1 The Role of Enhanced Research in Geotechnical Engineering - PAPER (KEYNOTE LECTURE)

[JN Mukabi (Ph.
D) KEYNOTE LECTURE] Page 1

The Role of Enhanced Research in Geotechnical Engineering for Pragmatic
Infrastructure Development within the Vision 2030.
John MUKABI
1

1
Kensestu Kaihatsu Consultants Ltd. dr.mukabi@kensetsu.co.ke/mukabinj@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper summarizes some of the State of the Art technologies and advances
made recently in the Eastern Africa region based on Research and Development (R&D),
tailored particularly for developing countries.
It introduces newly developed scientific and engineering theories, concepts, techniques,
technologies as well as various analytical, design and construction methods.
Practical examples of the prevalent engineering challenges and Geotechnologies that would
provide pragmatic solutions for sustainable infrastructure development are proposed.
Further discussions are made on the most appropriate and suitable approach for the Engineer
to practically adopt in order to realize the Kenya Vision 2030 Objectives by introducing some
of the achievements made by post World War II Japan through examples of some mega
structures designed and constructed on the basis of R&D Oriented Techniques.

1. INTRODUCTION
Infrastructure development is the heart and key to any visionary and pragmatic socio-
economic growth of a country. The Kenya Vision 2030 aims at maintaining a sustained
economic growth of 10% p.a. over the next 25 years through the direction that the Vision
Strategy be accompanied with realistic and concrete action plans upon expiry of the Economic
Recovery Strategy (ERS) in December 2007.
The overarching component of the Vision is that Kenya transforms into a globally competitive
and prosperous nation with a high quality of life by 2030.
Nevertheless, the major question still remains; how can this vision actually be achieved in
reality?
In order for the Vision to be realized within the designated time-frame, it is imperative that the
targeted economic growth is achieved through rapid industrialization, enhanced agricultural
production and agro-industry development, booming tourism, advanced education (science
and technology) among other factors. Such goals can only be achieved through rapid
infrastructure development based on innovative techniques, methods and technologies as a
primary driving factor.
In this Paper, innovative methods that can realize the practical achievements of such
advancement are also discussed in terms of cost-effectiveness, performance and
environmental considerations. In order to achieve these fundamental goals, the paper also
emphasizes the need to enhance capacity building programmes through the development of
strong Young Engineers Programmes (YEPs) for public, private and academic institutions
through technology transfer, technical training and R&D activities.
The versatility of advanced research based Consolidation and Shear Stress Ratio (CSSR)
Functions in the prediction of ground, pavement and foundation behaviour is also
demonstrated. It further proposes that the application of CSSR Functions in F.E analysis or
other constructive models may reduce the complexity of the models and/or number of
parameters required in such modelling. Further demonstration on the application of CSSR
Functions in relation to the design of appropriate testing, experimental and research regimes
through the conceptual correlation of loading rates, reconsolidation, aging, geomaterial
characteristics, ground structure and re-constitution in relation to multi-stage construction of
embankments and foundations, precise determination of bearing capacity factors numerical
[JN Mukabi (Ph.D) KEYNOTE LECTURE] Page 2

computerized modelling and prediction of ground and foundation behaviour, as well as the
overall enhancement of engineering parameters.
The Paper also introduces and discusses some recently developed research oriented
geotechnical engineering solutions to problems related to tropical problematic soils and
recommends appropriate methods of design and construction that would ensure the
application of such geomaterials. The ongoing research regarding this topic is also introduced.
The strength and deformation characteristics derived from the interaction of geogrids,
geotextiles and tropical geomaterials are discussed from a scientific and engineering
perspective.
Recently developed techniques and geotechnical and engineering concepts for ground
improvement, OPMC Stabilized retaining walls and enhancements of design, construction and
maintenance engineering aspects are also introduced.
The paper demonstrates and concludes that for purposes of achieving the Kenya Vision 2030,
sustainable development and maintenance, Research and Development (R&D) is absolutely
necessary.
2. INTRODUCING SOME EXAMPLES OF POST WORLD WAR II RAPID DEVELOPMENTS
Japan is usually cited as a typical example of one of the countries that has made the most
rapid technological and economic growth and development in the post World War II era. This
has made Japanese technology become the focus and model for the Tigers and developing
countries.
Sections 2.1 ~ 2.11 demonstrate some of the technological advances in civil engineering that
Japan has achieved based on enhanced Research and Development (R&D).
All the examples cited were either fully or partly constructed by Kajima Corporation, while the
Author of this Paper participated in the research and design studies of most of the projects
during his graduate and post graduate studies.
The harbour and railway structures were basically designed by Katahira and Engineers
International.
2.1 Highways and Bridges
Figs 2.1.1 ~ 2.1.4 show examples of the magnificent bridges that have already been
constructed in Japan. The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge is the longest suspension bridge in the world
with a centre span of 1991 metres (approximately 2km) and an overall length of 3,911 metres
(approximately 4km).
Initially, this bridge was designed to have a centre span of 2,000m (2km). However, during
construction, the great Kansai earthquake prevailed causing the bridge to experience a total
shift of 9metres. Nevertheless, the bridge stayed intact without experiencing or exhibiting any
critical technical problems.

Fig 2.1.1 Overview of Kurishima Kaikyo Bridge stretching across Kirishima Straits. Total length 4.105km
(4,105m) (Kajima Corporation)

Fig 2.1.2 Akashi Kaikyo Bridge,
3-span 2-hinged truss
Stiffened Suspension Bridge
with 6 Lanes. Longest
Suspension Bridge in the world
with centre Span of 1991m
(Approx 2km) overall length of
3,911m (approx 4km)

Fig 2.1.3 Akashi Kaikyo Bridge Anchorages, Structural Elements and Profile


Fig 2.1.4 Akashi Kaikyo Bridge Cross section of strata, stiffening girder Techniques and construction
area

2.2 Airports
Due to the lack of ample existing land space in Japan, most airports and other mega civil
engineering structures have been constructed on reclaimed land. Figs 2.2.1 are some of such
examples.

Fig 2.2.1 Tokyo International Airport (Haneda) and Kansai International Airport

Fig 2.2.2 New Tokyo Int. Airport (Narita) and Colombo Int. Airport, Sri Lanka on the right


2.3 Dams
Figs 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 show rock-fill arch dams and gravity dams respectively.
The rock-fill dam is simulated after Kajimas 3D-Dam-CAD Techniques which are applied in
optimizing the construction, quality and material control vis a vis cost reduction, while the
480m height Miyagase dam was constructed by employing the RCD Method, also developed
by Kajima Corporation for the construction of large dams.

Fig 2.3.1 Dams that
have been applied
kajimas 3D-Dam-
CAD Technique,
ensuring High
Quality Structures
vis a vis, cost
reduction

Fig 2.3.2 Gravity
Dam Miyagase
dam constructed
employing the RCD
Method developed
for construction of
large dams

2.4 Tunnels
As a mountainous country, tunnels are a common geotechnical engineering feature.
Furthermore, Japan is one of the pioneer countries that developed under sea tunnels.
Fig 2.4.1 is a depiction of the Tokyo Wan Aqualine under sea tunnel along the Trans Tokyo
Bay Highway which is a 15.1km route connecting Kawasaki and Kisarazu man made islands.
The route traverses mainly for 4.4km above sea vide bridges, for 9.4km under sea via tunnels
and two man-made islands.

Fig 2.4.1 Trans
Tokyo Bay
Highway a
15.1km route
connecting
Kawasaki and
Kisarazu.

2.5 Buildings
Some of the mega building structures in Tokyo are shown in
Figs 2.5.1.
The 240m (80 stories) building is the headquarters of the
Nippon Telephone and Telegraphic DOCOMO in Yoyogi,
while the JR Osaki train station on Tokyos Yamanote line has
a floor space of more than 80 acres (320,000m
2
) and
aesthetically integrates business and amenity within limited
space.

2.6 Railway Systems
After the end of the 2
nd
World War, Japan embarked on a technological mission and
developed the Shinkansen
(bullet train), a supersonic
speed electric train just before
the Tokyo Olympics in 1964.
Along with this development
became the necessity to
construct high-tech railway
lines and systems.
Currently, Japan has one of
the most advanced railway
network, underground
(subway) and Mass Transit
(MT) systems in the world.

Fig 2.6.1 Railway Systems

Fig 2.5.1 Buildings
the 240m NTT
DoCoMo YoYogi
Building, Tokyo,
Japan

Fig 2.8.1 Land Reclamation
2.7 Harbours
As an island country, Japan is wholly
surrounded by sea. Ports and Harbours
development is therefore a key
prerequisite.
An example is depicted in Fig 2.7.1

2.8 Land Reclamation
As stated earlier, Japan is not only a
small country (approximately half the size
of Kenya), but it is also so mountainous
so much so that less than 20% of its land
area is habitable. Furthermore it has a
population of more than 120million people.
These are the reasons why Japan is considered as one of the countries with the highest
population density in the world.
Consequently, the development of land
reclamation technology became one of
the primary components of realizing
reasonable urban development.
Fig 2.8.1 is a basic example of one of
such technologies.

2.9 Amenity Facilities
Figs 2.9.1 and 2.9.2 are examples of
some of the amenity facilities that
have been developed on the basis of
Japanese technology.

2.10 Example of Modern Urban
Development Incorporating
Futuristic Components
Minato Mirai 21 (MM21), first
conceived as an Idea almost 3
decades ago, was Yokohama's vision of the future. It was practically realized in 1997 once,
only dockyards, the city is turning this harbour front area into a world class business /
recreation complex with one of the most advanced information infrastructure. The main crown

Fig 2.7 Ports and Harbors Development

Fig 2.9.2 Amenity Facilities Practical use of land and time

is the Landmark Tower - at 296m, the tallest building in East Asia. It was meant to be higher,
but flight restrictions at the Haneda airport prevented it. It boasts the latest in computerized
anti-earthquake and anti-motion equipment and the fastest elevator in the world ascending at
a speed of 45km/hr (12.5m/s).
Intended to be a cultural cosmopolitan and information city of the 21
st
Century with superior
environment, the Intelligent City is a manifestation of the success of Public and Private Sector
joint partnership.
Figs 2.10.1 ~ 2.10.9 depict
various aspects and
components of the Minato
Mirai 21 in Yokohama City,
Japan.
Some of the major concepts
for the Nairobi metropolitan
Development for Vision
2030 can be modelled on
the MM21 Yokohama City.

Fig 2.10.1 Partial Scenery of the sea front of MM21

Fig 2.10.2 Mode of Realizing a visionary Urban Development

Fig 2.10.3 Land Use Map of Minato Mirai (MM21)

Fig 2.10.4 Satellite Image of Minato Mirai (MM21)

Fig 2.10.5 A General View of Minato Mirai 21 (MM21)

Fig 2.10.7 Various Perspectives of the MM21
Fig 2.10.6 Various Perspectives of the MM21

Fig 2.10.9 Demonstration Test of ITV in MM21

2.11 Examples of Mega Floating Structures
With a large sea area, Japanese
marine and geotechnical
engineering technology has also
been strongly geared towards the
development of mega floating
structures.
Figs 2.11.1~2.11.9 give examples
of such floating structures. Fig
2.11.2 depicts the main
components within a mega
floating system.

Fig 2.10.8 MM21 Intelligent Transport System

Fig 2.11.1 General View of Very Large Floating Structure
Fig 2.10.7 MM21 Intelligent Transport System

Fig 2.11 5 Floating Pier at Ujina, Japan

Fig 2.11.2 Components of a Mega-Float System

Fig 2.11.3 Examples of Mega-Float Structures

Fig 2.11.4 Examples of Mega-Float Structures

Fig 2.11.6 Proposed Floating Runway at Tokyo
International Airport (Haneda)

Fig 2.11.8 Osaka Focus A by Japanese Society of Steel Construction

Fig 2.11.7 Marine Uranus by Nishimimatsu Corporation


3. EXAMPLES OF INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ADVANCED GEOTECHNICAL
INVESTIGATION
For the successful design and construction of any civil engineering structure, comprehensive
geotechnical engineering investigations are a definite prerequisite. On the other hand, due to
lack of sufficient funds, human resources and technical capacity, the Engineer in developing
countries, particularly in Africa, is faced with situations whereby they have to either adopt the
existing sub-standard and/or outdated techniques or innovate methods that optimize the use
of the available equipment, human resources and technical capacity.
This section presents examples of some of the recently developed innovative geotechnical
engineering testing and analytical techniques that form a concrete basis in realizing the design
and construction of sound civil engineering structures.

3.1 Example of Innovative In-situ Testing Method

Fig 3.1 Mode of Achieving Objectives
Objectives of Study

Necessity for Innovative Modification

Fig 3.2 Load, Speed and Pavement Structure
Effects on Deflection Measurements

Fig 3.3 Innovative NDT Method Theoretical Considerations

Fig 3.4 Innovative NDT Method Theoretical
Considerations Resilient Deviation

Fig 3.5 Need for Innovation

3.2 Example of Innovative In-situ Analytical Techniques

Fig 3.3 Major Objective

Fig. 3.5 Effects of Pre-loading and Load Intensity on Deflection

Fig. 3.6 Correlation of Pr-loading and Deflection Basin Concept


Fig. 3.7 Theory of Damped Oscilatory Motion Impacted by Layer Stifness

Fig. 3.8 Influence of Confining Stress on Deflection
Measurement

Fig 3.9 Influence of Confining Stress on Deflection Basin Characteristics

Fig 3.10 Influence of seasonal Changes on Deflection Measurement

Fig. 3.11 Significance of Temparature Effects on the Elastic Modulus of Asphalt
Concrete

3.3 Innovative Methods of Analyzing Environmental Factors
Environmental factors are known to highly affect the concepts of design, actual construction
and ultimate performance of highway pavement structures. In this study, some comprehensive
methods that may be effective for evaluating the impact of these factors are proposed. A new
concept of evaluating the deterioration of the structural thickness as a result of infiltration of
underlying material to the upper layers is also introduced. Application of these concepts and

methods show that the impact of environmental factors over a given period of time can be
more detrimental than commonly considered in most cases
The main objective of undertaking this research therefore was to develop new quantitative
analytical concepts and methods of effectively evaluating the impact of environmental factors
such as geology, topography and climate (seasonal changes) on the performance of highway
pavement structures.
The major environmental factors considered which highly depend on topographic,
geographical, geological, climatic and other changes are depicted in Figure 3.12 and 3.13.

3.3.1 Evaluation of The Effects of Moisture~Suction Variation
The effect of moisture changes on the current strength, durability and bearing capacity of the
pavement and roadbed materials is evaluated on the basis of three concepts predominantly
related to saturation levels, swelling and variation in the design moisture content.
The detrimental effects of moisture~suction variation on strength and deformation
resistance are depicted in Figs. 3.14.

(1) Effect of Saturation Level

Fig 3.12 Effect of Dynamic Loading on Strength
Characteristics of Tropical Soils
( )
( )
9 . 1 0362 . 0 9 . 1
max
max
+ =
(
(
A PI
E
E
imc
vmc
mc
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2
Axial Strainc
a
(%)
A
x
i
a
l

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

U
C
S

(
k
N
/
m
2
)
Dynamic (M
c
=10.2%)
Static (M
c
= 12.1%)
Dynamic (M
c
=12.1%)
Proposed by Mukabi et al. (2001c) for
Tropical Soils with a PI<43
.
.
where, Amc = 0.53 Cs =
Swelling Index, CC=Compression Index
( )
( )
535 . 0 0123 . 0 + =
(
(
A PI
q
q
imc u
vmc u
mc
( )
( )
44 . 6 5 . 23
max
max
+ =
(
(
A
C S
imc
vmc
mc
C C
E
E
ci CV
M M
( )
( )
9 . 1 0362 . 0 9 . 1
max
max
+ =
(
A PI
E
E
imc
vmc
mc

Fig 3.13 Effect of Moisture~Suction Variation on BCS
Mr = -497DWc + 5431
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Water Content, DWc (%)
R
e
s
i
l
i
e
n
t

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

o
f

B
C
S
,
M
r
(
K
g
/
c
m
2
)
Regressional relation Linear (Regressional relation)
Moisture-SuctionVariationinrelationtoa
ReferenceMC of 10.1% for 2% LimeTreated
Black CottonSoil under UC StaticLoading
Conditions
Averageof 10 datapoints
D

For purposes of evaluating the actual deterioration in pavement strength, durability and
bearing capacity as a consequence of variations in saturation levels, the chart in Figure 3.15
and the equation therein proposed by Savage et al. (1999) and modified by Mukabi (2001e),
are adopted.

Figure 19 Effect of Saturation Level
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100 1000
Unsoaked CBR(CBR
us
)
S
o
a
k
e
d

C
B
R
(
C
B
R
s
)
Sr = 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
Sr = 0.1
S = Soaked,
US = Unsoaked,
Sr = Degree of Saturation
CBR
S
= c500
(0.9-S
r
)
x CBR
US

(0.1+S
r
)
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100 1000
Unsoaked CBR(CBR
us
)
S
o
a
k
e
d

C
B
R
(
C
B
R
s
)
Sr = 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
Sr = 0.1
S = Soaked,
US = Unsoaked,
Sr = Degree of Saturation
CBR
S
= c500
(0.9-S
r
)
x CBR
US

(0.1+S
r
)

Figure 3.14 Impact of Moisture ~ Suction Variation on Tropical Soils

(2) Effect of Swelling
Figure 3.16 and 3.17 show the
compound effects of compaction,
surcharge pressure and monotonic
loading-unloading-reloading cycles on
expansive soils. The swell related
equations derived from the generalized
equation proposed by Mukabi et al.
(1999c and 2003d) are also presented.

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Soaking Time, t (hours)
S
w
e
l
l

o
s
,

(
%
)
Static 2.90 SP97%Compaction Static 7.30 SP96%Compaction
Dynamic 2.90 SP108%compaction Dynamic 7.30 SP108%compaction
Reloading Loading Unloading
Start of Reloading Point Start of UnloadingPoint
Start of UnloadingPoint
Start of ReloadingPoint
( )
( ) ( )
F
SP
i SR f S
S
H -
-
=
|
o o
o
max

Fig 3.16 Swell vs. Soaking Time Characteristics
Fig. 3.15 Effect of Saturation Level

Figure 3.17 Swell vs. Surcharge Pressure
Characteristics

(3) Effect of Variation in Design
Moisture Content
The selection of an appropriate design
moisture content and density condition is
critical to the design analysis. The
moisture content at which subgrade
strength should be assessed is that
which can be expected to be exceeded
only rarely. Pronounced exceedance of
this factor is known to have adverse
effects on the pavement structure.
Fig. 3.18 shows the coupled effects of
seasonal changes and plasticity index on
the design moisture content, while Fig.
3.19 introduces equations that can be applied in correcting for seasonal effects for
reconstruction and overlay design.
Dmc = -0.0093PI2 + 1.1745PI + 3.2
Dmc = -0.0063PI2 + 0.9384PI + 5.4
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
D
e
s
i
g
n

M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e

C
o
n
t
e
n
t
(
D
m
c
)
Plasticity Index(PI)
Wet Season Dry Season Poly. (Wet Season) Poly. (Dry Season)
Wet Season
Dry Season
Average of 10 data
Points
( )
( ) 94 . 0 013 . 0
1
+ =
=
}
PI PI f
d PI f D PI
mc
o

Figure 3.18 Influences of Seasonal Changes and Plasticity on DMC

e
PI e A PI
P
B
p d
=
Correcting for Seasonal Effects for
Reconstruction Design
03 . 0 , 10 = =
=
m m
d
mc
Bm
m
w
mc
B A
D e A D
02 . 0 , 12 = =
=
P P
w
BP
P d
B A
PI e A PI
d
mc
B
m mc
D e A D
m
=
e

Correcting for Seasonal effects for
Overlay Design
( )
s f
EP
D
f
t Sdfx xR
T
T
I A A + = 1
| |
f
I
d
mc
m
B
m
w
mc
e D e A D

+ = 1
| |
f
I
w
BP
P d
e PI e A PI

= 1

Figure 3.19 Influences of Seasonal Changes and Plasticity on DMC

(4) Seasonal and Soaking Condition Effects on Bearing Capacity

Figure 3.20 Seasonal and Soaking Effects
CBRus = 1.8CBRs + 3.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Soaked CBR
U
n
s
o
a
k
e
d

C
B
R
Wet Season Dry Season Linear (Series2) Linear (Wet Season)
(Linear Regression)
1:1 (Line of Ideal Relation)
CBRus = 1.8CBRs + 3.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Soaked CBR
U
n
s
o
a
k
e
d

C
B
R
Wet Season Dry Season Linear (Series2) Linear (Wet Season)
(Linear Regression)
1:1 (Line of Ideal Relation)
The combined effects of seasonal changes and soaking conditions on the bearing capacity
of some subgrade materials is depicted in Figure 3.20, while the equation that can be
applied to correct for this effect is also presented in the same figure.

3.3.2 Intrusion of Native subgrade Material into
Upper Layers of Pavement Structure
Various research undertaken by Mukabi (2001)
and Mukabi et al. (2003) indicate that Intrusion of
native subgrade material into the overlying
layers of the pavement usually results in the
ultimate degradation of the layers. Depending on
the nature of the subgrade, topography of
environment and seasonal changes, intrusion of
native subgrade material into overlying layers of
the pavement structure, as depicted in Figure
3.21, can be rampant and extremely detrimental.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plasticity Index, PI (%)
S
o
a
k
e
d

C
B
R
'1:1 '2:1 '3:1 '4:1 '5:1 '1:0
OptimumBatching Ratio
Reduction in CBR Practically Linear
Rate of Reduction and Reduction Characteristics Dependent on Batching
Ratio and Quality of Bearing Material
Lower Bound Limits are Distinctly Dependent on Batching
Ratio
CBR Reduction ~ PI Threshold @PI =40%
Relation with Structural
Thickness
Tendency to Residural (Threshold) Value

Fig. 3.21 Intrusion of Subgrade Material Fig. 3.22 Impact of Inferior Material Intrusion

The consequences of such a physical action are the deterioration of bearing capacity,
cohesion intercept (c) and internal friction (|) as well as mechanical stability.
Some of the results of the quantitative analysis of this factor are presented in Fig.3.22 and
further discussed for expansive soils in Mukabi and Gono (2007f, This Conference) and
Mukabi et al. (2003c).
In this series of experimental testing, materials with varying qualities and properties were
infiltrated into high quality crushed aggregate base course material mechanically stabilized at
varying ratios (0~40mm:0~5mm aggregate).
Fig.3.22 clearly indicates that: 1) inferior material intrusion into the upper layers drastically
reduces the bearing strength. 2) The magnitude and rate of reduction in bearing capacity is a
direct function of the quality of material and batching ratio. 3) The threshold of the CBR
reduction is at approximately PI=35%. 4) The effect of subgrade material intrusion ceases
after the PI reaches the threshold value.
The results indicate therefore, that it is absolutely imperative to take this fact into
consideration during the structural design and analysis of a pavement.
3.3.3 Evaluation of Variation in Quality of Pavement Layer Materials
The quantitative assessment of deficiency in the physical properties of pavement materials
with time through the intrusion of fines to upper pavement layers is undertaken by employing
the following equation:


| |
US m m S
CBR PI B A CBR =
(3.1)

where, CBR
s
= soaked CBR, CBR
us
= unsoaked CBR, A
m
and B
m
are material related
constants which were generally determined as 0.97 and 0.027 respectively for materials
tested in this study. This equation enables the evaluation of the effect of increased Fines
Contents (F
C
) and PI on the bearing capacity.

3.3.4 Deterioration of Pavement Structural Thickness
Examples of the quantitative changes in pavement structural thickness, which is defined as
the effective thickness that acts structurally are discussed extensively in Mukabi (2002a). The
deterioration of pavement structural thickness occurs mainly due to cyclic action of increased
axle loading, water infiltration and intrusion of subgrade fines to upper layers as briefly
introduced in the preceding sections. The Intensity Factor I
f
, proposed by Mukabi et al.
(2002a) is expressed as follows :

( )
s df f
EP
D
f
t x S xR
T
T
I A A + = 1
(3.2)

where, T
D
= design thickness, T
EP
= measured thickness of the existing pavement, R
f
= roughness factor expressed as
25 . 0
2
(
=
i t
i
R R
R
Rf given, R
f
= roughness factor R
i
=
initial roughness value, R
t
= terminal roughness value, S
df
= rate of surface distress
depreciation factor, t
s
= time lapsed since the previous study or survey was undertaken .

3.4 Innovative Material Characterization Techniques
Prompted by the lack of suitable subbase material due to weathering and high plasticity in
most areas of the Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion Trunk Road in Ethiopia, innovative tests to
characterize various physical and chemical properties of the available materials were carried
out. Analyses of the test results were done in respect to the intrinsic plasticity characteristics of
the geomaterials under the influence of chemical and physical changes on the one hand, and
the effect of the resulting variation and magnitude of the consistency limit values on the
bearing capacity of the geomaterial, on the other.
Influence of clay content - The relationship between clay content and plasticity
characteristics is mostly dependent on the geological origin and mineralogy of a geomaterial.
Typical results of the soils tested from the Project area exhibited a Liquidity Limit (LL) of
approx. 50% (47~52) for various conditions. Plotting the results from the tests conducted in
this study in Fig.3.23 indicated that the level of enhanced clay activity was only 6.4%. This
implied that the clay content activity influencing the variation of plasticity characteristics was
very low, hence low potential to swell (ref. to Fig.3.24). Furthermore, due to the low clay
content of the Project material tested, it was considered that the main cause for the initial high
plasticity index is the low degree of leaching and laterization due to the low amounts of
mineral coatings by sesquioxides which act to suppress the activity of the clay minerals. Since
this effect is probably mainly due to the titration of clay particles from the overburden material
and weathering, the subsequent geological effect in the post inter-particle state was to
increase the sesquioxide influence.


Fig.3.23 Typical Colloidal Activity Fig. 3.24 Typical Swell Potentional

Due to the foregoing discussion therefore, it was considered that the clay content and activity
effect on the variation of the plasticity characteristics and in particular the plasticity index of the
Project geomaterials designated for use as subbase materials was quite negligible.
Influence of nature of soil material -The contribution of the nature of soil materials to the
plasticity characteristics highly depends on the shape and structure of the soil minerals in
relation to the surface area in contact. In other words, the soil particle orientation and micro-
aggregate cluster formation become increasingly important in consideration of the magnitude
of consistency limits. The global effect is considered to be related to the ultimate magnitude of
the surface of activity of clay minerals in reference to the interaction of sesquioxides.
Interpretation of this influence would therefore be related to the genesis, degree of weathering
and clay mineralogy. The results from the study showed that:

Contribution of the chemical composition of the colloid - The practical significance of the liquid
and plastic limits lies in their ability to reflect on the types and amounts of clay minerals
present in the fine fraction (Skempton, 1953). For natural soils, the plasticity index has been
found to increase in proportion to the amount of clay size particles present whereby the
relationship is practically linear and passing through the origin as shown in Fig.3.25. As can be
noted from the same figure, very different relationships between the plasticity index and the
percent clay-fraction size are obtained for three clay minerals namely kaolinite, illite and
montmorilonite for some temperate-zone clay soils. Wu (1966) suggested that the slope of the
lines indicate the relative magnitudes of the surface forces which are representative of the
colloidal activity. The active clay characterized by large colloidal activity exhibit plastic
i) Virtually negligible variation existed between the plasticity parameters of oven dried and air dried
samples. This implied that the clay mineral surfaces do not orient in full contact position as this should
have enhanced the degree of saturation and intrinsic localized suction stresses analogous to
surcharge stresses whereby the plasticity index of the oven dried sample should have been much
lesser than the air dried sample.

ii) The addition of sodium chloride did not seem to have considerable impact in the plasticity behaviour of
the clay minerals tested in this study. This may imply that due to the nature and the structure of the
clay minerals, the osmotic suction stress levels were not affected to such an appreciable extent.

iii) Although addition of hydrated lime caused reduction in the plasticity limits and index to a level below
the lower threshold of PI=16, the effect of drying, water, and temperature in relation to the chemical
reaction prompted by addition of CaCo was not apparent. This implied that the nature of the clay
minerals was appreciably stable hence drastic variation in the plasticity characteristics was not
expected.

properties over a wide water content range. This is generally considered to be the result of the
strong interaction between the surface forces and water molecules.
The results from this investigation showed that although the material exhibited plasticity
indices greater than 15 (the Specified value), the subsequent variation in plasticity
notwithstanding varying conditions was fairly low. This may be attributed to the presence of
mica in the silt fraction of the soil as suggested by Ruddock (1967).
This substantiates the fact that the geomaterial along the Project Road was mainly
influenced by Kaolinite clay fractions and as a consequence, its plasticity characteristics are
hardly influenced by the local history of large seasonal movements.
Influence of exchangeable cations According to Houghs (1957) proposal, Sodium
(Na), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Hydrogen (H) and Magnesium (Mg) ions in the
montmorillonite mineral exhibit the highest values to Atterberg limits, while those of the
Kaolinite mineral exhibit the lowest values. For all minerals, however, the sodium ion is the
most exchangeable. In this investigation, sodium chloride (NaCl) and hydrated lime in the form
of CaCo
3
were adopted as catalistic agents to study to presence and effect of exchangeable
ions. The addition of these agents had little influence on the variation of the plasticity values of
this material. It was therefore considered that the available exchangeable ions were quite
limited and were virtually in an inert state.

0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
P
L
A
S
T
I
S
I
T
Y

I
N
D
E
X

-
%
- 2m CLAY CONTENT - %
PLASTICITYCHARACTERISTICSOF LATERITESOILS
London Clay
lllite
Horton Clay
Kaolinite
Co Montmorillonite
Data from this study
Data from

Fig.3.25 Clay Content and Plasticity Index Fig.3.26 Impacts of Environmental Factors

Following this study therefore, it was concluded that the materials could be adopted for sub
base purposes despite their relatively high PI values. Analysis of their vital engineering
properties such as strength, bearing capacity and deformation resistance determined from
both laboratory tests and field trial sections indicated high values well beyond the specified
ones.

3.5 Innovative Method for Back-Analysis of distressed Pavement Structure
The Constitutive model on cyclic
plasticity for geomaterials based on
non-linear kinematic hardening theory
proposed by Yashima et al. (1994) is
adopted in attempting to back analyze
the deformation history of the
pavement structure. This model was
chosen because of its incorporation
of the non-linear kinematics

Fig.3.27 Results From Back Analysis
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0 0 0 0 0
D
e
f
e
l
c
t
i
o
n

r
d
(
x
1
0
-
2
m
m
)
Deflection Basin, DB (m)
Lower Pavement
Layers
Upper
Distressed
Virgin
aConstitutive Model for Lower Pavement Layers
aConstitutive Model for Upper Pavement Layers
a Estimation of Consolidation and Shear Stress History
( )( ) { } 0
1
2
1
* * * *
1
= =
D ij ij ij ij y
R x x f q q
( ) { } ( ) ' ' / ' exp
1
'
0
*'
dZ Z Z Z
T
ij
Z O
ij
o t o } =
NC oc
o
NC
o
NC NC
o oc
CSR A K K
q K
q
. .
.
max
max
|
=
NC
C
NC
f
OC
C
NC OC
O
NC
O
NC
O OC
f
p
P P
CSR A K K
K
q
'
' '
'
.
-
-
(
(
=
|

( )( ) { } 0
1
2
1
* * * *
1
= =
D ij ij ij ij y
R x x f q q
(3.3)

( )
vp
ij
vp
ij ij
d x de A B dx =
*
1
*
1
*
(3.4)
( )
2
1
vp
ij
vp
ij
vp
de de d =
(3.5)
( )( ) { } 0
'
) 1 (
'
1
*
~
2
1
* * * *
1
= |
.
|
\
|
+ =
ma
m n
M
ij
x
ij ij
x
ij
g o o q q
(3.6)
( )
( ) 0 1
~
'
) 1 (
' * *
0
= + =
ma m n m b
M f o o q
(3.7)
( )
' ' *
~
mc m n
M o o q =
(3.8)
hardening rule. When incorporated into an overstress type of model, it is found to be effective
in expressing the changes in retardation in the strain rate directi on upon a corresponding
change in the direction of the stress. Furthermore this model is found to reproduce to an
appreciable extent, the plastic damage during cyclic or repeated loading. By taking into
account the effects of sub grade layer material into the sub base, the constitutive model for
clay is adopted in simulating the composite yield characteristics of these layers, while the
distress behaviour of the upper pavement consisting of the unbound crushed aggregate base
course and the asphalt concrete, are analyzed by modifying the theories in the constitutive
model for soft rock. A representation of the results of this concept is given in Fig.3.27.

3.5.1 Constitutive model applied for lower pavement layers
The viscoplastic model for over consolidated clay extended to a cyclic model by Oka (1988) is
applied. The static yield functions that account for changes in the stress ratio are given as
follows:

where,
1 D
R = parameter defining the elastic
region and
*
ij
x =the kinematics hardening tensor.
By introducing the non linearity of the kinematics hardening,
*
ij
x can be written as

In which
*
1
A and
*
1
B are the material constants
and
*
ij
de is the increment of the viscoplastic
deviatoric strain. The second invariant of the increment of the plastic deviatoric strain is
derived as:

For the first yield function, the plastic potential is assumed to be:

where,
'
) 1 ( ma
o = material parameter and
*
~
M is the stress ratio when the layers
are under maximum compression condition: Considering the over consolidated boundary
surface between the NC and OC zones to be expressed as:

In the NC Zone ( ) 0 >
b
f ,
*
~
M is kept constant i.e.,
*
~
M =
*
~
m
M
region, it is defined as: ( ) 0 <
b
f ,
*
~
M is defined as: whereas in the OC

where, the current stress ratio ( )
2
1
* * *
ij ij
q q q = and
' '
mb mc
o o = exp
(
( )
* *
0
/
m
M q )

3.5.2 Estimation of Consolidation and Shear Stress Paths
The input parameters for the constitutive model introduced in the preceding section were
derived from the following theories and concepts. As the repeated loading progresses, the
cumulative effects are back analyzed by applying the concepts of consolidation and shear
stress ratio functions under normally consolidated (NC) conditions introduced by Mukabi and
Tatsuoka (1996) and Mukabi (2001d). In so doing, the initial stresses are computed from the
experimental results of full scale trial sections (Mukabi, 2002; Gono et al., 2003, this
conference) .The cumulative stresses are then derived by considering the average loading
rate and cumulative repeated loading over a given period of time. Once the maximum deviator
and mean effective stresses are determined, the stress ratio functions, defined from the

| |
o | B A
CSR
+ = ' A
(3.9)
SR SR SR
B A A = / ' |
(3.10)
( )
( )CSR K
CSR I
I
.
max
o |
q
' A
= '
(3.11)
NC oc
o
NC
o
NC NC
o oc
CSR A K K
q K
q
. .
.
max
max
|
=
(3.12)
NC
C
NC
f
OC
C
NC OC
O
NC
O
NC
O OC
f
p
P P
CSR A K K
K
q
'
' '
'
.
-
-
(
(
=
|
(3.13)
( ) { } ( ) ' ' / ' exp
1
'
0
*'
dZ Z Z Z
T
ij
Z O
ij
o t o } =
(3.15)
( )( ) { } 0 1
~
'
'
*
2
1
* * * *
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ =
b
b
M x x g
mb
m
n ij ij ij ij
o
o
q q
(3.16)
following expressions proposed by Mukabi and Tatsuoka (1999b) and Mukabi (2001d) are
applied.

Where,
|
A and
|
B are material properties, and the consolidation
function
CSR
o , which is independent of the effects of loading rate, is stress ratio
derived from the relation
max
1
~
q
CSR
|
o , whereby ' | A = function of normalized angle of internal
friction expressed as
I
Q
A
A A = A / ' | | (A: An isotropic I: Isotropic) and
max
q = maximum deviator
stress. ' | can be determined from the quasi-empirical equation (Mukabi, 2001d) expressed in
general form as:

Where, ASR and BSR are stress ratio constants and
( ) ' p q
SR
= A
is
the invariant stress ratio variable.
The antistrophic stress path is derived from the isotropic one by introducing a modifier
proposed by Mukabi and Tatsuoka (1999b) expressed as:

where,
max
q = (q/p) at q
max,
K
I
=1

and CSR= consolidations
stress ratio. The modifier is applied in the relation p q ' ' = .
On the other hand, the invariant stresses and angle of internal friction under over
consolidated (OC) condition were derived from the flowing correlations proposed by Mukabi
(2001d).

where, =
OC
Ox
K
'
sin
f
OCR K
OC
Ox
|
- and
f
OC
Ox
K ' sin 1 | = .
The corresponding mean effective stress,
OC
f
p
'
and angle of
internal friction
OC
f
'
| are given by:

(3.13)

and ,

NC
f
NC OC
O
NC
O
NC
O OC
f
CSR A K K
K
'
1
'
.
| |
|
-
(
(
=

(3.14)

3.5.3 Constitutive Model Applied for Upper Pavement Layers
Adachi and Oka (1992) proposed that the stress history tensor is a function of the effective
stress history with respect of the strain measure. This history tensor,
*' O
ij
o is given by
where, d
z
= ( ) Z de de
ij ij
,
2
1
= strain measure, T=material
parameter which controls the strain-hardening and
strain-softening phenomena and de
ij
is the increment of deviator strain tensor.

The plastic potential is assumed to be:

(3.16)


( )
0 1
~
'
'
* *
0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ =
b
b
M f
mb
m
n m b
o
o
q
(3.17)
The OC boundary is given as :

(3.17)

The OC region is therefore defined as:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
b
b
M
mb
m
n '
'
*
~
o
o
q
(3.18)
(3.18)

4. APPLICATION OF CONSOLIDATION AND SHEAR STRESS RATIO CONCEPTS
Laboratory tests are primarily carried out for purposes of obtaining engineering parameters
which can be directly applied to conditions in the field. Such an exercise would not only
provide parameters for design and construction quality control but also an insight into the
fundamental processes which affect the field behaviour. In developing countries, both
affordability and accessibility to high quality testing equipment are major curtailing factors to
realizing this aim. This situation therefore necessitates the development of empirical methods
that can aid in providing estimated parameters that are reasonable enough for the design and
modelling of foundations bearing civil engineering structures. In this paper, unique methods
derived as Consolidation and Shear Stress Ratio (CSSR) Functions that were recently
developed, providing solutions on how to circumvent these problems, are presented.

4.1 Brief background of developing CSSR Concepts
Laboratory tests can for example, be employed to investigate how strength and stiffness
develop during large strain consolidation and how this behaviour is dependent on various
factors such as loading rate and direction, principal stress rotation in relation to location within
the foundation etc. However, the precision of adopting these results involves an analytical
approach that would be appropriate in simulating as accurately as possible, the actual field
conditions. Furthermore, precise determination of such parameters for natural clays usually
requires high quality sampling and testing techniques for a reliable laboratory investigation.
This translates to high costs and long time durations for performing the tests. The method that
is described in this paper is based on that proposed by Mukabi and Tatsuoka (1999b) which
modified some aspects of the Critical State Soil Mechanics (CSSM) theories. This was
prompted by their (Mukabi and Tatsuoka 1992) investigation into the effects of consolidation
stress ratio and strain rate on the peak stress ratio of clay which concluded that the shear
stress ratio (q/p)
max
, increases as the consolidation stress ratio
' '
a c
K o o = decreases based on
high-precision automated CD/CU triaxial compression and extension tests performed on high-
quality undisturbed samples of various natural soft to very stiff clays, related to prediction of
ground displacement in actual construction projects. For control purposes, commercially
produced Kaolin which contains appreciable quantities of mica and quartz was also used.
Their study also confirmed that the shearing stress ratio at failure K
f
is a function of the initial
consolidation stress ratio and that it decreased proportionally with decreasing K
c
parameters.
Furthermore, having characterized the effects of loading rate into a generalized state, a
method of unifying the behaviour of anisotropically consolidated clay into a coherent form was
considered. A k-function which relates the | determined from various tests performed by
applying different CSRs was defined as k=|/
qm.
This relationship was found to be virtually
constant and related closely to a reference line considered to be analogous to a modified CSL
(i.e.,| constant when K
c
= 1). In order to compute |, a relation between the invariant stress
ratio (A
SR
) and the angle of internal friction was derived from linear regressional analysis of
experimental data on various clays. Based on the foregoing fundamental theories, versatile
functions and parameters related to the concepts of loading rate, SHANSEP consolidation,

ageing and reconstitution that can be applied effectively during multi -stage construction of
geostructures such as deep excavations, tunnels, embankments and foundations, precise
determination of bearing capacity factors, numerical modelling and prediction of ground and
foundation behaviour, as well as the overall enhancement of engineering parameters.

4.2 Derivation of Application Functions
The derivation of the CSSR application functions are presented in Mukabi (2007c).

4.3 Application of CSSR Functions in simulating Field Conditions
4.3.1 Functions and parameters based on SHANSEP consolidation
As was discussed by Mukabi and Tatsuoka (1999a and 1999b) and Mukabi (2001d), the
intact specimen exhibits much more superior engineering properties in comparison to the
specimens reconsolidated applying the SHANSEP method. It was also derived that the higher
the stress level of the consolidation stress ratio q
c
=(q
c
/p
c
), the more the structure is destroyed
through remoulding. This implies that specimens reconsolidated by applying the SHANSEP
method can not be representative or correctly simulate the in-situ conditions. Consequently,
correction factors have to be applied on the parameters determined adopting such a method .
Based on the concepts of consolidation and shear stress ratio functions, the following
correlations for q
max,
p
f
and |
f
were derived for these purposes.

NCS
OCS
NCS
NCS
c
OCS
c NCS
NCS
OCS
CSR A K
q K
q
max
max
0
max 0
max
'
v
v
o
o
|
q
q
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
- -
|
|
.
|
\
|
-
=
(4.1)
NCS
c
OCS
c
NCS
NCS
c
OCS
c NCS
NCS
f
NCS
OCS
f
P
p
CSR A K
p K
p
'
'
'
'
'
0
0
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
- -
|
|
.
|
\
|
-
=
|
q
q
(4.2)
(
(
- -
|
|
.
|
\
|
-
=
NCS
NCS
c
OCS
c NCS
NCS
f
NCS
OCS
f
CSR A K
K
' 0
0
'
'
|
q
q
|
|
(4.3)

where, subscript f denotes failure, superscript OCS and NCS denote Over Consolidated and
Normally Consolidated under the SHANSEP method.

4.3.2 Functions and parameters related to the concept of ageing
Ageing is considered to constitute mainly of two components; namely secondary
consolidation associated with creep
( ) 0
'
= c c t
a
c
and thixotropy defined as a gain in strength at
constant water content. Creep is basically caused by a continuing re-arrangement of the soil
particles after the overburden pressure is fully supported by the soil skeleton, whereby the
excess pore pressure has dissipated. Kuhn and Mitchell (1993) proposed that creep
deformation is due to sliding between particles and that although the sliding is thought to occur
at solid contacts, it is visco-frictional in nature and the sliding velocity at each contact depends
on the ratio of tangential to normal components of contact force. Whether the creep strains in
triaxial tests accelerate or not depends principally on the magnitude of the deviator stress
compared to the strength or compressibility of the sample. Mitchell (1976) proposed the
following general creep equation:

(4.3)

( )
m
r
R a
t t Ae
dt
d
/
o
c
=
(4.4)
( ) t l Ae
n
R
a a
o
o
c c =
(4.5)
( )
0
/ t t l C
n a o
c = A
(4.6)
( ) ( ) (
(
- - A A
=
STC
n
STC
fc a
STC
STC
LTC
f
CSR A t t t K
K
' / 1 /
'
0 0
0
| c
|
(4.9)
where R=q
t
/q
f
delineates the deviator stress level, t
r
is a reference
time and A and o are solid constant parameters. When m=1 the
strain rate continues to decrease with time, while the strain rate accelerates towards failure
when m<1. Considering m=1 and integrating Equation 26 with c
a =
c
a o
at t = 1 then,

is obtained. This is similar to the expression,

representative of a one dimensional creep.
Mukabi (1995), Mukabi and Tatsuoka, (1999a) reported results on the effects of ageing in
reconsolidation on deformation characteristics of various natural clays. The comprehensive
research showed that time plays an important role in the stress-strain time history of clays.
Furthermore, it was also shown that only the laboratory G
max
values extrapolated by an ageing
period of about 20 years were comparable with the field values G
f

Based on comprehensive analysis of such results and considering that creep, which is
predominantly associated with secondary consolidation, contributes more significantly to the
strength development of clay in comparison to thixrotropy and further assuming that Ac
a
is
purely a function of consolidation properties, then the following generalized relations were
derived which can simulate long term consolidation effects from laboratory tests conducted on
the basis of short term consolidation.
( ) | |
STC
n
STC
STC STC
LTC
CSR A t t K
q K
q
-
-
=
' / 1
0 0
max 0
max
|
(4.7)

while,
( ) | |
STC
LTC
STC
n
STC
STC
f
STC
LTC
f
q
q
CSR A t t K
p K
P
max
max
0 0
0
' / 1
'
'
- -
-
=
|
(4.8)
and

where superscript LTC and STC denote long term and
short term consolidation respectively whereas t : LTC
time and t
o
: STC time., for OC conditions
(Ac
a
/At)
fc
STC
=1.
4.3.3 Functions and parameters of reconstituted clays
The adverse effects of reconstitution of clays was briefly discussed in the preceding section
4.3.2 of this paper.
From the analysis of various data based on the concepts of consolidation and shear stress
ratio, the following correlations that can be useful in computing q
max,
p
f
and |
f
from CUTC
tests on reconstituted clays were derived.
( )
( ) ( )
R R
e
R
cf
R
f e c
R
e
I
e
CSR A K
p q
p
q
- -
- -
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
q /
max
(4.10)
( )
( ) ( )
R R
e
R
cf
R
f e c
R
e
I
e
CSR A K
p p
p
p
- -
- -
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
q /
(4.11)

and


( ) | | ( )
1
/

- - -
- -
=
f
e
R R
e
R
cf
R
c
R
e I
p q CSR A K
f
f
|
| q
|
(4.12)

Fig.4.3-Effect of OCR and LTC on elastic strain
q q
c q B A
SR
a n
+ = 1
max
(4.13)
q q
c
c
e B A
RSR
a
ASR
a
n SR
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
(4.14)
where superscripts I and R denote intact and
reconstituted respectively and
R
c
=(q/p)
f
R
,
q
c
=(q/p)
c,
and K
R
cf
= (o
r
/o
a
)
R
ec.

4.4 Application of Consolidation and Shear
Stress Ratio (CSSR) Functions in Estimating
and/or Predicting Consolidation Stress
History
Discussions from the preceding sections of this
paper as well as Fig.4.1~4.3 clearly demonstrate
the importance of predicting and/or retracing
(back-analyzing) the consolidation and shear
stress path and history of ground foundation or
geostructure subjected to loading or otherwise to
be
construc
ted.
For deep braced excavations in soft ground for
example, the movement of the soil surrounding an
excavation must be taken into account with due
consideration of the its interaction with the retaining
system or structure. The application of CSSR
concepts in undertaking such estimation or in F.E
analysis and other constitutive models is one of the
methods that can be effective and appreciably precise.
Due to the underestimation of the elastic modulus
mainly due
to sample disturbance for example, most prediction
overestimates the lateral movement. Since CSSR
concepts can be applied in simulating the actual
ground and field conditions to an appreciable level
of accuracy, this problem can be circumvented.
In Kenya, Ethiopia and Southern Sudan, the
concepts have been successfully applied in the
design and construction of various geostructures
Including deep braced excavations, pad
foundations, embankments, slope stability and
pavement structures. Various practical examples of such application have also been given in
other publications by Mukabi et al. in this Conference.
A discussion regarding the back analysis of distressed pavement deformation history has
been made by Mukabi et al. (2007h).

4.5 Application of CSSR Functions during Multi-stage Construction
4.5.1 Functions and parameters related to the concept of loading rate
Due to the importance of incorporating the analysis of the effects of loading on foundations
and embankments of clayey geomaterials during modelling and design, Mukabi and Tatsuoka
(1999b) developed a relation between the stress ratio at failure q
max
(q/p
m
) and axial strain
rate (c
a
) expressed in a generalized state as:
where constants A
qI
and B
q
were determined as A
q
A
=
0.037, B
q
A
= 0.858 and A
I
q
=0.043, B
q
I
=0.76
(Superscripts denote; A: Anistopic; I: Isotropic; SR: Strain Rate). Based on

Fig.4.1-Stress paths during loading and unloading

Fig.4.2-Emax OCR relations(D70-3)

RSR ASR
max
1
max
q e q - =

(4.15)

( )
( )
( ) { }
(%)
max
50
A
ij
a
ij
ELS
ij
a ij
ELS a
+
=
c |
c
c
(4.16)
, | x
E
E
ELS
)
`
=
max
50
, (4.17)
comprehensive analysis of various clays subjected to different axial strain rates and also
applying Equation 35, the following co-relations were derived:-

(4.14)

and

where e
SR
is a strain rate function and superscripts ASR
and RSR denote Applied Strain Rate and Reference
Strain Rate respectively.

4.5.2 Application of the Elastic Limit Strain
As can be derived from the preceding discussions, the determination of the linear elastic
range of geomaterials defined as the region of the initial yield surface within which the
behaviour of the geomaterial is virtually linear elastic and recoverable, is of paramount
importance for various reasons. Consequently, based on long-term research undertaken
since 1991, Mukabi (1995) proposed the following equation expressing the Elastic Limit Strain
for estimating the linear elastic range.
Where
ESL
|
is a function of the level of
max
) (
a
c
and A is a
constant depending on the physical properties of the
geomaterial.
For most clays
|
is defined as,
Based on empirical relations for most clayey geomaterials, A =
603 and = 462 are good estimates as constants where the curve
is considered to be positive in all quadrants.
The theory of the Elastic Limit Strain has since been
applied in the control of loading imposition during
staging construction and excavation particularly when
dealing with soft and problematic soils in the eastern
Africa region.
Figs. 4.4-4.6 are a demonstration of how this theory
can be applied in combination with the CSSR concept
on stress path, in monitoring the behaviour of
geostructures in the field under various loading and
unloading conditions.

Fig.4.4 Stress states for DC1 specimens

Fig.4.5-Effect of pressure level on elastic limit strain

Fig.4.6-Effect of pressure level on elastic
limit strain (DC1-4)

Table 5.1 Summary of results calculated using proposed equations

5. NECESSITY TO RECONSIDER SOME ASPECTS OF CRITICAL STATE SOIL
MECHANICS
The existing theories that define lateral pressures, under the framework of classical soil
mechanics assume that failure for normally consolidated clayey geomaterials occurs at the
Critical State Line (CSL) irrespective of drain condition, loading rate and stress path traversed
towards the CSL.
On the other hand Critical State Soil Mechanics has been developed on the basis of Rendulics
generalized principle of effective stress which states that for a soil in an initial state of stress
and stress history there exists a unique relationship between voids ratio (e) and effective
stress for changes in stress, (a,' or p'). Most of the existing theories for deformation and
strength characteristics of clays therefore assume this principle. Within this context, it is
presumed that for a given normally consolidated clay, failure occurs at a unique line called the
Critical State Line (CSL) defined by q=Mp', without allowing the stress paths to locate above it
at all stages irrespective of drain conditions,
strain rate and stress path traversed towards
the CSL. Most finite element based
analytical tools and simulation of such cases
as multi-stage embankment design and
construction widely employ Critical State
models. While studying the influence of
initial shear on undrained behaviour of
normally consolidated kaolin, Ampadu (1988)
concluded that the existing theory of Critical
State Soil Mechanics alone cannot
adequately explain the differences in
behaviour between isotropically and
anisotropically consolidated samples of the
kaolin tested. It has also been reported by various researchers that the shapes and
magnitudes of yield envelopes are influenced mainly by the composition, anisotropy and
stress history of the clay features which have been inadequately modelled on the basis of the
Critical State Soil Mechanics theory. Rigorous examination however, of the behaviour of clay
that has been subjected through various stress ratios other than isotropic during consolidation
and the corresponding relations is yet a subject to be exhausted.

As can be seen from Fig.5.1, Mukabi and Tatsuoka (199b) proposed some modification of
certain aspects of the existing theory of Critical State Soil Mechanics.

Reference of the details on the background can be made from subsection 6.5.1 of this report.
The relationship of the function ( ) and , a function of the normalized angle of internal
friction ( ) in reference to that of developed from Fig. 6.87(a), is represented by a
linear equation in the

Figure 5.1 Proposed Modification of The CSSM Theory

Fig. 5.2(a) Effect of CSR on Angle of Internal friction

Fig. 5.2 (b) Effect of CSR on Angle of Internal friction

form , where and mean value in this case)
are constants. In normalizing, the was determined for the two
respective strain rates from the linear regression of the NC line of the semi -log plot of
shown in Fig. 5.2. The linear relation in Fig. 6.87(b) is virtually similar and shows no
dependency on the various strain rates . This suggests that this
equation uniquely relates and and may be applied in developing further mathematical
relations that may aid in redefining the basic parameters related to the without particular
reference to strain rates effects.

Fig. 5.3 Effects of CSR on k function
Fig. 5.4(a) CSR factor
Fig. 5.4(b) a measured a calculated relations
Fig. 5.5 (qmax) measured vs. (qmax) calculated
Fig. 5.6 (qmax) measured vs. (qmax) calculated

Fig.5.7 Comparison of Critical State Lines based on
calculated values compared to measured values

6. NECESSITY TO RECONSIDER SOME ASPECTS OF CONVENTIONAL DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
The importance of applying advanced and appropriate analytical design techniques can be
observed from Fig.6.1. Based on comprehensive research undertaken under JICA funding, it
was found that the equation proposed by the Asphalt Institute tends to over-estimate the
structural capacity of the existing pavement structure as a result of the lack of considering
various factors related to environmental and structural depreciation with time, as input
parameters in the equation. Based on elastic moduli results from advanced testing of various
geomaterials and by applying environmental and structural depreciation components as
integral in-put parameters that would characterize the elastic behaviour of the respective
geomaterial, Mukabi (2000) proposed the modified equation expressed in Equation 6.1.

OVERLAY DESIGNS (Discrepancy of AAI Equation)
Convetional Approach Recently Developed Approach
Mr
CBR
= 10.3 CBR d (MPa)
t'AC AC t
2
AC
t'BC BC
t
2
BC
t'SB SB t
2
SB
Note
AC = Asphalt Concrete t'AC = t
2
AC
BC = Base Course t'BC < t
2
BC
SB = Subbase t'SB < t
2
SB
(proposed by the Asphalt Institute)
( ) ( )
(
A
+
=
Mr CBR
nMr
CBR
nMr
Mr
A
CBR
Mr
Cor
Mr
l l
38 . 0
ln 5 . 97
RECONSTRUCTION DESIGNS (Anomaly in Appling E50 Equation)
Conventional Approach Recently Developed Approach with example
Where,
and
t
3
AC t
4
AC
: Reference strength i denotes trial section No. and
j denotes layer No. Applying equation (2.1) t
4
BC
t
3
BC
t
3
SB t
4
SB
t
3
AC = t
4
AC
t
3
BC > t
4
BC
t
3
SB > t
4
SB
(conventional)
( )
50 50 a
C E c = ) / ( 139
2 0782 . 0
max
cm kgf xe xm E
u q
sc
SC
dg
ij
o =
78 . 0 ) 1 ( 89 . 1
42 . 0
= =
u
SC
dg
q o
2 ) 1 (
/ 3 . 3 ; 85 . 0 ) ( cm kgf q q q m
R
q
R u SC
u
= = =

Figure 6.1 Proposed Method of Estimating Resilient Modulus

( ) ( ) ( ) 775 . 0 623 . 0 0012 . 0 10 2
2
6
3
+ =
CBR CBR CBR cor
r
Mr Mr x Mr x M (6.1)

where,
CBR
Mr = 10.3xCBR proposed by the Asphalt Institute for the Full-Depth overlay design method.

Results from Case Study Analysis undertaken for road projects designed by applying the
proposed method indicate that substantial cost savings can be realized relative to the design
life of the road pavement structure.

7. MUKABIS THEORY OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES
Based on the foregoing concepts, Mukabi (2008d) modified the lateral earth pressure
equations as subsequently defined.

- Active Pressure for smooth surfaces
For cases assuming no friction is exhibited between the soil and the retaining structure,
(7.1)
where,
(7.2)

and,

(7.3)

- Passive Pressure for smooth surfaces
The expressions for passive pressure assuming a retaining structure with a smooth surface.
(7.4)

where,
(7.5)

- Active Thrust for frictional surfaces
In cases where friction between the soil and retaining structure is considered, the following
equations may be applied.
(7.6)

where,
(7.7)

- Passive thrust for frictional surfaces
The passive thrust is computed as follows under the framework of the modified theory.
(7.8)

where,
(7.9)

8. SOME RECENTLY DEVELOPED RESEARCH AND DEVELOMENT (R&D)
TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENHANCING GEOMATERIAL PROPERTIES
8.1 Problematic Soils
8.1.1 Rerap Methods

( ) ( ) | |
| |
P
d P d P P
b
P
D N
CBR C CBR B A t
/ log
log log
2
+ =
(8.4)
| |
5 . 0
/ / 1
e d
CBR
SP
e S
o
=
(8.3)
( )
cn
e e e
M LL
V C B
e e
e A

= o
(8.5)

Fig. 8.2 Quality Control normograph

Determination of appropriate counter-measures 1) Replacement Method - Tables 2 and 3 as
well as Figs. 8.1 and 8.2 show the design and QC criteria developed on the basis of research
and adopted for the construction of the Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion Trunk Road Project. In
determining the necessary thickness t
CL
to replace the expansive soil, the following equations
proposed in this study were adopted.
{ }
SP
b
p P CL
xS t T t =

The total pavement thickness T
P
is expressed as:
v f
b
P P
t xR t T + =

And the coefficient of subgrade structural performance S
SP
is computed from:
On the other hand, the basic pavement thickness t
P
b
from Eq.
(3.10) is computed from the following equation.

Where the roughness factor ( ) | |
25 . 0
2
i t i f
R R R R = : R
i
is
the initial roughness factor and R
t
is the terminal
roughness factor, t
V
is the positive value of the
specified tolerance for pavement thickness, A
P
=219, B
P
=211, C
P
=58 and D
P
=120. The
parameter o
e
is defined as:
where A
e
=0.23, B
e
=0.54, C
e
=0.08 are constants and
V
e
=Annual Average Evapotranspiration in m/year (ref. to
Mukabi et al. (2003c), LL=liquid Limit in percentage and
M
cn
=Natural Moisture Content of the subgrade material expressed in percentage form. All
thickness are calculated in mm. Continuous assessment and evaluation of the performance of
the sections already constructed by adopting this criteria indicates that the method has so far
been quite successful.
Table 8.1 - Determining Required Capping Layer Thickness (cm)
Notes
+ Where the results are on the Boundary Limit or
within its vicinity, the Criteria of Clay Activity
(Ac) expressed as Ac = 3.6R
-2.35
(R=LL/PI) may
be adopted or otherwise as directed by the
Consultant. For example, should the PI > 45
and Sm < 10, if Ac <1.0 then option B may be

Fig.8.1 - BRI Vs. Voids Ratio
Voids ratio e reduces as Batching
Ratio Index tends to an Optimum
Value. This increase shear
Modulus i.e.,
Gmax =m(a).m.(Am-e)
2
/(1+e.(0)
m

(8.1)
(8.2)

C
o
d
i
n
g

O
p
t
i
o
n

Plasticity and
Swell
Condition
Required
Thickness for
Different
Subgrade Bearing
Capacity
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

S
w
e
l
l

(
%
)

S
m

C
B
R

=

1

C
B
R

=

2

C
B
R

=

3

C
B
R

=

4

4
<
C
B
R
<
7

A PI>45 S
m
>10 140 90 70 60 30
B 35<PI<45 S
m
<10 110 75 60 50 20
C PI<35 S
m
<5 70 65 55 50 20
Table 8.2 - Determining Required Capping Layer Thickness
CBR of
Imported
material
Required Thickness for Different Native
Subgrade Bearing Capacity (cm) for RE 1
Type
Required Thickness for Different
Native Subgrade Bearing Capacity
(cm) RE2 Type
CBR = 1 CBR = 2 CBR = 3 CBR = 4 CBR = 5 CBR = 6 CBR = 7
15 70 65 55 50 40 30 20
20 60 55 45 40 30 25 20
25 55 45 40 35 25 20 15
30 50 40 35 30 20 15 10
40 45 35 30 25 15 10 10
50 40 30 25 20 10 10 10
60 35 25 20 15 10 10 10

Fig.8.3 - Layer thickness (1<CBR
d
<4) Fig.8.4 - (4<CBR
d
<8)
8.1.2 MC Technique
The importance of moisture control is clearly
demonstrated in the preceding Figures 8.3 and
8.4, which are nomographs that depict the
influence of moisture~suction variation on the
bearing strength of varying geomaterials. The
variation in the nature of geomaterials is
simulating through the application of varying
plasticity characteristiccs and magnitudes. The
inset equations also indicate that the modulus
of deformation or deformation resistance is

Fig.8.5 - Free swell soaking

susceptible to moisture~suction variations, a fact that has also been discussed in Section 4 as
well as the preceding sections of this section. The ongoing research or this subject intends to
develop a technique of controlling the moisture content of a subgrade of an expansive nature
by systematically and technically imbedding sand columns in predetermined areas or zones.
Figures 8.5 ~ 8.6 present part of the preliminary results that have been obtained in the initial
stages of testing. Although definite conclusions can not be derived from these results yet, the
trends exhibited from these graphs are distinctly clear. In other words, i mbedment of sand
interface layers seams to be effective in reducing swell and increasing the bearing capacity
notwithstanding the magnitude of the surcharge pressure.
8.1.3 Suction Stress Method
Research for purposes of developing this method is
still in the initial stages. The basic idea is to develop
a technique of constructing a subsurface drainage
layer underlain by a layer compacted to a higher
degree in order to induce high but varying suction
stresses. The layer is intended to facilitate in
directing any excess moisture away from the
pavement structure. Reference can be made to
Mukabi (2004a). Fig.8.7 and 8.8 are a
representation of how this technique was used by
incorporating a suction stress column in the design
of an OPMC Stabilized retaining wall and
maintenance along the Addis Ababa ~ Debre
Markos International Trunk Road, the all important
northern corridor that connects Sudan and Eritrea.

Fig.8.7 - Use of a Suction Column for OPMC Stabilized Retaining Wall.

Fig.8.6 Soaking period for CBR

t
A
BC
=15cm
t
A
f
=12.5cm
t
B
f
=20cm
Natural Gravel Boulders
Filter Course
Crushed Aggregate
Filter Course 0~40 only
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
Asphalt Concrete
Constructed to Specifications
Carriageway
Shoulder
Stepped & Compacted to higher degree
to achieve high suction stresses
Subgrade
10cm 25cm 75cm
t
A
S
=7.5cm
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
t
A
f
=7.5cm
t
A
f2
=7.5cm

Fig.8.8 Suction-stress method
8.2 Development and Application of Optimum Batching Ratio Method (OBRM) and
Optimum Mechanical and Chemical Stabilization (OPMC) Techniques
8.2.1 Basis for Development of OBRM and OPMC Techniques
The necessity to develop the Optimum Batching Ratio Method (OBRM) Optimum Mechanical
and Chemical Stabilization (OPMC) prevailed due to the prevalence of the 1997~1998 El-Nino
floods coupled with the lack of suitable road construction materials along the B3 Malindi -
Garissa Trunk Road. Details can be referenced from Mukabi et al (2003d) and Mukabi et al
(1997).
1. Upon undertaking Case Study Analysis and analytical review of the post-El-Nino
hydrological conditions, it was realized that additional hydraulic structures such as
bridges and major culverts of appreciable dimensions would be necessary. These
structures would necessitate additional funding totalling to almost 30-40% of the total
Project cost. However, the economic and financial analysis revealed that investment of
such magnitude would not be cost beneficial. Consequently, a cost reduction plan was
embarked upon.
2. In order to reduce the costs, a plan to design and construct bridge approach abutments
out of high reinforced soil embankments and reciprocal protection works, was proposed.
Nevertheless, due to the non-availability of suitable geomaterials within the project area
the preliminary design revealed the cost of reinforcement and protection material would
be quite high due to the additional strength and stability required.

Fig. 8.9 Mode of Characterizing Particle Motion

Important factor
Objective of study

Develop a method of determining
optimum Mixing ratios for geomaterials
with different grading characteristics in
order to achieve;

Better Compaction characteristics
Greater resistance to wear
Enhanced resilience properties
(c)
(e)
(d)
(f) (h) (g)
(a)
(b)

Fig. 8.10 Theoretical and Engineering basis presented at the 14
th
IRF World Road Congress,
Paris 2001
Fig. 8.11 Mechanical Stabilization Effects

Fig. 8.12 Graphical Representation of Proposed Batching
Ratio Method
Fig. 8.13 Proposed Optimum Batching Ratio
Method
Fig. 8.14 Effect of OPMC on Strength and
Deformation Resistance
Fig. 8.15 OPMC Stabilization Technique

8.2.2 Application of OBRM and OPMC Techniques in Reducing Cost and Environmental
Impact of Rural Road Construction include:
Some of the aspects that were considered
Application Of A New Mechanical Stabilization And Other Techniques In Reducing The Cost
And Impact Of Rural Road Construction
The major objectives of undertaking this Study included:
- Reduced volume of materials used by 40%
- Sustained dust reduction
- Cost-effective
- Environmental friendly
- Less disturbance of land for borrow pits
- Reduced amounts of disposable soil during construction
- Enhancement of engineering properties of geomaterials
- Reduced risk of collapse of civil engineering structures.
- Enhancement of disaster avoidance and management
The Study undertook comprehensive appraisals and environmental assessments that would
lead to sustainable development with minimal negative environmental impacts.
A summary of the approach, considerations and contribution of OBRM and OPMC from a
geotechnical engineering perspective are summarized in Figs. 8.20 to 8.28.

Fig. 8.20 Example of Negative Impacts of Rural Road Transport Infrastructure
on Ecology and Wildlife in Eastern Africa
Fig. 8.19 Quality Control Normograph

Fig. 8.21 Transport sector in industrialization and economic activities
Fig. 8.22 Road system effects on individual
animals and the wildlife population
Fig. 8.23 (a) Example of positive impacts of
rural road transport infrastructure on socio-
economic development in Eastern Africa
Fig. 8.23 (b) Example of positive impacts of
rural road transport infrastructure on socio-
economic development in E. Africa
Fig. 8.23 (c) Improved Livestock Health and
Markets

Fig. 8.24 Importance of enhanced Research and
development
Fig. 8.25 Application of SA&SEA using Technology and
Techniques for Environment Impact
Fig. 8.26 OPMC: Drastic Reduction of Volume of Materials

8.3 Strength and Deformation Characteristics of
OPMC Stabilized Geomaterials and Geogrids
Interaction
The fundamental concept of incorporating geogrids
for purposes of stabilizing and/or reinforcing soils is
illustrated in Figs. 8.29 to 8.30.

Fig. 8.27 some vital aspects of OPMC
Fig. 8.29 (c) Fundamental Concept of incorporating
Geogrids
Fig. 8.29(a) Fundamental Concept of
incorporating Geogrids
Fig. 8.29 (b) Fundamental Concept of
incorporating Geogrids

Fig. 8.28 Construction Planning based on
Comprehensive Research and Technology

Fig. 8.30 Effect of Interlocking and Grid Apertures

Fig. 8.32 Drawing to illustrate inclusion of Tensar Geogrid.
Geogrid was placed at 1/3 the height of the sample as shown

Fig. 8.32 shows a schematic drawing illustrating the placement of the geogrids, while Figs.
8.33 and 8.34 depict the post-failure states of the specimens with OPMC and geogrid
compared to OMC alone for varying geomaterials and positioning of the geogrids.
The fact that the geogrids contribute largely to the tensile stresses and tensile strain
resistance while OPMC contributes immensely to compressive stresses and compressive
strain resistance can be clearly derived from these figures.

Fig. 8.34 (a) and Fig. 8.34(b) Comparison of Geogrid and OPMC effects for varying
Geomaterials and Modes of Stabilization and/or Reinforcement

Some of the typical results determined from this study are presented in Figs. 8.35 to 8.40.
The fact that both OPMC Stabilization Technique and the application of geogrids greatly
enhances the performance of geomaterials by increasing their strength, bearing capacity and
deformation resistance can be clearly seen from these figures as well as Figs. 10.1~10.3
under section 10.

Fig. 8.35 Effects of Various Geosynthetic Locations and OPMC Stabilization on Axial Stress
Fig. 8.36 Effects of Various Geosynthetic Locations and OPMC Stabilization on E
max


9. APPLICATION OF SOME NEWLY PROPOSED QUALITY CONTROL METHODS
Measured and field data collection would certainly serve no purpose if appreciable accuracy and
confidence levels are not achieved. Accurate and precise definition of the boundary limits of
specification control can prove to be costly if they are not properly considered or tailored for a specific
project.

The basic principles of some of the main quality control methods developed by Mukabi (2001a) and
Mukabi et al. (2003) previously on other projects modified to suit the design and construction
specification requirements for various Projects are introduced by Mukabi (2005a). Research on various
other QC methodologies is still on-going.

10 ANALYSES AND PREDICTION OF STRUCTURAL CAPACITY OF PAVEMENT
STRUCTURE
The basic objectives of undertaking this Study were to develop formulae that would enable the
prediction of structural capacity of any pavement structure notwithstanding type and
configuration at any particular time mainly for maintenance purposes (also refer to section 11
in this paper).

Fig. 8.37 Effects of Various Geosynthetic Locations and OPMC Stabilization on Elastic Limit Strain
Fig. 8.38 Effects of Various Geosynthetic Locations and OPMC Stabilization on Angle of Internal
Resistance
Fig. 8.39 Effects of Various Geosynthetic Locations and OPMC Stabilization on E
a
(
ELS
)

( )
1
5 . 1
log

=
t
e
SC
t
SC
N x f f (10.2)
It is imperative, when undertaking the evaluation of the structural capacity of flexible-pavement
structures, to consider factors such as subgrade characteristics, pavement layer strength and
conditions, load and traffic parameters, environmental conditions

1) Initial Structural Capacity
Some of the major factors that affect the status or condition of a pavement structure include the
Relative Damaging Effect (RD
eff
.) introduced by Mukabi (2002c), which is related to the ESAL, variation
in quality of materials prompted by environmental factors, deterioration in pavement layer thickness
through loss of aggregates and infiltration of inferior lower quality materials into the upper layers of the
pavement structure.

As proposed by Mukabi (2002c), the concept of remaining life can be transposed or defined in terms of
the existing structural capacity by application of the following equation.

Where
Re
SC
f represents the existing structural capacity,
RL
f = Remaining Life Factor,
Re
SC
f = Structural
Capacity Factor of a newly constructed or reconstructed pavement structure in which case
Re
SC
f =1
and
. eff
RD = 0.298 is the damaging factor while
rf
A = defines contribution of a multitude of factors
affecting the magnitude of the damaging effect.

2) Deterioration in Structural Capacity with Time
Some of the major factors that contribute to the deficiency of the structural capacity and serviceability
level with time of an existing pavement structure were mentioned in the preceding sections. This
deterioration with time is known to grossly affect the performance of a highway pavement structure.

The deterioration with time of the structural capacity factor
t
SC
f after N
t
= 2.2 year can be defined by
Equation 44 below proposed by Mukabi (2002c).

Given that N
t
> 2.2 years and applying the above equations,
the deterioration with time, of the structural capacity of a road
in Ethiopia with varying AC thicknesses, was computed.

Further basic formulae developed and adopted are presented below, while Figs. 10.1~10.3
depict some of the results derived through the adoption of theses formulae.

11. PROPOSED METHOD
OF DETEMINING PERIOD
AND LEVEL OF
MAINTENANCE
Effective maintenance is a
prerequisite in realizing an
efficient road network in any
country. In order to achieve an
effective road maintenance
system, it is imperative that the
anomaly between the actual
needs and available resources
for road maintenance is resolved
and subsequent implementation
of appropriate measures
undertaken accordingly. For
| |
rf eff SC RL
e
SC
x RD f f f A = =
.
Re
(10.1)

Fig.11.1 Approach To Realize An Effective Road Maintenance System

| |
v
ms e c i df c
te P P t f R o | A A c = , , , , , (11.1)
| |
o
ij yi
oc
f
oc
f
oc
f dh
f q p f o | | c , , ' , , ' , ' , ' E = (11.2)
purposes of achieving this, it is imperative that plausible road maintenance sceneries are constructed
objected towards assessing the existence and magnitude of the need gap in order to draw up
proposals that are both comprehensive and pragmatic in nature to integrate the relevant road
maintenance components. This is demonstrated in Figure 11.1.

The following facts can be derived
from Fig.11.2.

1. Traffic loading conditions
and environmental factors
reciprocally influence each
other with time.
2. As the pavement structure
deteriorates due to loading,
the impact of
environmental factors
becomes greater
3. Road surface type has
direct influence on both the
structural capacity and
serviceability level of a
road.

11.1 Choice of Effective Method
of Analysis
(1) Theories And/Or
Concepts
Considered
The choice of an effective analytical method depends predominantly on the choice of the backbone
engineering theories, principles and concepts and the extent to which they translate to pragmatic
application. For these purposes, the theories and concepts applied are based on fundamental
theories, principles and concepts introduced by Mukabi (2002c).

The generalized equation of the existing road conditions can be expressed as a function of loading
conditions, pavement type (structurally), pavement layer quality, structural thickness as well as intrinsic
material properties depicted in Equation 11.1.
Where,
c
R = road condition,
df
| = dynamic load factor,
i
t c =
response mode factor of layer of the pavement structure,
c
P = pavement configuration,
e
P = pavement
layer quality,
e
t A = structural thickness,
v
ms
o A = parameter delineating moisture suction variation

On the other hand, the extent of distress of deformation can be derived based on the theories
introduced in the preceding sections applied for carrying out back analysis of the deformation history of
a distressed pavement structure. In a generalized state, this can be expressed as shown in Equation
45.
where,
dh
c = parameter delineating deformation
history ' | = consolidation stress ratio, ' = modifier between Isotropic and Anisotropic stress paths,
oc
f
oc
f
q p , ' = invariant stress under over consolidation conditions,
,
f
| = Angle of Internal Friction within the
failure zone

Fig.11.2 Major Factors Influencing Road Conditions and their Reciprocal Interaction

Details of the mathematical computation of these parameters are presented by Mukabi (2007e).

(2) Proposed Method of Determining Appropriate Maintenance Schedule
The proposed approach of evaluating the structural capacity of a pavement structure under section 10
has been applied as an effective method of determining the maintenance works and the respective
levels of maintenance required.
The three serviceability and structural capacity characteristic curves depicted in Fig.11.3, which proved
to be quite precise, were applied in determining the appropriate maintenance schedule and level for a
road in Ethiopia. Application of this method realized appreciable maintenance cost savings on long
term basis.
Mukabi (2005) presents more details on this subject matter.

Fig. 11.3 Depiction of Determining Period and Level of Maintenance

12. PROPOSED MODE OF EMHANCING RESEARCH AND DEVELOMENT (R&D)
Fig. below is a depiction of the importance of upholding a three-tier system in developing
pragmatic maintenance policies and effective management techniques, standards and design
engineering of road infrastructure assets for ensuring appropriate and sustainable
development. The practical maintenance techniques are presented in section 3 of this paper.

Maintenance
Policy
Applicationof
Appropriate
Technology
Contractual &
Implementation
Policy
Private
Sector
Academic
Institution
Government
Institutions
Achievement of a
pragmatic andAdvanced
RoadSector
ImplementationPolicy
Maintenance
Policy
Applicationof
Appropriate
Technology
Contractual &
Implementation
Policy
Private
Sector
Academic
Institution
Government
Institutions
Government
Institutions
Achievement of a
pragmatic andAdvanced
RoadSector
ImplementationPolicy

Fig. 12.1 Essence of the Three-tier System in Achieving Appropriate Maintenance Policy
Making

Examples of Capacity Building Programs developed within this Region (Particularly Ethiopia)
Young Engineers Programmes for Public, Private and Academic Institutions
Technology Transfer for Engineers
Direct technology Transfer During Construction
Sponsored Programmes for Overseas Studies
Technical Training Programmes for Technicians
Direct technology Transfer During Construction
Sponsored Programmes for Overseas Studies
Expansion of Capacity Building Institutes

13. ONGOING RESEARCH
Currently the ongoing research is mostly related to the following topics.
Other Topics in Relation to the New Technologies Incorporating Tensar and OPMC
- Research Related to Black Cotton or Expansive Soil
- Research Related to Intrusion of Underlying Material
- Research Related To Temperature in Seasonal Cycle Effects on The Bearing Capacity and
Resilient Properties
- Research Related to NDT/DT Testing for Evaluation of the Existing Condition of a Flexible
Pavement Structure
- Proposed Research Related to Consolidation and Shear Stress Functions for Foundation
Design and Construction
- Proposed Research to Relate Road Surface Distress Condition and Deformation and Failure


CONCLUSIONS
Comprehensive testing and analytical methods were employed in this Study in order to realize
the most Value Engineering based solution for the pavement structure of the Juba River Port
Access Road in Juba Town, Central Equatoria State of Southern Sudan.
From both the laboratory and field tests results analyzed and discussed in Chapter 5
and summarized in Chapter 7 of the Engineering Report No. SST1 of May 2007, it can be
concluded that the design proposed in this Engineering Report is adequate for the project
pavement structure provided that the construction is undertaken in accordance with the
Standard, Technical, and Particular Specifications as well as the stipulations in the Method of
Construction.
Furthermore, in all the cases considered, and as can also be observed from the
concluding tables and figures presented in the various chapters, it was derived that the
Optimum Mechanical and Chemical (OPMC) stabilizing method was effective in enhancing the
vital engineering properties of the geomaterials adopted as well as the composite pavement
structure. Fundamentally, this method was quite effective in;

1. Retaining a substantial proportion of their strength even with increased
saturation levels.
2. Reducing tremendously the surface deflection of the layers under loading.
3. Increasing resistance to erosion due to the scouring effect of water flow.
4. Increasing resistance to contamination by materials in underlying or
supporting layers that are not stabilized.
5. Increasing the effective elastic moduli of the composite pavement structure.
6. Realizing an acceptable cost-effective design.

The OPMC stabilization technique, developed on the basis of a new approach, was
determined to be the most cost-effective and value engineering based method in respect to all
prevalent conditions considered. It is envisaged to be an interesting structure in terms of Case
Study Analysis and Research for further development as an effective countermeasure for
landslides, foundations, slope stability, embankment and pavement structure design and
construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is highly indebted to the contributions of Professor Fumio Tatsuoka and the
University of Tokyo. Sincere appreciation is also expressed to the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank of International Cooperation (JBIC), Construction
Project Consultants Inc., Kajima Corporation and Kajima Foundation for funding the
subsequent part of the study conducted in Africa. The paper would certainly not have been
completed without the crucial support of Ms. Piera Cesaroni, and the input of Sylvester
Kotheki, Kenneth Wambugu, Ms. Zekal Ketsella, Joram Okado, Paul Kinyanjui, Bryan Otieno,
Walter Okello, and Mr. Anthony Ngigi. It is also important to mention the cooperation and
assistance extended by the Ethiopian Roads Authority as well as the Ministry of Roads, Public
Works and Housing, Kenya.

MAIN REFRENCES
Ampadu, S.K (1988): The influence of initial shear on undrained Behavior of normally consolidated Kaolin,
Master Thesis, University of Tokyo.
Bejerrum, L., 1993. Problems of soil mechanics and construction on soft clay and structurally unstable soils
(collapsible, expansive and other). In Proc. 8
th
Int. Conference on SMFE, Moscow. P111~159.
Blyth, F.G.H., & de Freitas M.H> (1998) A Geology for Engineers 7
th
Edition. Arnold, A member of Hodder
Headline Group LONDON. SYDNEY. AUCKLAND. Bulletin of Earthquake Resistant Structure Research

Centre No. 27 1994. dependence on Frequency of the Failure process of a slope Made up of Coarse
Particles. K. Konagai and T. Sato. Institute of Industrial Science University of Tokyo.
Burland, J.B. and Wroth, C.P., (1974) Review Paper: Settlement of buildings and associated damage, in
Proceeding of the Conference on Settlement of Structures, Pentech Press, Cambridge, 1974. pp.
611~654
Burland, J.B., Borroms, B.B., and De Mello, V., (1977) Behaviour of foundations and structures Proceedings of
the 9
th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics, Tokyo, 1977, Session 2
Burland, J.B (1990); On the compressibility and shear strength on clays and shades at constant water content,
Geotechnique, Vol. 2, PP,251.
Construction Project Consultant (1995). Tana Basin Road Development Project, Phase II Materials Report Vo. 3

Construction Project Consultant Inc., May, 2000, Hydrological Review and Analysis for Hydraulic Design of
Bridge and Major Culvert Structures and Determination of Areas of Protection, Volume I & II, Tana Basin
Road Project Phase II
Construction Project Consultant Inc., July, 2000 Engineering Report on the Design and Construction of
Reinforced Earth Embankments (The Terre Armee Method), Tana Basin Road Project Phase II.
Construction Project Consultant, 2001a. A Brief Report on the Computation of Capping Layer Thickness with
Reference to Native Subgrade Bearing Capacity, CPC Internal Report
Construction Project Consultants, 2001b. Analysis And Evaluation of the Structural Capacity and Serviceability
Level of the Existing Road Pavement (Phase III), CPC Internal Report
Construction Project Consultants, 2001c. Characterization of Black Cotton Soil as a Pavement Foundation
Material Based On Comprehensive Analysis (Stage 1), CPC Internal Report
CPC Consultants. Tana Basin Road Development Project, Phase II. Materials Report Vol. 3 Tatsuoka, F. &
Shibuya, S. Report of the institute of industrial science the University of Tokyo Vol. 37 No. (serial No.
235) (1992) Deformation Characteristics of soils and Rocks from Field and Laboratory Tests
Gidigasu. M.D. 1974a. Review of Identification of Problem Laterite Soils in Highway engineering, Transport
Research Board, Washington Recording, I, 497:96~111
Gidigasu. M.D. 1988. Potential application of engineering pedology in shallow foundation engineering on tropical
residual soils. In Geomechanics in Tropical Coils. Proc. of the II Intl Conference on Geomechanics in
Tropical Soils, Singapore, 1, 17~24.
Gono, k., Mukabi, J.N., Koishikawa, K., Hatekayama, R., Feleke G., Demoze W., Zelalem A., (2003a).
Characterization of Some Engineering Aspects of Black Cotton Soils as Pavement Foundation Materials,
to be published in the proceedings of the International Civil Engineering Conference on Sustainable
development in the 21st Century.
Hansen, J. Brinch, (1968) A revised extended formula for bearing capacity, Danish Geotechnical Institute Bulletin
No. 28 and code of Practice for Foundation Engineering Danish Geotechnical Institute Bulletin No. 32
(1978)
Hardin, B.O and Drnevich, V.P. (1972), Shear-modulus and damping in soils: measurement and parameter
effects, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM6:603-624
Horii, N., Toyosawa, Y. & Ampadu, S.K Undrained shear characteristics of soft clay after cyclic loading .pp.
113~118.Housner, G. W.: The Behavior of Inverted Pendulum Structures During Earthquakes, Bull. of
the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 403-417, 1963.
Honsen, J. Brinch, (1961) A general formula for bearing capacity, Danish Geotechnical Institute Bulletin No. 11
Imad L.Al-Qadi, Gerardo W. Flintsch, Amara Loulizi, Samer Lahouar & Walid M. Nassar Pavement
Instrumentation Responses at the Virginia Smart Road. IRF Road World Congress, Paris, June 2001.
Japan Road Bureau, Japan. 1993. In Road Design Manual, Vol. I (in Japanese).
Jardine, R.J. 1985. Investigations of pile-soil behaviour, with special reference to the foundation of offshore
structures. PhD Thesis, University of London.
JICA Study Team, 1999. The Study on Rural Roads Improvement In Western Kenya-Materials Testing Analyses
and Countermeasures for Design Purposes, Feasilibility Study by The Government of Japan And The
Government of Kenya. Jardine, R.J. (1995): One perspective of the pre-failure deformation
characteristics of some geomaterials, IS Hokkaido 94, 2, pp.855-885.
Kensetsu Kaihatsu, Juba River Port Access Road Design A Comprehensive Engineering Report on the Study,
Design and Method of Construction Engineering report No. SST1
Konagai
1
Kazuo and Sato
2
Takeshi. Dependence on Frequency of the Failure Process of Slope Made up of
coarse Particles. pp. 33~39
K.J. McManus, G. Lu and D. Ruan, The Effects on a Bridge Superstructure of Dynamic Loads Generated by
Long Wavelength Roughness in Road Surfaces. IRF Road World Congress, Paris, June 2001.
Meyerh of, G.G., (1963) some recent research on bearing capacity of foundations, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 1, 16-26.
Ministry of Transport & Public Works, Kenya, 1981. Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. In Road
Design Manual Part III.

Ministry of Public Works & Housing Republic of Kenya, March 1999. Report to OECF Appraisal Mission for the
Additional Loan to Tana Basin Road Project in the Republic of Kenya, Volume I & II.
Mukabi, J.N. (1991): Behavior of clays for a wide range of strain in Triaxial compression, Msc. Thesis, University
of Tokyo.
Mukabi, J. N. (1995): Deformation Characteristics of small strains of clays in triaxial tests PhD Thesis, Univ. of
Tokyo. Mukabi, J.N. (1998): Con-Aid Research and Development Proposal.
Mukabi, J.N., Murunga P.A, Wambura.J.H. & Maina J.N., Behavior of con-Aid treated fine grained Kenyan soils.
Geotechnics for Developing Africa, Wardle, Blight & Fourie (eds) 1999 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90
809 082 5.pp.583~519.
Mukabi J.N & Tatsuoka, F. 1995. Effects of swelling and saturation of Unsaturated Soil Behaviour and
Applications, Int. Symposium on the Behaviour of Unsaturated Soils, University of Nairobi, Nairobi,
Kenya.
Mukabi J.N & Tatsuoka, F., Kohata, Y. & Akino, N. 1994b. Small strain stiffness of Pleistocene clays. Proc.
Int.Symp. on pre-failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS-Hokkaido. 94 Balkema, Vol. 1,
PP. 189-195
Mukabi J.N & Tatsuoka, F. (1992); Effects of consolidation stress ratio and strain rate on the peak stress ratio of
Kaolin, the 27
th
Annual meeting of the JSSMFE, Kochi, PP.655~6
Mukabi J.N. & Tatsuoka, F. (1994); Small strain behaviour in triaxial compression of lightly over consolidated
Kaolin, proc. 49
th
Annual Conf. Of JSCE, III, pp.296~297Mukabi J.N & Tatsuoka, F. 1999. Effects of
stress path and ageing in reconsolidation on deformation characteristics of stiff natural clays. Proc. 2
nd

I.S on pre-failure characteristic of geomaterials, Torino.
Mukabi, J.N 1999. The Study on Rural Roads Improvement in Western Kenya Materials Testing Analyses and
Countermeasures for Design Purposes. In Internal Reports and Correspondence, Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) & Ministry of Roads & Public Works, Kenya.
Mukabi, J.N. 2000. The design and construction of Reinforced Earth Embankments. In Internal Reports and
Correspondence, The Terre Armee Method, 2000. CPC, Nairobi.
Mukabi, J.N & Tatsuoka, F. 1994, 1999. Small strain behaviour in triaxial compression of lightly over-consolidated
Kaolin. In Proc. 49
th
Annual Conf. of JSCE, III: 286-297. Influence of reconsolidation stress history and
strain rate on the behaviour of kaolin over a wide range of strain. In Wardle, Blight & fourie (eds),
Geotechniques for Developing Africa: Proc. 12
th
African Regional Conf. ISSMGE Durban, 1999.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Mukabi, J.N. 2001a. Theoretical and empirical basis for a method of determining the optimum batching ratio for
mechanical stabilization of geomaterials. In Proc. 14
th
IRF road World Congress, Paris, June 2001.

Mukabi, J.N & Shimizu, N. 2001b. Strength and deformation characteristics of mechanically stabilized road
construction materials based on a new batching ratio method. In Proc. 14
th
IRF Road World Congress,
Paris, June 2001.
Mukabi, J.N. Njoroge, B.N. & Toda, T. 2001c. pragmatic method of evaluating design parameters adopting
Kenyan tropical soils for pavement structure, In Procl 4
th
IRF Road World Congress, Paris, June 2000.

Mukabi, J.N, 2001d. Derivation and application of consolidation and shear stress ratio functions with reference to
Critical State analysis of N.C clays. In Proc. ISSMGE Istanbul International Conference. August 2001.

Mukabi, J.N., 2002c. Some Recent Advances in highway and bridge foundation engineering, Seminar for
Ethiopian Roads Authority and Japan Overseas Development Assistance Ethiopia.
Mukabi, J.N., Gono K., Koishikawa K., Feleke G., Hatekayama H., Demoze W., R., Kunioka H., Zelalem A.,
(2003a). Innovating Modified NDT/DT Techniques for the Evaluation of An Existing Pavement Structure-
Method of Testing, published in the proceedings of the International Civil Engineering Conference on
Sustainable development in the 21
st
Century.
Mukabi, J.N., Gono K., Koishikawa K., Feleke G., Hatekayama R., Demoze W., Kunioka H., Zelalem A., (2003b).
Innovating Modified NDT/DT Techniques for the Evaluation of An Existing Pavement Structure-
Theoretical Considerations and Experimental Results, published in the proceedings of the International
Civil Engineering Conference on Sustainable development in the 21
st
Century.
Mukabi, J.N., Feleke G., Demoze W., Zelalem A., (2003c). Impact of Environmental Factors on the Performance
of Highway Pavement Structures, published in the proceedings of the International Civil Engineering
Conference on Sustainable development in the 21
st
Century.
Mukabi, J.N., (2003d). The Role of Enhanced Research Oriented Highway and Foundation Design for
Sustainable Development, published in the proceedings of the International Civil Engineering Conference
on Sustainable development in the 21
st
Century.
Mukabi, J.N., (2005a). Some Vital Engineering Aspects of The Consultancy Completion Report of the Addis
Ababa~Goha Tsion International Trunk Road, A JICA Study.

Newill, R.J. (1961). A Laboratory Investigation of Two Red Clays from Kenya, Geotechnique, 11(4)
302~318.Pandian, N.S., Nagaraj, T.S. & Siva Kumar Banu, G.L (1993). Tropical Clays, Part II.
Engineering behaviour. J. Geotech. Engrag. ASCE.
Peck, R.B., Hanson, W.E. & Thornburn, T.H 1967. (2
nd
ed) Foundation Engineering, 271-276. New York, John
Wiley.
Richard, Jr., F.E. (1977); Dynamic stress-strain relationships for soils, S-SO-A, Proc. Of 9
th
ICSMFE, Tokyo, 3,
pp.189-195.
Road Research. Catalogue of road surface deficiencies. 1978 Organization for economic cooperation and
development. Road Research Institute. MOC, Japan. 1990 Specifications for road and bridge design,
Vol. I & IV. (in Japanese)
Road Research Laboratory, 1970. A guide to the structural design of pavements for new road. Road Note No. 29.

Road Transport Research. Pavement Management Systems. Paris, 1987 Organization for economic cooperation
and development.
Skempton, A.W and MacDonald, D.H. (1956), The allowable Settlement of buildings, Proceedings, of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, part 3, 5, 727-784
Savage, P.F. & Leou, J. (1998). Guidelines on Use of CON-AID Liquid Chemical Stabilizer.
Savage, P.F. (1998). Some Experiences on the Use of Con-Aid: A Water-Soluble Ionic Additive, University of
Pretoria. Tatsuoka Fumio, Lo Presti Diego and Kohata Yukihiro, April 2-7, 1995, Third International
Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics.
Shultze, E. and sheriff, G., Prediction of Settlement from evaluated settlement observations for sand,
Proceedings of the 8
th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics, Moscow, 1973, Vol. 1, pp. 225.
Tatsuoka, F, Jardine, R. J., Lopresti, D., Benedetto, D. H. and Kodaka, T. (1997). Characterizing the pre-failure
Deformation Properties of Geomaterials, Theme lecture ICSMFE, Hamburg, and vol. 4. pp.2129-2164.
Tatsuoka, F. 1992 Roles of facing rigidity in soil Reinforcing, Theme Lecture for International Symposium,
Kyushu, Japan.
Tatsuoka, F, Jardine, R. J., Lopresti, D., Benedetto, D. H. and Kodaka, T. (1999). Characterizing the pre-failure
Deformation Properties of Geomaterials, Theme lecture ICSMFE, Hamburg, 1997, vol. 4. pp.2129-
2164.2, pp.947-1063.
Tatsuoka, F. and Kohata, Y. (1995): Stiffness of hard soils and soft rocks in engineering applications, Keynote
Lecture, IS-Hokkaido 94, Vol.
Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R.b 1967. (2
nd
ed) Soil Mechanics in engineering practice, 310. New York, John Wiley.

Towhata, I., Kawasaki, Y., Harada, N. & Sunaga, M. Contraction of soil subjected to traffic-type stress
application. Proc. Int. Symp. On Pre-failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS-Hokkado 94,
Balkema Vol. 1, pp. 305~310.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory. 1977. A guide to the structural design of bitumen surfaced roads in
tropical and sub-topical countries. Road Note No. 31Vanghn, P.R. 1985. Geotechnical Characteristics of
residual soils. In J. Geotech. Engrg. ASCE, III (1) 77~94. Yoder, E.J & Witczak, M.W; (1975). Principles
of Pavement Design Second Edition, A Wile-Interscience Publication-John Wiley-Sons, Inc.

1 The Role of Enhanced Research in Geotechnical Engineering - PAPER (KEYNOTE LECTURE)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 The Role of Enhanced Research in Geotechnical Engineering - PAPER (KEYNOTE LECTURE)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

[JN Mukabi (Ph.

D) KEYNOTE LECTURE] Page 1

You might also like