EPS 50: Lecture 24 Rivers and Streams

Stream flow and transport

Stream morphology Streams, rivers and human intervention

Water on Planet Earth

Rivers & lakes only 0.009 % of water Streams are most important agent of landscape modification and erosion in most environments Worldwide, streams carry ~16 billion tons of sediment and ~3 billion tons of dissolved matter each year Pre-human transport might have been only ~50% of this

Studying Rivers and Streams

Fresh water supply Transportation Agriculture Renewable, clean energy resource Production of fertile floodplain soil Flood hazard to communities

The Waters of California

CA stream flows:
(1) Sierra Nevada (plate tectonics) (2) W-E winds (the hydrologic cycle)

CAs most valuable and contested resource 150 years of damming, diverting and polluting Most water goes to Central Valley agriculture

EPS 50: Lecture 24 Rivers and Streams

Stream flow and transport

Stream morphology Streams, rivers and human intervention

How Stream Waters Flow

Depends on flow velocity, geometry (depth), viscosity (fluid dynamics) The viscosity (low) and velocity (high) of stream water usually results in turbulent flow
Smooth sheet-like flow at a low velocity, streamlines are parallel Usually confined to edges and top of stream Irregular swirling flow Occurs at most rates of stream flow Keeps particles in suspension

Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

Stream Discharge (Q)

Five important conditions:
Channel width Channel depth Velocity Gradient Bed roughness

Q = v x A (depth x width)
30 m3/s 180 m3 /s

water cross section x

velocity

Discharge (m3/s) = width (m) depth (m) velocity (m/s)

Stream Flow Continuity

Given constant discharge
Reduction in area ==> faster flow Changes in slope and roughness influence velocity and must be compensated by change in area

A balance of driving and resisting forces determines the nature of river flow :

Q=vA

Driving force = water weight x sin(bed slope) Resisting force = river-bed area x river-bed shear stress

Stream Sediment Transport

Increased Flow Velocity Increased suspended sediment Increased bed load transport Increased saltation, rolling and sliding
suspended load

saltation

bed load

Particle Size vs. Current Velocity

Cohesion of clay and silt particles

Bedforms Associated with Velocity

structure produced by a migrating nearshore bar, Pliocene terrace deposits, Monterey Bay, California
www.usgs.gov

ripples

ripples on dunes

Stream Erosion
Physical weathering, abrasion, plucking & pot holes Potholes form by pebbles and gravel grinding inside eddies Waterfall undercutting and headward erosion Chemical and biological factors also contribute to erosion

Missoula Flood(s) - 15,000 years ago at close of ice age

~100 individual floods perhaps 1 every 50 to 150 years evidence: scour, huge-scale sediment deposits, wave-cut platforms
Work and graphics by David Finlayson, Univ. of Washington

When the ice dam broke, it sent ~800 meter wall of water racing at 100 kmph. Ripple marks are 15-20 meters in scale.

Floating ice dams and subsequent flooding has now been observed in Greenland, Alaska and Himalayas (albeit at smaller scale).

Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism Harlan Bretz first proposed features were due to catastrophic flooding, initially met with skepticism.

EPS 50: Lecture 24 Rivers and Streams

Stream flow and transport

Stream morphology Streams, rivers and human intervention

The shape of a river

Rivers form channels, valleys and floodplains The shape of river flow varies from straight to sinuous and meandering to braided The longitudinal profile of a stream represents an attempt to achieve grade or equilibrium (reduce and distribute work in natural system) Adjustments to profile, channel cross section and channel patterns result from changes in sediment supply, discharge and slope

Stream Longitudinal Profile

All streams, large and small show the same concave-up profile Result of balance of erosion (incision) and deposition Base level controls the elevation of the longitudinal profile

Erosion-dominant

Deposition-dominant

Base Level

Longitudinal Profile and Capacity

A B C

Knickpoints
Sudden breaks in slope due to faulting, lithology, tributaries, dams, etc. Rapids develop at knickpoints High gradient and high stream power downstream => Erosion Low gradient and low competence upstream => Deposition Headward migration results
Mount, 1995

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Dams and Stream Longitudinal Profiles

Dams result in deposition upstream & erosion downstream

The stream deposits sediment in the upper part of the reservoir

The sedimentdepleted stream begins to erode downstream of the dam

Stream Meanders and Floodplains

Erosion on the cutbank Deposition on point bar Meander Neck Meander Cutoff Oxbow Lake

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Why Meander?
Lateral migration of streams creates river flood plain Sinuosity reflects balance of energy efficiency and distribution as a function of load, gradient and discharge Local disturbances in flow resistance encourage meandering

Point Bar

Meandering channel

Braided Streams
Some streams have multiple channels with numerous sand bars and repeatedly diverging and joining channels forming an interlacing network

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Why Braid?
Attempt to dissipate excess energy Related to steep gradients, highly variable water discharge, abundant coarse load, and easily eroded bank material

Channel Form
Transition between straight, meander and braided streams is complex threshold function of discharge, slope and sediment load Large rivers and low slopes tend to form floodplain morphology in broad valleys

Mount, 1995

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Streams and Tectonics

Antecedent streams Longitudinal profile adjusts to tectonics Terraces are uplifted and deformed by folding

Streams and Pre-existing Structure

Downcutting can cause a stream to be superimposed on a pre-existing structure Left-behind terraces follow longitudinal profile

Delaware water gap

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Alluvial Fans
Form at mountain fronts Widening from narrow stream valley to broad valley Loss of competence and capacity Often related to tectonic uplift

Drainage Networks

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Major American River Systems

Drainage divides bound drainage basins

EPS 50: Lecture 24 Rivers and Streams

Stream flow and transport

Stream morphology Streams, rivers and human intervention

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Floods!
Historically, many major cities are built in floodplains US flood cost is ~$1.5 billion/yr Our attempts to harness rivers are only partly successful

Building a Floodplain, One Flood at a Time

Low Natural Levee Overbank flow results in the flooding of the floodplain

Decreased flow velocity results in deposition of suspended sediment

1996 Liuzhou, China

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Discharge Changes and Floods

Stream flow fluctuations can be immense Hydrologists often characterize discharge as X-year floods The Eel River had a discharge of ~752,000 cfs on Dec. 23, 1964 (> 1993 Mississippi flood)
Skytomish River, Washington

1993 Mississippi Flood

1992 1993

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1993 Mississippi Flood

500 - year flood (90-day volume) Dense levee system confined stream flow and led to sharp increases in peak flow and catastrophic flooding ~500 levee breaks allowed for discharge on flood plains which reduced impact on major cities downstream Total estimated damage 16 billion 48 people killed

The Problem With Levees

Levees protect from flooding on regular basis BUT flow constriction during floods causes water to flow faster and deeper increasing stream power Flooding occurs upstream (backup) and downstream during biggest floods

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The Problem With Levees

Levees protect from flooding on regular basis BUT flow constriction during floods causes faster and deeper flow, increasing stream power Flooding occurs upstream (backup) and downstream during biggest floods
Flood enhancement through ood control: Criss & Shock, Geology, 2001 Flood stages for constant discharge
have increased 2-4 m over the past century, mostly attributable to channelization

Build more levees ?

Mitigation Strategy
FEMA Land buyouts & levee strengthening and building European model make more room for the river Now counterbalanced by massive construction in flood plain: Since 1993 28,000 homes, 26% increase in population, 26.8 sq km (6630 acres) of new commercial and industrial development totaling 2.2 billion dollars.

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