal of equal access to the curriculum for everyone, to enable each student to engage with his or her lessons in a meaningful way, teachers must be prepared to provide useful alternatives in terms of both curricular materials and instructional delivery. Well-adapted materials without an effective method of teaching are practically useless, but with the proper tools and instructional methods, a good teacher encourages each member of the class to participate directly in the learning experience.

Science activity in the Education of Students with Disabilities Introduction Many advances have been made in accessibility to and inclusions in the classroom. It is now common for a student with a disability to enter college, take a class, go for an interview, get a job, etc., but often, once there, another form of exclusion is evident. Even when physical, biological, or intellectual obstacles are removed, other obstacles such as discrimination, attitudes, ignorance, stereotyping, or alienation remain. This usually occurs because the newly "included" person whose problem with access is removed, still stands out in the crowd, they are different (the wheelchair in the "deaf" commons). It is this latter reality, viz., which the functional limitations of the person with a disability are taken care of and then the various "other" cultural forms of discrimination come to the forefront of the barriers to deal with. Access and mitigation of life limitations alone usually do not result in equality. Below are the strategies that have been found to work for those various "other" forms of discrimination that the "dominant" culture (and other cultures) imposes on those belonging to the Disability culture, although these disabled persons with disabilities are members of some racial group as well. Culture is a way of living and viewing the world that develops among a set of people who share similar experiences and values, Webster defines it as a complex of typical behavior or standardized social characteristics peculiar to a specific group, occupation, profession, sex, age, grade, or social class. Hence, there is most definitely a culture comprised of persons with disabilities that is different from that of the "mainstream" and other cultures. All persons share the basic needs and most of the desires that make us human, but the day-today reality of living with a disability is difficult to grasp by a person without a disability. Simulation exercises that involve wearing a blind fold for a few hours, trying out crutches, ear plugs, or wheelchairs, barely scrape the surface of the daily experiences of many persons with disabilities. Each disability, whether sensory, orthopedic, behavioral, intellectual, motor, etc., has its own unique set of obstacles, limitations, experiences, and modifications that contribute to shaping a persons perceptions and ways of living. The commonality that "bind" persons with disabilities together is that each has some type of limit in their life functions. Even under the umbrella of the term "Disability Culture" there are multiple subclassifications. Persons who were born with a disability have a different view and set of experiences than someone who acquired the same disability later in life (e.g., pre-lingual vs. post lingual onset of deafness is one example). Likewise, persons who live in institutions will most probably have very different attitudes, perceptions, experiences, etc., than those raised by family members at home. Either way, persons with disabilities have a perspective that is a challenging alternative to the non-disabled "mainstream." Members of racial, ethnic, and religious minorities generally share their minority status with their families. More than 14 percent of black students are in special education, compared with 13 percent of American Indians, 12 percent of whites, 11 percent of Hispanics, and 5 percent of Asian-Americans This is in contrast to individuals with disabilities, where they generally share their minority status within a majority community. However, there is evidence that most children with a disability function quite well in the non-disability, majority culture. During this time, the childs parents usually search out and find adults with similar disabilities or

disability support groups. All these individuals tend to be the ones in the effective disability culture (Carol Gill, 1999. The Disability Messenger. Publ. PCEPD). As the Internet has expanded and technology has provided access to more people with disabilities, on-line publishing, cartoons, listservs, and web communication in general has flourished throughout the Disabled Community. Pages are filled with fresh, "edgy" art and poetry, radical literature, and literature that challenges traditional views of disability. Many of these insights are given by providing first-hand accounts of the author/artists who have disabilities. It has been an enlightening "door" to the differences between the outlooks, perception, productive outlets, etc. of members of the disability culture and the others, the "outsiders." I am sometimes concerned by the use of the generic term "disability," the root is troubling (non or no ability). Does it really denote the inability to do anything? The term sets the stage for any interaction thereafter. Stereotypes, biases, and misconceptions leap into ones mind. The stage is set and the cards are stacked against "that" individual. Is every difference in sensory, motor ability, etc. a "disability"? For example: I was in my wheelchair at lunch in the Commons of a school for the deaf where most of the individuals in the room were deaf. I was probably the only person who did not know sign language. The rest were all communicating easily. I was the only one left out of the communication "loop." So who is the "outsider" in this picture? Disabled, yes, but not a member of the "in residence" culture. In a place where everyone signs, door bells and fire alarms blink, and spoken language is unwanted and unnecessary, noises are unusual, but it doesnt matter to the person who is deaf. Sometimes the lack of noise in these crowded areas is "deafening." Is deafness a disability or just a difference? Probably both. There were two clearly defined sub-sets of "The Disability Culture" in the Commons that day; it depends on the context. In viewing disability as a difference, it is easier to see how a culture can develop among people sharing a common factor that differs from those without disabilities. Examples of this are found among the deaf community, where the ability to hear is often not desired. Sometimes individuals who are deaf will reject the "cure" of medical intervention (the cochlear implants). Pride in Deaf Culture is enormous, American Sign Language (ASL) is considered the native language, and the teaching of ASL and ASL literature is linking one generation of individuals of this unique culture to the next. A similar dichotomy, but in an opposite sensory system, exists in the blind sub-culture in which audio is essential and the visual senses are not, nor are they welcomed. Below are some suggestions for avoiding the misconceptions about persons with disabilities:

Don't assume that people with disabilities need your help. Ask before assisting. Avoid actions and words that suggest the person should be treated differently. It's okay to invite a person in a wheelchair to "go for a walk," or to ask a blind person if s/he "sees what you mean." Make basic information available in large print, in Braille, or on the Internet. In a new facility, offer a guided tour of all facilities so that people with disabilities can familiarize themselves with a campus layout. The orientation also should identify any potential obstacles and all emergency exits.

Below are suggestions about the interaction with people having disabilities as categorized in the following three sections:

Those with Visual Impairments:

Be highly descriptive. You may have to help orient persons with visual impairments and let them know what's coming up. If they are walking, tell them if they have to step up or down, walk to the left, or right, let them know if a door is to their right or to their left, and warn them of possible hazards. You don't have to speak loudly to persons with visual impairments as they can usually hear just fine. When appropriate, offer to read written information for a person with visual impairment.

Those with Speech Impairments

Listen patiently. Don't complete sentences for the person unless s/he looks to you for help. Don't pretend you understand what a person with a speech impairment says just to be polite. Ask the person to write down a word if you're not sure what s/he is saying.

Those with Hearing Impairments

Face people with hearing impairments when you talk to them so they can see your lips. Slow your speaking rate Speak loudly Communicate in writing, if necessary.

Those with Mobility Impairments

Try sitting, or crouching down, to the approximate height of the person in wheelchairs or scooters when you talk to them. Don't lean on a person's wheelchair unless you have his/her permission - it's his personal space. Be aware of what is accessible and not accessible to people in wheelchairs. Give a push when asked

Those with Learning Disabilities

Don't assume that the person is not listening just because you are getting no verbal or visual feedback. Ask if s/he understands or agrees. Don't assume you have to explain everything to people with learning disabilities. Offer to read written material aloud, when necessary.

Members of a disability group provoke the same type of response that racial, religious, gender, etc. groups receive. The U.S. Congress has recognized this and have now included persons with disabilities in "hate crimes" legislation.

Avoiding Bias

Recognize and understand the cultural differences among the students with disabilities. Intervene immediately, should a fellow student disparage a students culture or appearance. Value the broad and varied experiences students bring to the classroom, and promote their acceptance. Avoid segregating students, and do not allow the students to self-segregate. Expand the students capacity to appreciate and deal with the differences in others, and help students to perceive themselves in a multi-cultural perspective. Demand the same level of excellence from all students. Have high science achievement expectations for all students; positive expectations increase student achievement. A students learning style may not match the teachers teaching style, check to see if this is a problem. Teachers should take an introspective look at their own cultural background, understanding the effects their own biases have when interacting with students. Only then can teachers examine the backgrounds and needs of their students population and understand their students cultural biases as well. Make sure that instructional strategies are appropriate for all students. To be an effective teacher, it is important to understand how the backgrounds of students with disabilities can affect their relationships with both teachers and their classmates. Recall that assertive students are not necessarily more capable than less assertive students. Encourage ALL students equally. Learn as much about students with disabilities as other students. Monitor achievement on a regular basis, including participation in classroom discussions, experiments, etc., of all students but especially of students with disabilities. Make task assignments randomly or use a list of students names and check them off after you ask a question. Offer help to any and all students when the material is difficult. Suggest after school help for everyone in need. Recognize effort as well as accomplishment. Respond fully to the comments of all students. Display flexibility in the context of a structured learning environment. Learn as much about students with disabilities as other students. Lead a science classroom discussion on stereotyping and the consequences of stereotyping for science achievement. Involve those who are not participating in science classroom discussions. Monitor achievement of all students especially students with disabilities on a regular basis. Follow-up on students expressing interest in enrolling in advanced science courses. Some disabled students often do not follow through due to anxiety or outside discouragement. Assist in the acceptance of the differences that students with disabilities bring to the science classroom.

Make science relevant and useful to all students, but especially to students with disabilities. Permit students to bring life experiences into the science learning environment. All tend to perform best when content is related to previous experience. Devise science exercises and activities that foster success on the part of all students, especially those students with disabilities. Institute some science activities without grade assessment, which can help students (including students with disabilities) overcome initial anxiety. Have alternative assessment methods that are appropriate for students with disabilities. Recognize effort as well as accomplishment, especially for students with disabilities. Use computers for more than drill exercises for all students. (Access to computer technology for creative activities increases motivation and awareness of useful applications of science). Focus on activities designed to integrate science skills into everyday experiences of students with disabilities. Take advantage of corporate programs, which provide speakers to encourage the interest of students with disabilities in science and technical careers. Encourage activity-based and hands-on programs for students with disabilities. Make students with disabilities aware that most jobs in the future will require strong mathematics, computer, and science skills. Encourage all students, including students with disabilities, to participate in all class activities. Recognize that cultural backgrounds may discourage some students from active participation in the science classroom. Include in your curricula biographical readings about professionals with disabilities in science fields. Present science as a subject that everyone can learn rather than as an elite and difficult subject. Motivate your students to solve a problem for the fun or it or the satisfaction of getting a right answer. Demand the same level of excellence from students with disabilities as from the traditional student. Allow students to select topics in some science study units. This offers additional opportunities for students to relate their backgrounds and their interests to science. Many students learn principles of science easier through discussion and exploration rather than by traditional lectures. Have activities which stress thought processes rather than exclusive reliance on single answer responses. Construct math/science word problems that are relevant to students. A personal health problem is more realistic to many students than an epidemiological problem. To design a curriculum model and instructional strategies appropriate for each student, professionals must understand the students individual and cultural characteristics. Multi-purpose and multi-level test batteries, instead of a single score or a small number of scores, can provide a more accurate picture of the range of a students intellectual ability. Efforts should be made to increase motivation and interest in testing by helping students with disabilities feel comfortable and at ease. Maintain participatory, dynamic, and spontaneous classrooms. Start classes on time.

Classroom instruction should be designed to connect the content of a course with students backgrounds. Build a supportive classroom atmosphere where differences are not neglected, but are explored and discussed. Help students set realistic and manageable goals based on the students abilities. Furnish the necessary resources to accomplish the above task. Help students with difficult problem-solving situations. Interact with all the students-not just a select few. Use visual aids for those who specifically need it as well as for others who learn better from those types of presentations. Provide opportunities for students with disabilities to interact. Intervene immediately should a fellow student disparage a student with a disability. Allow time for thought and reflection. Science course material should include references to people of different cultural groups. Use study materials that show individuals of different cultural backgrounds engaging in science activities and/or occupations. Give all students equal feedback opportunities. Make an equal effort to check science classroom work for all students. Teachers should examine their own behavior and assumptions on disability issues. Monitor your own use of disability-biased language. The difficulty of questions should be the same for all students. Try to schedule science courses so they do not conflict with electives that may be especially appealing to students with disabilities. Use "peer teaching" where appropriate and effective. When using group activities, such as lab work, assign each student a specific role. Keep a record of these roles and rotate students through the different roles.

Discussion and Interaction

Encourage cooperation and development of a group feeling, encourage the class to think and work as a unit. Respond fully to the comments of all students, especially students with disabilities. Involve the students with disabilities who are not adequately participating in science classroom discussions. Assist in the acceptance of the differences that students with disabilities bring to the science classroom. Permit students to bring life experiences into the science learning environment. All students tend to perform best when content is related to previous experience. Consider using upper grade level students with disabilities as tutors in computerrelated and science technique assignments. Provide opportunities for students with disabilities to work cooperatively. (Consider small group assignments and projects). In order to illustrate a sense of community, ask each student to share with you and possibly with the class, what makes them unique as an individual. Make an effort to express appreciation when students with disabilities participate in class discussions. Observe and ask questions that show genuine caring and concern.

Do not put too much pressure on time. Help to develop the students self-concept with appropriate praise. Early on, give assignments that the instructor thinks will be in the range of students experience. Promote relaxed communication. Show that you are really listening and interested in their ideas in group discussions and those of individuals. Make learning more of an interpersonal activity than goal oriented and impersonal. Show students that many times learning is gained from trial and error, rather than criticizing mistakes and failures. Use a warm and personal teaching style. Learn the non-verbal cues of students with disabilities then be sensitive to non-verbal cues. Allow a longer time for response after asking a question. Listen a lot, talk less. Use group problem solving to emphasize that the work is broadly group oriented rather than task oriented. Use deliberately diverse peer tutoring. Students boost their self-confidence by teaching each other and often the best tutors are those who have had difficulty and then finally understand. They are better able to understand the difficulties that another students may have and therefore be more patient with him/her. Equally call on students. Have patience with students when waiting for them to respond. Give direct eye contact, which is sincere and encouraging. Do not interrupt a student when he/she is talking. Do not criticize the students; use alternate explanation, etc. Be sure to give equal praise, encouragement, attention, and interest to the students with disabilities. Pay an equal amount of attention to all students. Expect the same amount of effort from students based primarily on their abilities. Cooperative learning groups equally divided have been promoted as a good way to bring about positive attitudes toward instruction, mastery of content, and increased self-esteem. Having very clear rules of conduct for groups is very helpful. Follow-up on students expressing interest in enrolling in advance science classes. Remember that many students learn principles of science easier through exploration and discussion rather than by traditional lecture.

Extracurricular Activities

Invite role models who are disabled to give talks and/or demonstrations. Consider using upper grade level students with disabilities as tutors in computer related and science technique assignments. Establish in-service science training programs especially including teachers who have students that have disabilities. Recommend subscriptions to science magazines. Urge faculty sponsors of computer science, and (say) chess clubs to recruit students with disabilities.

Encourage participation and make students with disabilities aware of out-of-school activities in science, such as junior science academy, summer science programs, or science fairs. Take advantage of corporate programs, which provide speakers to encourage the interest of students with disabilities in science and technical careers. Take field trips in the local community. This will allow students to observe applications of science and technical skills in living and work settings.

Experiential Activities

Build science skills into the curriculum. Emphasize the writing process approach rather than a grammar-based sub-skills method to writing instruction. Assist students in integrating and synthesizing new material into their prior knowledge and experience. Provide time for practice before expecting performance. Value the students background and provide additional experience. The things a student of a different background will know through his/her experience may not be what you expect, making much of your material meaningless to them unless you recognize this and provide additional background as needed. Bring into the classroom, science role models, doing experiments. Distribute leadership roles equally among all students. Encourage different approaches to problem solving and experimental design. Enforce equal interactions and expectations for all students, thereby providing the same opportunities for participation in all experiments. Institute some science experiences without grade assessment, this can help students more easily overcome initial anxiety. Make science experiments relevant and useful to all students. Permit students to bring life experiences into the experimental science learning environment. Focus on activities designed to integrate science skills into everyday experiences of students with disabilities. Take field trips in the local community. This will allow students to observe experimental applications of science and technical skills in living and work settings. Emphasize science skills used by workers with disabilities. Encourage activity-based and hands-on programs for students with disabilities. Establish in-service science training programs especially including teachers having students with disabilities. Draw upon cultural experiences of the child and family to include disability cultural perspectives in the curriculum.

Institutional

Encourage and help administrators recruit science students and faculty with disabilities. Urge faculty sponsors of computer science, and (say) chess clubs to recruit students with disabilities. A teaching institution, whether it is at the primary or college level must develop a more positive attitude about the potential of diverse students. Bring to the attention of school officials any policies or procedures that inadvertently penalize certain races, cultures, sexes, or persons with disabilities. Eliminate all culturally insensitive reading materials and tests. Allow students to engage in activities that will enhance their appreciation of the cultural strengths of all diverse groups including disabilities. Provide adequate counseling and support services when appropriate. Establish in-service science training programs in equity issues including those with disabilities. Methods and Materials

Use computers for more than drill exercises for all students. (Access to computer technology for creative activities increases motivation and awareness of useful applications of science.) Ensure that scientists with disabilities are portrayed in scientific and technical careers (e.g., posters in classroom). Incorporate the historical and contemporary contributions of scientists with disabilities in the science curriculum. Talk with students and explain about textbooks that create or perpetuate stereotypes based on disability, minority, or sexual status and their effects on learning and career choice. Science course material should include references to people from different cultural groups, including the disability culture status. Use study materials that show individuals from different cultural groups engaging in science activities or occupations. Furnish all students with updated information on careers in science. Make use of a broad range of professional organizations for career motivational materials and appropriate role models. Display classroom posters on the contributions of persons/students with disabilities in science and technical fields. Draw upon cultural experiences of the child and family to include authentic cultural perspectives in the curriculum, including the disability culture. Use a variety of teaching methods to insure that all students learning styles are being met, for example: Use visuals and provide students with a list of materials they could use individually to supplement their course work. Group work Build on what students already know Use lecture outlines, blackboards and overheads Connect lessons with examples from the "real world"

Screen textbooks and materials for accurate representations and accuracy, e.g. are the textbooks only representative on blonde-haired, blue-eyed non-disabled AngloSaxons? Develop glossaries for chapters students are having trouble with and provide tasks which will allow them to incorporate the new vocabulary. Develop instructional materials that are related to student experience and present students with problem assignments that relate to their backgrounds. Provide visual learning aids and good descriptive information, especially for new or difficult materials. Make instruction multi-sensory, relevant, and active, which can cut across cultural barriers (including the disability culture) so students have several means and opportunities to absorb information and can tie ideas and concepts to the concrete experiences.

Home and Family

Help parents of students to understand their role in encouraging their childrens interest in science (e.g., establish parent workshops on supporting and encouraging childrens interests in science). Plan a parents night on science careers. (This should portray students and or scientists with disabilities in science fields in which they traditionally have been underrepresented.) Establish workshops for parents to support and to encourage their childrens interest in science. Parental and family involvement is critical to a disabled students academic achievement. The role a parent should play in their childrens education encompasses more than just helping their child at home. Teachers must believe that parent involvement is needed for a school to be effective and then include parents in the following activities as: Classroom tutors, helpers and field trip volunteers. Members of school decision making boards that execute decisions that influence students. Do not use negative words to describe family structures such as "dysfunctional families." Such labels are degrading, demeaning, and opinion based. Respect parents by viewing them as capable individuals, and this, in turn, will enhance the home-school partnership. It is the teachers responsibility to make the first contact with a students parents, and this contact should be a positive one, not the first time when something is wrong. Teachers should call students parents early in the year and introduce themselves to the parent, sharing positive aspects of the student and favorable expectations. When talking to the parents, build on the students strengths and special qualities, also this is a time to find out more about your student. Dont be hypocritical, by saying positive things to a parent about their child, but then acting in a negative manner towards the student in class. Share information with parents; this builds trust and strengthens the home-school bond. Meet the parents and show them what you are doing and how it relates to everyday life and the community.

Attend community functions and cultural events so students and parents see that you are interested. Then is class, show students how the material relates to their life outside of school. Make instruction relevant to their present day life.

Personal

Discuss career opportunities with students having disabilities. Ensure that scientists with disabilities are portrayed in scientific and technical careers (e.g., posters in classroom). Furnish all students with updated information on careers in science. Give students with disabilities special encouragement to participate in science-related activities, and to create opportunitiesboth inside and outside of school. Invite science role models who are inspirational, to present or demonstrate to the class. Recognize that cultural disability backgrounds may discourage some students from active participation in the science classroom. It is important to understand how the backgrounds of students with disabilities can affect their relationships with both teachers and their classmates. Many students are sensitive to and responsive to what others feel and think and consider how their actions might affect others. Many students respond better to rewards such as praise, smiles, pats on the back, and the like. Identify and emphasize positive values. Promote relaxed communication with students with disabilities. Students need to be able to ask questions without hesitation and feel that they can discuss classwork or problems freely and without emotional upset. Do no single out only one student for praise, criticism, recitation, etc. Help students to eliminate prejudice by discussing with them how minorities, gender, and students with disabilities are portrayed on TV and in books, and how the different portrayal may lead to prejudice. In personal interactions, be very sensitive to non-verbal cues. Show that you are really listening and interested in the ideas of the students. Resiliency is the ability to thrive, mature, and increase competence in the face of adverse circumstances or obstacles. Students who are resilient must draw upon all resources: biological, psychological, cultural, and environmental. Schools are a valuable environmental resource that can also affect the psychological resource. Schools can promote resiliency through these four methods: o Increase the students self-esteem o Stop the negative chain of events o Provide an alternate route to success o Remove that stressor.

Stereotypes

Lead a classroom discussion on stereotyping and the consequences of stereotyping for science achievement. Talk with students about textbooks that create or perpetuate stereotypes based on sex, culture, and the biases that can result in influencing learning and career choice. Assist in the acceptance of the differences that students bring to the science classroom. Labels and stereotyping are damaging because they produce false expectations that are both damaging and suppressive. Examples of stereotypical labels are: economically disadvantaged, culturally deprived, or under-privileged dysfunctional family. Each individual and situation is unique and cant be generically grouped. Do not use stereotypical and negative labels. Do not be affected by first impressions; do not be influenced by the initial performance of a student. Discover a students ability by looking past their physical attraction, gender, disability, and race. Do not hold class or family status/income as a determining factor of a students potential, and dont hold it against them. Teachers must learn about each students background, but also work to get beyond the stereotyping which affects expectations or student performance. Science Classrooms for Students with Special Needs. ERIC Digest.

Legal resolutions, concerns of parents, and new research on learning and socialization have led to widespread efforts to place students with special needs in regular classrooms, a practice known as "inclusion." According to the report on Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering (1996), approximately 6% of children in the United States were in federally-supported special educational programs during the 1992-1993 school year, up 1.5% from 15 years earlier. The number of disabled students participating in regular classrooms has risen by 10% during the last five years (Roach et al., 1997). The manifestation of particular disabilities varies widely among students with special needs, but over half of the identified disabilities are learning disabilities. Other disabilities include speech and language difficulties, mental retardation, and serious emotional difficulties. Physical disabilities are relatively rare, constituting less than 2% of those identified as having disabilities (Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering:1996, 1996). The Consortium on Inclusive Schooling Practices (no date given) has developed a framework for evaluating state and local policies for inclusion "in an effort to help state and local policy makers, practitioners, and families determine if the general educational policies of their state or district support the inclusion of students with disabilities." The Consortium offers six policy goals: (a) curricula that allow for maximum development of individual students; (b) measurable, alternative, appropriate assessment practices; (c) accountability for all members of the educational community; (d) commitment to professional development; (e) sufficient and responsible funding for programs; and (f) governance structures that allow for central support of localized control.

EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE CLIMATES Rainforth (no date given) asserts that the best strategies for successful inclusion "parallel the best practices in general education reform and restructuring." She lists interdisciplinary instruction, team teaching, and block scheduling as the techniques most likely to promote success in meeting the needs of students with disabilities. SPECIAL NEEDS AND SCIENCE CLASSES Science classes provide special needs students with opportunities they may not get anywhere else. Scruggs and Mastropieri (1994) reported that special education programs often lack the supplies and equipment necessary for science laboratory work, and special education teachers may not have the scientific expertise to comfortably teach the subject. It was further noted that "the benefits of concrete, real-world experiences, opportunities to work effectively in group situations, the excitement of scientific observation and experimentation, and alternative methods of evaluation" as reasons why science classes are ideal inclusion situations. Simons and Hepner (1992) add self-esteem for disabled students and the development of increased empathy, understanding, and leadership potential among nondisabled students as more reasons to support inclusive science classrooms. PREPARING THE CLASSROOM "The [inclusive] instructor must play carpenter, interior designer, and adaptive technician" in the science classroom and laboratory (Weld, 1990). Experienced teachers indicate that lab benches, storage spaces, sinks and first aid stations are often not usable by students with physical disabilities. Because of their limited mobility, these students may also require additional aisle space, both within classrooms and along any corridors which may be part of emergency escape routes. Students with disabilities may also require assistive technology. However, Sax et al. (no date given) reported that assistive technology resources are not always used when they could benefit students, citing lack of knowledge among teachers in choosing and using such supplies. They recommend attention to three matters when considering incorporating assistive technology in the classroom: (a) allow the student, his or her family, and classmates to help select assistive technology devices; (b) have a specific activity in mind when looking for a device, rather than simply purchasing an available device and figuring out what to do with it; and (c) seek help and advice from experts outside the field of education, including engineers, carpenters, and computer experts. ADAPTING CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT In general, the strategies involved in adapting the curriculum for an inclusive situation will depend upon the needs of the individual students in a particular classroom. For example, students with learning disabilities often benefit from teachers making increased use of summary and pre-organizational techniques such as providing organizing notebooks, translating complicated directions or procedures into small blocks of information, handing out copies or outlines of class lecture notes, or posting weekly assignments in convenient places for students to examine (Simons & Hepner, 1992). Students with physical disabilities may need to sit toward the front of the classroom or develop special signals to indicate the need for communication.

In science classes, laboratory instruction may need to be significantly modified for students who have disabilities. As with lesson content, students with learning disabilities may require more organized information given in smaller increments. Students with physical disabilities, on the other hand, often require modified equipment or procedures in order to complete laboratory exercises. Weld (1990) suggested using a "lab buddy" who is paired with a disabled student, understands the student's limitations, and can work within that framework to do the lab "with" the disabled student rather than "for" him or her. Braille rulers can be purchased or made, or instruments that normally have visual output can be modified to have audio output. For students with hearing difficulties, lab equipment with sound signals can be wired to include a light or other visible signal as well (Roberts & Bazler, 1993). Microscopes which do not require small motor skills for fine adjustment can be purchased, or projection scopes can be used for students with visual impairments (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1994). Finally, no student in science class should be exempt from lab safety rules, so teachers may need to frequently model appropriate safety behavior and give students chances to practice reacting to staged "crises." Assessment options for the inclusive classroom should reflect the diverse skills and goals of students in the class. Jorgensen (1997) suggests using frequent assessment checks to determine progress, allowing students to demonstrate their learning through varied modes of expression, and having students complete unit projects which allow for synthesis of individual strengths and interests with specific content learning. Again, individual needs will dictate how particular lessons, labs or assessment options may have to be modified to enable all students to reach their full potential. Taking advantage of a special education teacher's or parent's expertise about a particular student is often a productive means of determining what strategies would work well in a given situation (Weld, 1990). Experienced science teachers in inclusive classrooms stress that involving a student's classmates in devising ways to adapt lessons to individual student needs is often a strikingly successful process (Richardson, 1994; Weld, 1990). Educational or professional organizations may also be able to provide access to more specific examples of other teachers' positive experiences with inclusion in science class. INCLUSION AND TEACHER ATTITUDE Nearly three hundred disabled adults were interviewed by the American Institutes for Research and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and many of them indicated that some "critical incident...either encouraged or discouraged them from considering science as an area of interest or particular discipline they could reasonably pursue." Not surprisingly, teachers were often the catalyst of this critical incident-the most frequently-cited reason for the disabled interviewees choosing a career in science was teacher behavior (Weisgerber, 1990). Above and beyond the revised lesson plans and alternative assessment strategies, perhaps the most critical aspect of involving disabled students in the classroom is that teachers realize the significance of their attitudes and expectations toward students with special needs. Such students must know that science is for them, too. Richardson (1994) expressed this idea another way: "Excusing a special needs student from a classroom assignment is simply excusing yourself from finding a way for the student to participate in the assignment."

One problematic attitude is the feeling that addressing the needs of individual students compromises the notion of "fairness." As Stefanich (1994) pointed out, "At an early age...students develop a belief system that equal treatment is fair treatment. A utilitarian view, what is best for the majority is best for everyone, is often a very permeating orientation in the classroom." However, fairness can also be viewed as treating equals equally and unequals unequally. All students can participate in some way in the science classroom, even if it is not the same way. Jorgensen (1997) outlines a successful inclusion strategy which organizes content around central themes, issues or problems, and allows students to meet educational objectives in various ways most conducive to individual strengths and needs. Such a strategy is helpful to and appropriate for every student in the classroom, not just those with disabilities. To be sure, teaching an inclusive science classroom effectively involves a commitment to the needs of all students, and all students can benefit from the process.