R.

Radhakrishnan

and N. Rajagopalan

MODES OF BHAKTI IN TAMIL DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE*

A feature analysis
features of various In this paper we shall discuss the characteristic bemodes of bhakti (devotion) in terms of the assumed and felt relationship tween the bhakta (devotee) and his personal god as they emerge from a study of the Tamil bhakti literature of Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and Nayanmars (Shaiva saints) of the period roughly from the seventh to the ninth centuries attested in the A.D. Also, it is suggested that the different relationships literature are not on par with one another, and they are hierarchically ordered. The flowering of bhakti as a religious movementduring this period in Tamilnadu has to be understood in its immediate cultural and religious The vigorous movementof Jainism, and to a lesser degree perspectives. Buddhism, prevailed immediately preceeding this period--a period which goes by the name Kalabhra interregnum; and the revival of the Upanishadic and Vedantic tradition culminated in Sankara's advaita (monism) in the eighth century A.D. These had heavily repressed the expression of the emotional aspects of man. Even the fine arts such as music and dance which flourished during the Cankam period, roughly from third century B.C. to second century The intellectual A.D., were supressed. inquiries emerged as the dominant means of shaping the relationship of man to the supernatural, rather in an abstract manner. It is in this context, the bhakti , the loving devotion to a personal god, sprang up as a force with which man could comfortably and We use the term "supernatural" readily relate himself with the supernatural. here to refer to those aspects of human cognition which are outside the bounds of easily verifiable and rationally explicable knowledge and senseThe term supernatural subsumes mystic experience due to bound experiences. bhakti . in Tamil of all For this study we have examined the original literature the twelve Alvars and most of the twenty-three Nayanmars for the typology of relationships presented here. The idea of a typology itself is not new, and it is knownto the traditional scholarship at least in its fourfold as the following (see C. S. J. White, of relationships classification "Bhakti," Encyclopedia Britannica^ 1969, pp. 563-64): I. II. III. IV. vtsalya-bhva bhakti based on parental love shown to the deity of one's choice. based on a relationship of friendship with the deity. based on the affection of a servant towards a deity as one's master. based on the love of a woman to her deity as her lover.

sakhya-bhava bhakti dasya-bhava bhakti mdhurya-bhva bhakti

We have slightly modified the above to include the subtypes. However, what entails is something new, and we say as to what the particular relationship it emerges directly from the evidence left by the Alvars and Nayanmars in their hymns. *This study was part of an investigation of devotion in Tamil and Hebrew traditions undertaken by Peter C. Craigie, R. Radhakrishnan and H. G. Coward, funded by Canada Council Research Grant No. 741897 (1975-1976).

Table 1. Modes of Bhakti: Roles and Relationships Modes I. vtsalyabhava [A] Relationship to god son (m) Roles played by bhaktas mother(f) mother(f) father (m) father (m) subordinate friend (m) subordinate friend (m) subordinate friend (f) subordinate friend (f) Bhaktas as role players Periylvr (V); Kulaokarapperuma (V); Tirumankai (V) ; ; No Shaivite saints. I -nili kulaskarap-perumaal (V) ' -nilj Suntaramrti (S) -nil-nil-nil i

[B]* daughter (f) son (m) [C] [D]* daughter (f) II. sakhyabhva superordinate friend (m) [G]* superordinate friend (f) [H]* superordinate friend (f) [I]* superordinate friend (m) [F]

! III. dsyabhva

; ' ' ' i | ! : !

ord(m) servant/slave Periylvr (V); Kulaokarap[J] master/1 (n) peruma (V); Tirumilicai ( V) ; Tontaratippofi ( V) ; Tiruppn (V); Maturatavi (V); Tirumankai (V); Poukai (V); Ptan (V); Py (V); Nammlvr (V); Tirunvukkarasar ( S ) : TSanaoampantar (S); Cuntarar (ST; Mikkavoakar ( . . . (S). [K] master/lord m) young girl(n) [L] master/lord m) pey/demon(n) [M]* master/lord f) servant,etc. (m) subject (m) [N] king [0] master/lord(m) servant (f) lover (m) beloved (f) ntal laikal-ammaiyar (S) -nilTirumankai (V) Mnikkavoakar(S) An-pal (V); Kulaokarapperuril (V); Tirumankai (V); Periyal(V); Nammlvr vor (V); Trunavuk-kara8ar (S); (S); NZtnaoampantar ' ;

j IV. mdhurya-' [P] ' bhva I ' !

[Q]* beloved (f)

lover (m)

Cuntarar(S); -nil-

(S)

*non-occuring type; (m)-male;(f)-female; (n)-sex unspecifiedor irrevelant; (V) Vaishnavasaint; (S) Shaiva saint Table 1 we see that god is alwaysmale; the goddessis neverworshipped From alone. Thebhaktacould be a male, femaleor nonspecifiedfor sex in role playing. Thereare only twofemalebhaktasincluded: Antal and Kraikklammaiyr.Malebhaktasalso play the femaleroles. A bhaktacould play the 210

role of a motheror father, but god is always a son, never a daughter. Again god is never a beloved, or a female friend. See II [F], etc. We note that in the modedsya-bhva, the bhakta is always unspecified as to sex, or deemedto be unspecified as to sex; in relation III [K] though, the sex is (f); she is too younq to be classified as such, and, therefore, deemedto be (n). In relation [L], the devotee is a female, but she refers to herself as a pey, a demon,and so a (n). In relation [N], the bhakta assumes NOTa general role as a subject, but enacts the particular mythological personalities; they are defeated warriors. Relationship [0] is somewhat problematic; here the maidens are praying for good husbands; they are asking for a boon rather than for god's grace. It is interesting to note that guru-sisya (teacher-pupil) relationship is not found in the literature under consideration. Whereasthis relationship is importantin 'nana marga, no bhakta played the role of a sisya. Mnikkavoakar and Periylvr refer to god as guru, but there is no evidence that they played the role of a sisya. played the role of a son Though,according to tradition Nanaoampantar towards the god as his father, there is no internal evidence in his hymns to support this. Thoughoften god is referred to as appan (father) by many of the bhaktas, they never refer to themselves as sons or daughters; the word appan in these contexts is used in the general sense of a master. Thus,we see that dsya-bhva is completely a non-sanguine relationship. When non-sanguine relationship prevails, the bhakta always assumes a suba ordinate role. On the other hand, in a sanguine relationship the bhakta always assumes a superordinate role. The particular roles the bhaktas play are indicated in their hymns by the use of the first-person pronounalong with the specification of the roles themselves. In addition to these, there are three other contexts in which the first-person pronounis used. These are whenthe mother(narry) , the nurse-foster mother(oevilitty) , and people in general (kantor) tak about the beloved (f). These three roles are obviously played not as bhaktas. According to the Cankam Tamil tradition, these three roles are to be designated as pirar krru(others ' disposition or role), and the roles the bhaktasplay are to be called as tan krru (self's role). Our interpretations are based on the following assumption. In roleplaying the bhaktas stimulate the pathos appropriate to the roles. Even thoughwe have not presented any detailed analysis of texts in this paper, we have treated the language of, the bhaktas not entirely as allegorical, but somehow portraying the felt emotions and sentiments. See Table 2 below providing a feature analysis of the modes of bhakti. Before we comment the distribution of the features in Table 2 we need on to note the following. Tradition of practical bhakti and the literature we reveiwed indicate that bhakti is always accompanied by intense emotion and sometimesecstasy. And, for bhaktas to be successful in their sdhan, they must have complete trust in their personal god for his wisdomand to the efficacy of his benevolence, and as well a belief in the historicity of mythological events with no trace of doubt as to their factual i ty. The world of mythology so unreal to the "nonbeli ever" but so real to the "believer" is (bhakta). It seems that the sdhan of bhakti without this element of illusion is not practicable.

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Table 2. of FeatureAnalysisof Modes Bhakti of Reciprocation love etc. expected no yes no yes Surrender offered no no

Mode/Role

Trust

I . vtsalya-bhva/ a parent present I I . skhya-bhva/ subordinate friend III. dsya-bhva/ servant present present

yes no

IV. mdhurya-bhva/ beloved present

of Weare almostcertain that in our examination the literature of the 'bhakti, viz. unionand/or early bhakti period we find that the ultimateof belowon this), is attainable only through liberation (see further adopting and of the mode dsya-bhva by playingthe role of servant. Eventhe where rhdhurya-bhva, one plays the role of the beloved, fails to facilitate one expects on the analogyof unionin secular of the achievement unionwhich or life. Thereis no hint of freedom vtsalya-bhva being attained through the examining internal evidencegoes very sakhya-bhva.This findingfrom much against the traditionally-heldview that all bhvas lead to the same result. Weare somewhat surprisedby this finding. does not facilitate unionor liberation, Weask that if vtsalya-bhva this role a bhakta thenwhy speculate that by simulating practice it? Wemay is enabled to cultivate a selfless, non-egoti stic nature, without is surrender the complete which presentin and uniqueto dsya-bhva not either by natureor by social demands possible. In secular Ufe, a parent the children. has to be selfless towards both and Likewise, 1n simulating sakhya-bhava mdhurya-bhva, of which share Identical features (see Table 2), a bhakta1s enabled to developtrust as pointedout earlier. Wenote that trust is a featuresharedby all modes/ bhvas, and 1t 1s a prerequisite for the sdhanof bhakti. This 1s borne out in the literature. alone yields that Wealready commented the simulationof dsya-bhva we fruit. Further, have someevidenceto differentiate"union"(onral, the ultimate "liberation" (vltu pru, vtu prruimpam), kalattal) from result of bhaktisdhan. Wetry the following explanationto accountfor this difference. in is What generallyhappening the simulationof roles, and relationships withone's personal god, we infer, the discourse polarity of "I" (the first person)and "you" (the secondperson) 1s Intertorized. Thereis no there is that com"you"outside the bhakta. In addition, in dhsya-bhva of or plete surrender abandonment one's self by the bhakta', here, though
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Unlike in the other bhvas/modes there is action; it is without violation. where the discourse polarity though interi ori zed is maintained, in syabhva alone the polarity is not only interi ori zed to begin with, but eliminated or neutralized because of surrender; and there is no more the "I" in the bhakta. But so long as the bhakta sees himself as an agent for his actions, what is achieved is "union" (after the neutralization of the polarity ). Here the neutralized polarity remains interiorized and functions as an agent. On the other hand, if the self is not seen even as an agent by Here the neutralized the bhakta* then what is achieved is "liberation." polarity gets exteriorized, or universalized.

REFERENCES

Alvarkal. Nlyira tivviyap-pirapantam. Ed. Mayilai Matavatasan. Manali i Mudai ar1s Specific Endowments Lakshmana Publication, 1962. Cuvamikal. Tevaram. Ed. K. V. Jakannatan. Tiurppanantal: Cuntaramurtti Sri Kact matam Publication, 1949. T. Meenakshisundan, P. A History of Tamil Literature. ai Annamal University, 1965. Annamal nagar: ai

. Cuvamikal Tevaram. Ed. Patuccami Otuvar. Tiruppanantal: Ti runanacampanta Sri Kaci-matam Publication, 1950. TirunavakkaracuCuvamikal. Tevaram. Ed. T. Pattuccami Otuvar. Tiruppanantal: Sri Kaci-matam Publication, 1949. White, C. S. J. "Bhakti," Encyclopedia Britannica, 1969, pp. 563-64.