2

ABSTRACT
The intention of this paper has been to investigate why certain products become cultural icons. The
discussion is delimited to consumer products of technical character with a strong relation to
contemporary culture. To reach our objective we have conducted a case study in the form of a cultural
marketing analysis of Apple’s iPod, by studying its cultural meaning for consumers and the factors
behind its immense popularity.

Among the success factors identified is Apple’s strong brand image of creativity, innovation and
imagination, which has been well transferred to the iPod. It was the community of Mac users that
created the initial hype around the iPod, but through a deep connection to contemporary popular
culture, the iPod community has expanded with new groups not before targeted by Apple. The iPod
community broadly exhibits traits of a brand community, which increases perceived quality, brand
loyalty, brand awareness and brand associations.

Through advertising and design, Apple has successfully implemented the three levels of emotional
design into the iPod: The aesthetics of the iPod, characterized by simplicity, provides an example of a
visceral design, formed according to values inherent in us as biological beings. The visceral design
also comes out in the advertising where the all-white iPod stands out as a naturally beautiful object. In
addition, the advertising works at the reflective design level, and connects the iPod with the concepts
of energy, joy, style, and youth culture. Moreover, the iPod’s high usability is consistent with the
concept of behavioural design.

The identity of the iPod, as created by the producers, has been well mediated to consumers. However,
this identity is multifaceted and provides interpretive flexibility, which has contributed to its success.
The iPod has acquired a market position with wider connotations than being ‘just’ an mp3-player. It
has also established a close connection with pop-cultural trends and become a symbol for new
consumption patterns of music in modern society.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................6
1.1 Problem .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Demarcations................................................................................................................................. 7

2 METHOD .............................................................................8
2.1 Case Study ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Cultural Marketing Analysis ........................................................................................................ 8
2.3 Overview......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Theory......................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Empirics...................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 9

3 BACKGROUND ................................................................10
3.1 Apple ............................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 iPod ............................................................................................................................................... 11

4 THEORY............................................................................13
4.1 Holt: What becomes an Icon Most? ......................................................................................... 13
4.2 Muniz & O’Guinn: Brand Community....................................................................................... 13
4.3 Norman: Emotional Design........................................................................................................ 14
4.4 Du Gay et al.: Cultural meaning ................................................................................................ 14
4.5 The Frankfurt School: Production of consumption ............................................................... 15
4.6 Baudrillard: Identity value.......................................................................................................... 15
4.7 Slater: Needs, identity and status............................................................................................. 15
4.8 Maslow: The hierarchy of needs............................................................................................... 16
4.9 Willis and Hebdige: The Construction of Meaning ............................................................... 16

5 EMPIRICS .........................................................................17
5.1 Focus group of iPod users ........................................................................................................ 17

6 ANALYSIS ........................................................................19

4
6.1 The Apple brand .......................................................................................................................... 19
6.1.1 Aspects of the Apple Brand ..................................................................................................................... 19
6.1.2 Apple and iPod ......................................................................................................................................... 19
6.1.3 The Apple Brand Community.................................................................................................................. 20
6.1.4 Apple and Design ..................................................................................................................................... 23

6.2 Marketing...................................................................................................................................... 25
6.2.1 Target Market ........................................................................................................................................... 25
6.2.2 Competition .............................................................................................................................................. 26
6.2.3 Promotion ................................................................................................................................................. 27

6.3 Consumption ............................................................................................................................... 31

6.3.1 iPod as a cultural artefact ......................................................................................................................... 31
6.3.2 Perspectives on consumption................................................................................................................... 31
6.3.3 Consumption and the formation of identities .......................................................................................... 32
6.3.4 Consumption as status symbol................................................................................................................. 32
6.3.5 Consumption and needs ........................................................................................................................... 32
6.3.6 Advertising and the construction of meaning.......................................................................................... 33
6.3.7 Transformation of meaning...................................................................................................................... 33
6.3.8 The Future of iPod.................................................................................................................................... 33

7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................35

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................................37

9 APPENDIX ........................................................................38

5
 1 INTRODUCTION
Prior to 1979, portable music for private listening did not exist. Younger people could be seen carrying
around so-called ‘Ghetto Blasters’, which were large cassette players with a handle. The word
‘portability’ then had an entirely different meaning. In 1979, SONY released The Walkman, a cassette
player that came to redefine the meaning of portability and eventually became a pop-cultural icon.

During the last three years, the interest for portable mp3-players has grown explosively. On November
18th 2002 Apple released the iPod, which can be seen as the new generation of portable systems for
playing music. The iPod is a portable digital storage device with the main function of being a music
player for mp3- files. The product has had a great impact on the market and is now a much sought-
after item among music lovers, Mac-fanatics, and people looking for the latest, cool gadgets. The
Walkman became a part of our cultural universe and the iPod might eventually be able to make the
same claim? But what exactly is it that has made these products so successful, where does their
popularity come from, and why do people choose them?

1.1 Problem
The question posed in this thesis is why certain products become icons of contemporary culture. Our
discussion concerns a specific kind of category, namely consumer products that have achieved an
iconic status, a strong connection to contemporary culture and that are mainly of technical character.
As stated in the introduction, an obvious artefact of comparison with the iPod is Sony’s Walkman, but
other examples of iconic products might include the Volkswagen Beetle or the Mini. They are not only
examples of effective marketing but have become symbols of their time.

1.2 Purpose
The intention of this project is to investigate our research question by doing a case study of Apple’s
iPod which can be seen as a representative example of this type of products and study the factors
behind it’s immense popularity. To do this, we will conduct a cultural marketing analysis of the product
and investigate this artefact’s connotations and its cultural meaning for consumers.

The purpose of this report is not to come up with guidelines for how to develop a successful product
with an iconic status, but rather to investigate one representative example of this category. We believe
that many of the ideas put forward and conclusions drawn in this paper also can be applied to other
products in the identified category, but not all of them. Furthermore, the conclusions drawn will not be
applicable to just any brand or product but merely provide an example of why one such product has
succeeded. Every brand or product is different with unique characteristics and separate histories that
need to be taken into account.

6
1.3 Demarcations
In order to increase the validity of the research conducted in this study, the obtained results and
conclusions are delimited to consumer products of technical character with a strong relation to
contemporary culture. Even for this very specified category though, the conclusion cannot be said to
be of universal application. Furthermore, this analysis concerns primarily the US market and our
sources are mainly American, although the European market and Sweden (where our focus group was
conducted) has partly been studied as well.

As described in the Method chapter below, the iPod is analysed in reference to issues concerning the
Apple brand, marketing and consumption, within a theoretical framework of these research areas
considered important in regard to this particular product. As this paper is a cultural analysis, focus is
on connotations associated with the iPod from a consumer behavioural perspective. Hence, the topics
of concern will not be discussed from a strategic perspective but rather in an investigative and
consequential way.

7
 2 METHOD

2.1 Case Study

According to Yin, in his book Case Study Research (2003), the preferred strategy when “how” or “why”
questions are being posed is case studies. This method of research is also particularly useful when
the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon
within some real-life context. We believe that these criteria fit well into the context of this report and
that our method of research consequently serves the purpose of it.

2.2 Cultural Marketing Analysis

The meaning of Cultural Marketing Analysis is manifested in that our paper is written from a
sociological and consumer behavioural perspective. Discussions are centred on consumers’
interpretations of the product and the cultural implications that advertising and branding have for
consumers.

2.3 Overview
First, relevant theories needed to make the analysis will be explained. Then, empiric results from a
focus group study of iPod users are presented. The theoretical framework and the results from the
focus group study are then applied on the iPod and conclusions drawn.

2.3.1 Theory

The theoretical framework that our analysis is based upon is constituted of nine main theories. The
different theories are covering complementing parts of how a cultural artefact can be encoded and
decoded with meaning. The work of Holt and Muniz & O’Guinn discusses how certain brands come to
reach superior status in some way. We have used Norman’s Emotional design model to examine the
multifaceted concept of “design”. Cultural meaning is then discussed according to theories put forward
by Du Gay, the Frankfurt School, Baudrillard, Slater, Maslow and Willis & Hebdige. This discussion
concerns how meaning is transferred to an object in different ways and how this relates to the
individual’s needs, identity and status. Through these theoretical inputs, a broad picture of how one
can understand an object like the iPod from differing, complementing and contrasting perspectives is
provided.

2.3.2 Empirics

To complement the theoretical framework and other literature relating to Apple and the iPod, we
carried out a focus group session with iPod users in Stockholm. This direct contact with iPod
consumers was very valuable for several reasons. We had the opportunity to ask specific questions
relating to subjects of our particular interests, for example about the relation between iPod-, Apple-,

8
and PC-users and how the users perceive their iPod in terms of functional and emotional benefits,
identity and status. The input given by the participants gave us ideas of new areas of interest to
explore further. The focus group method might have been even more rewarding if we would have used
more people and/or people with other backgrounds.

2.3.3 Analysis

In the analysis the theoretical framework and our empirical work is jointly applied on the case of iPod.
We have divided our analysis of the iPod into the following three main areas:

Apple – A brief history of the company is given and issues relating to the Apple brand, the
brand communities of Apple and iPod, Apple’s design tradition and the development of the
iPod are discussed.

Marketing – The positioning of the iPod in relation to target market and competition is covered
and an analysis of Apple’s promotional activities of the iPod is given.

Consumption – Issues of how the iPod relates to the needs of consumers, how people attach
different meanings to the product, how people use it to express identity and consume the
artifact as a status symbol are discussed.

9
 3 BACKGROUND

3.1 Apple
Apple was founded in 1976 by Steven Wozniak and Steven Jobs who had been friends since high
school. At that time Apple produced computer circuit boards and it was not until 1984 a complete
packaged computer was released: The Macintosh. It revolutionized the computer industry with its
graphical user interface and its high-speed processor (8Mhz). The revolution of the Macintosh was
displayed to the public in what is said to be the greatest TV commercial ever made (Shimp 2000, p.
297). The commercial refers to the Big-Brother theme of George Orwell’s book 1984 where humans
are controlled by an omnipotent institution. At the time, Apple and IBM were virtually the only players
in the personal computer business and IBM was undoubtedly the race leader.

1984 TV COMMERCIAL

The commercial displays a reality where a grey mass of indifferent, zombie-like citizens is staring at a
huge screen where an all-mighty Big Brother praises conformity and “unification of thought”. Suddenly
a colourful woman in athletic wear runs in, throws a sledgehammer into the screen which explodes,
Big Brother is eliminated and all humans are set free. Then the message shows up on the screen: “On
th
January 24 , Apple Computer will introduce Macintosh. And you’ll see why 1984 won’t be like 1984.”
In effect, the commercial depicts Apple as the liberating rebel who puts an end to the mass-controlling
IBM (www.uriah.com/apple-qt/1984.html). The 60 second advertisement was only shown once during
the Super Bowl final and never repeated, it cost $400 000 to produce and $500 000 was paid for the
spot. To pay these amounts for a single ad spot was unheard of in the year of 1984. The Macintosh
became known to the general public literally overnight and the Apple identity of today was born.

10
 THINK DIFFERENT CAMPAIGN

Apple has clearly positioned themselves as being a creative, innovative and rebellious brand and in
1997 Apple launched their largest branding campaign since 1984: “Think Different”. It uses photos of
famous “free-thinkers” who have changed the world in some way, like Mahatma Gandhi, Pablo
Picasso, Muhammed Ali, John Lennon, Thomas Edison, Alfred Hitchcock and more. Steve Jobs said:
“Think Different celebrates the soul of the Apple brand - that creative people with passion can change
the world for the better…" (www.apple.com/pr/library/1997/q4/970929.pr.rel.adcampaign.html)

3.2 iPod
Most of us agree upon the idea that the iPod is a product of the time we live in. The factors that made
it come into being are related to the technology behind the product, but also to movements in modern
culture and Apple’s creative capital.

The iPod, together with other models of portable mp3-players, is looked upon as a technological
breakthrough by music-listeners of the world. The file-sharing technology founded by Napster laid the
ground for an historic era of music-distribution when the world of music consumers hailed “free music
for all!” The need of making downloaded music easily portable was created, and what eventually has
made the product category of mp3-players (of descent memory capacity) viable is that data storage
discs have become small enough for this use. In the case of the iPod, its capacity/size ratio is among
the highest in the market, which attests Apple’s capacity to put together top-of-the-line technology.

11
The iPod’s slim design and high technological capacity are more or less obvious features, but it is also
1
a socially constructed technological artefact resulting from a hype dating back to the days of Napster .
In the wake of the iPod, Apple has launched the service iTunes, which is an interface for downloading
and playing music. This is clearly a way of adding value to the core product, but also possibly
legitimating the product after the controversial Apple advertisement with its ‘rip, mix, burn’ slogan.
Moreover, the iPod stars in American rapper 50 cent’s P.I.M.P. music video. This is clearly a
conscious choice, but why is it an iPod we see and not a just any mp3-player?

Apple has a reputation for its capability of innovation, product uniqueness, and being able to “think
outside of the box”. In our opinion these are major factors for success and the reason why their
products cut through the clutter of consumer electronics. Besides satisfying the basic functional need
of listening to portable music the iPod also represents something more; it provides unique value in the
form of certain emotional benefits.

1
Napster was the first file-sharing program to reach a worldwide audience and has had a huge impact on people’s buying
behaviour in music.

12
 4 THEORY

4.1 Holt: What becomes an Icon Most?

In the article What Becomes an Icon Most? Douglas B. Holt (2003) explains that a prerequisite for
creating a truly iconic brand is a strong connection to present culture. In all modern societies there is a
gap between society’s ideology of “what you should be like” and how people really are. In today’s
western society it could be argued that we converge towards a more uniform, general role-model
where everyone is expected to have a certain “look”, a certain education, a certain profession, posses
certain values, be top-performing and so on; if you’re too radical and don’t fit within these frames,
you’re looked upon as a loser. To resolve tensions between ideology and individual experience like
this, people need what Holt refers to as myths. Myths in this sense are stories created around a brand
that provides its image and identity. A brand can use myths to position itself as something that goes
against the present social ideal. Instead of trying to conform to this ideal, consumers can go the other
way by consuming the rebellious brand. In the article, Holt argues that if a brand wants not only to be
successful but also to become a truly iconic one, it has to constantly adapt to present culture and react
to the social ideal by providing the right tension-solving myths.

4.2 Muniz & O’Guinn: Brand Community

In the article Brand Community (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001), it is concluded that the established
construct of community can form around specific brands. The article is relevant for our purposes since
one of the brands found to have a strong enough consumer base to constitute a brand community is
Apple. A brand community is said to exhibit traditional markers of community and to constitute a major
part of a brand’s larger social construction. The definition given of a brand community is “a specialized,
non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relationships among
admirers of a brand”. Muniz and O’Guinn compare three traditional markers of community with the
concept of brand community to legitimise it as a community:

1. Consciousness of kind refers to the consciousness and ‘we-ness’ that community members
feel towards each other, and the collective sense of difference from others not in the
community. This is the most important element of community.

2. Rituals and traditions hold the community together by maintaining its culture. An example of
a ritual is that Saab owners might beep or flash the lights when passing by another Saab.
Other typical ways to strengthen the brand community is to celebrate the history of the brand
or to share brand stories

3. Communities are marked by a sense of moral responsibility, which is a feeling of duty or

obligation towards the community as a whole and to its individual members. In brand
communities this appears as integrating/retaining members and assisting in the use of the
brand.

13
In the article, consumption of a number of brands is examined, and consumers of three brands are
found to constitute brand communities. The three brands are Saab, Bronco and Apple. The conclusion
of the article is that traditional traits of community are also applicable to brand communities. Of the
three markers above, consciousness of kind and rituals and traditions were clearly apparent and a
sense of moral responsibility was observed in a limited and specialized way.

Another source that testifies that the consumers of Apple and Macintosh are of a special kind is the
book The Cult of Mac by Leander Kahney. Kahney states that the brand’s customer base has
supported the company with a faith in its will to innovate, even during stretches when it hasn’t. (NY
Times Nov 30, 2003)

4.3 Norman: Emotional Design

Donald Norman claims that consumers are becoming more dependent on the design of the emotional
reaction to an object, referred to as ‘emotional design’. This reaction is a process simultaneously
taking place at three different levels and good design needs to take all of these into account. Objects
that possess a visceral design are said not to be ‘designed’ in the ordinary sense but instead
constitute a model for the kind of design that speaks to our inner self. It is design on this level that
make us perceive something as genuinely beautiful. An example given to explain this design is the
symmetrical shape of a flower. Because good visceral design is formed according to values inherent in
us as biological beings, this design has a timelessness that designs based upon attempts of
conveying a message lack. Norman gives Apple’s iMac as a typical example of this type of design with
its soft lines, sensual form and a simplicity, which gives it a timeless expression.

The next level, behavioural design, concerns primarily usability; how fast, easily and effectively the
product can be used in relation to its purpose. Reflective design, the third level, has to do with the
meaning created when a product is used and the message that the use of the product conveys.
Norman also notes that all use can be seen as a kind of communication. Reflective design is more
complex than the other two levels and especially difficult to develop, partly because it involves so
much more than just the object. This third level exceeds the object itself and concerns the context in
which the object exists. In this paper Norman’s three-level model will be used to analyse the iPod
itself, but also for interpreting the different promotional contexts that the product appears in.

4.4 Du Gay et al.: Cultural meaning

When analysing the iPod, some parallels can be made to the Walkman. According to Du Gay et al. in
Doing Cultural Studies – The Story of the Sony Walkman (1997), the cultural meaning of an artefact is
created through representational practices such as advertising, which often has a crucial role in how
the product is to be received by the market. A cultural artefact is defined as something that is not
merely a part of our culture; it also acquires a culture of its own, with varying meanings and practices.
According to Du Gay things do not have an inherent meaning and the cultural meaning is created not
through objects but as a result of social discourses and practices and how it is represented in visual

14
and verbal terms. Representation is formed by meanings constructed from gestures and languages.
Existing meanings can be extended from something we already know to something new, referred to by
Du Gay et al. as Chain of meaning. Meaning and connotations can also in some cases be extended
into networks of meaning, or semantic networks, where every association develops into its own
language. Other ways of constructing meaning is by the way the product communicates its similarities
and differences compared to other products and how the artefact acquires meaning through
connection with pop cultural themes.

4.5 The Frankfurt School: Production of consumption

When applying consumer behavioural theories concerning artefacts’ meaning, some different strands
of thought can be discerned. According to the ‘production of consumption’ theory, which was
introduced by sociologists at the Institute for Social Research, also known as the Frankfurt School,
consumption is looked upon as something preordained by the logic of capitalist production (Du Gay et
al. 1997). Production is here represented as the decisive factor behind consumption and from this
perspective no individual interpretive flexibility is possible; the needs of the consumer are created by
producers and advertising agents and all commodities have a predestined and fixed meaning.

4.6 Baudrillard: Identity value

Baudrillard (1988) opposes the Frankfurt theory, which reduces needs to finite, natural, and connected
to specific objects. According to him, objects lack inherent meaning; instead, the meaning comes from
how it is used. He consents to the fact that producers try to inscribe semantic meanings into products,
but the interpretations of these depend on the individual consumer. In relation to a specific need,
objects can be substituted; a need is not a need for a specific object. Furthermore, Baudrillard argues
that material culture not just has a ‘use’ value, but also ‘identity’ value, which means that it functions as
a marker of social and cultural differences and consequently works as a medium of communication.
Consumption serves as a language, a system of meaning, and a code by which society
communicates.

4.7 Slater: Needs, identity and status

According to Don Slater in his book Consumer Culture & Modernity (1997), all consumption is cultural
because it involves meaning. These meanings are shared but individual preferences form within
consumer cultures as well and through culturally specific forms of consumption, we not only produce
but also reproduce cultures, social relations and society; to be a member of a culture is to know the
local codes of needs and things. Slater argues that it is the culture that constitutes the needs, objects
and practices that make up consumption. He also notes that goods are able to mark status because
they are part of a high status. Therefore, by imitating these life-styles through the consumption of
associated goods, “lower status social climbers lay claim to higher status” (Slater 1997, p. 156). In
relation to this it is important to note the cultural and geographical differences.

15
4.8 Maslow: The hierarchy of needs
Consumers in the westernised world have reached a high position in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
which implies that once satisfaction of basic needs such as food and safety has been fulfilled the
cultural aspect of consumption becomes evident and the meaning of things becomes more important
than their functional use to meet a ‘real’ need. In Motivation and Personality (1970) Maslow argues
that there is no difference between animal needs (for food, sex etc.) and higher desires (for truth, love
and beauty) which are created by culture. Furthermore, there exists a basic aesthetic need, which
means that ugliness can make certain people sick but they can also be cured by beautiful
surroundings; they crave actively and their cravings can be satisfied only by beauty.

4.9 Willis and Hebdige: The Construction of Meaning

Advertising is one of the key factors behind the formation of associations. It is a representational and
cultural practice that is meant to appeal to consumers by engaging with the product’s accumulated
meanings, and construct identification between these meanings and the consumer. It is a cultural
language that speaks for the product.

Slater (1997) describes a sub-cultural analyses conducted by sociologists Willis and Hebdige in 1978
where they studied sub-cultural groups and their use of commodities as signifiers in an active process
for the construction of identities, and their symbolic consumption of material culture. These studies
promote the theory of consumers as self-conscious cultural experts whose knowledge in consumer
culture provides them with great freedom in the use of artefacts to form identities.

16
 5 EMPIRICS

5.1 Focus group of iPod users

The group consisted of four persons between the ages of 21 – 26 years, all students at the Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm. The focus group was carried out at facilities of this school on June
10th 2004. We realise that this is a very homogenous group, looking at the total population. However,
we did not try to put together a constellation like this but tried to think of all iPod-users we knew of.
This group might be representative of iPod users in Sweden.

Connection between PC-users, Mac-users and iPod-users

Two of the group members were long-time Mac-users; they saw the iPod as a natural extension of the
Mac-system they are already using. They bought it as soon as it was released and one of the
members had even upgraded to a second iPod during a one-year period. For these two members the
buying decision did not come from an interest in the product category of mp3-players but from the fact
that Apple released an mp3-player. These two users saw no distinction between the iPod and Mac in
terms of lifestyle, concept or users; it’s all Apple.

The third group member was a PC user and bought the iPod for its functionality compared to other
mp3-players.

The fourth group member was a PC user when buying the iPod but has now converted to Mac. This
shows as evidence for a success in Apple’s strategy to use the iPod as a tool to make people consider
Mac computers as an alternative to PC.

About the iPod in terms of functional benefits

An important argument for all group members was that they saw the iPod as being superior to other
mp3-players in terms of function with it’s small size combined with large storage space. One subject
said that “when I first bought it, it was mainly for the cool look, but when you start using it, it just gets
better and better”.

Two group members have had to call the Apple support due to problems with the iPod. They were
both extremely happy with the treatment from Apple who simply picked up the broken iPods and sent
2
back new ones .

2
Both occations were subject to the included guarantee

17
It was stressed by some participants that the iPod’s big capacity/size ratio and its full integration with
the rest of the Mac system were the main reasons for buying it.

About the iPod in terms of emotional and experiential benefits

The iPod was described with the words: clean, good-looking, reliable, freedom, cool, status, “it makes
you happy”, “typical Sony product”, “classic Apple product”, user-friendly, neat, “an image thing”,
3
realization of the self, “reflects the Apple-identity” .

It was said that if the iPod would be of another brand (e.g. Sharp) with everything else unchanged, you
might not have paid attention to it. It was also said that no other brand would come up with the iPod.

When asked to compare the iPod to other owned artefacts the iPod was the most-liked one for
everyone, in one case together with another artefact (an old camera). For example everyone said that
they were much more affectionate towards their iPods than their mobile phones.

About iPod users

When the group was asked to describe the typical iPod user, they said that the typical iPod user is the
same as the typical Mac user who was described as: Conscious, “…they are into interesting things”,
“… have a stronger relation to their computer [than do PC-users]”, clubkid, DJ, designers, architect,
4
aesthetic person, “Know what’s going on”, “Music-interested people”, urban people” .

The group was asked if they knew of any iPod-users that were not young males with a special interest
in technology as themselves. One member responded, “Yes, my friend’s dad has one. He’s an
architect” with the immediate answer from another group member “That’s because he’s an architect”.

Apple’s strive to be perceived as a brand for creators and innovators has clearly succeeded within this
focus group.

3
Translated from the Swedish descriptions snygg, stilren, pålitlig, frihet, häftig, ball, status, ”man blir glad varje gång man
använder den”, ”typisk Sonyprodukt”, ”klassisk Appleprodukt”, användarvänlig, smidig, smäck,”en imagegrej”, ”förverkligar en
själv”

4
Translated from the Swedish descriptions: Medveten, “… håller på med intressanta saker”, “Har en starkare relation till datorn”,
klubbkid, designer, arkitekt, estet, ”har koll”, musikintresserade, storstadsmänniskor

18
 6 ANALYSIS

6.1 The Apple brand

6.1.1 Aspects of the Apple Brand

There is little disagreement among marketers that Apple’s branding strategy has been a successful
one. Former Apple marketing executive John Sculley says, “People talk about technology, but Apple
was a marketing company” (Wired News 2002). Marketer Marc Gobe, author of the book Emotional
Branding, takes this point even further and says, “Apple’s brand is the key to its survival. It’s got
nothing to do with innovative products like the iMac or the iPod” (Wired News 2002). We do not share
Gobe’s extreme view of the Apple brand but think that to be able to keep the creative, innovative,
rebellious myth living, Apple has to perform in the long run. However, we realize that it is emotional
benefits that really differentiate Apple from competitors in the marketplace. Apple takes part in
5
extremely technology-driven product categories where computer capacity doubles every 18 months .
For consumers to be able to relate to the ever-increasing clock frequencies, storage-spaces, memory
capacities and so on, they need something easier to grip, something concrete, and something more
human. This human touch is something that shines through the company’s major advertisement
campaigns: In 1984 Apple gave power to the people through technology and in 1997 Apple site
themselves as a tool for creative people to break through and change the world.

Apple’s positioning of being an outsider, underdog or rebel is nothing new, but a fundamental, ever-
existing concept just like life, death, brotherhood or dominance. To build a brand of such superior
strength as Apple, timeless concepts like these can be used. To succeed, careful respect has to be
paid both to the core values and competitive advantages of the product itself, but it is also of utmost
importance how a brand relates to the social surroundings (Holt 2003). Throughout the history of
Apple’s branding strategy, strong rebellious myths have been created around the brand. The solution
to society’s pressure to conform yourself to the public measurements is to be strong in yourself and
say no. Don’t let the world change you; change the world. Think different.

6.1.2 Apple and iPod

When our focus group was asked questions whether another company could have come up with the
iPod, answers were that it is a “typical Apple-product” and that most other competitors could not come
up with a similar product. The only other mentioned company was Sony, who clearly has a reputation
of being an innovative brand. We are convinced that it takes a company of Apple’s creative heritage to
produce a product like the iPod. As mentioned before, technology alone does not tell the full story

5
According to Moore’s Law computer capacity doubles every 18 months. See
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Moores_Law.html for more.

19
behind the iPod, it is something else that has made it differentiate from the rest of mp3-players. It has
been given a design that seems to fit right into most stylish contexts, from top Hip-Hop videos to a co-
branding campaign with the sleek Volkswagen New Beetle. The iPod’s appearance is one of the main
reasons for its success, with a slim line look that has managed to attract people who had not thought
about purchasing an MP3 player before. Throughout Apple’s history, superior design and usability
have been key points for survival more than trying to compete with price or performance. This tradition
of considering the consumer in the first place, to create a product that fits the needs of the consumer is
the foundation of the Apple-philosophy. Through experience, Apple has created an organizational
culture and built up a creative capital that makes them unmatched in this way of working. For the first
time Apple applied this accumulated experience on another product category than computers, and out
came the iPod. Another way in which Apple has created incomparable added value to the iPod, was
by making it fully compatible with the existing Apple world of computers through hardware, software
6
and wetware . The key feature of this integration is the iTunes interface for downloading and listening
to music. It is a seamless connection between the iPod, computer and an online music store where
music and music videos can be browsed and instantly downloaded. It became the first legitimate
music downloading service and is viewed as a success in the business. For example, at 99 cents
each, one million songs were downloaded during the first week (NY Times, September 7, 2003).

6.1.3 The Apple Brand Community

The consumers of Macintosh computers are often used as an example to illustrate how dedicated
consumers can be towards a brand and the iPod consumers show a similar kind of brand dedication.
At the release of the iPod, the foundation of the iPod community was laid by Macintosh users, which
was testified by participants of our focus group: Two users said they ”see no distinction between the
iPod and Mac in terms of lifestyle, concept or users; it’s all Apple”. Moreover, it was said, ”…the typical
iPod user is the same as the typical Mac user”. However, as the iPod-market has matured, groups
outside of the Mac community have joined the iPod community – one example is youths, which is
discussed later in this report.

We have applied the three markers of community stated in the Brand Community article (Muniz and
O’Guinn 2001) on the iPod. A note worth making is that we consider Apple, Macintosh and iPod all as
separate but undoubtedly overlapping brands.

Consciousness of Kind: Members of a brand community note a critical demarcation between users
of their brand and users of other brands. In the case of iPod this would include all the ways iPod-users
are differentiated from users of other mp3-players. In most contexts we have encountered the iPod in,
it has been referred to as something set apart from other mp3-players. For example NY Times (Feb

6
Wetware is the time invested by a user to learn a system. The time invested by Mac-users to learn the Mac environment can
be applied to the iPod and the programs supporting it. If buying another mp3-player, Mac-users would have to invest more time
to learn a new system.

20
15, 2004) writes about how behavioural patterns change in New York because of the iPod – not
because of “mp3-players”. As stated above, large parts of the Mac community have become part of
the iPod community. The Mac community is well known for clearly differentiating themselves from
others, for example through different online Web communities (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001, pp. 418-
419). It follows that this is also a natural characteristic of the community of iPod users. One user says
“It’s a society within itself … You’ve got your biker community, your hip-hop community, and now
you’ve got your iPod community.” (NY Times February 15, 2004)

Rituals and Traditions: Typical ways in which rituals and traditions strengthen the culture of a brand
community are to celebrate the history of the brand, to share brand stories or to share consumption
experiences. A well-known brand story that Macintosh users like to tell is the “Mac immunity”, which
tells about times when IBM computers were plagued by viruses whilst there are no existing viruses for
Macintosh computers. Another way the Macintosh community celebrates the history of the brand is by
showing nostalgic pictures of old classic computer models.

The history of the iPod is too short to find a wide celebration of it. However, some other strong rituals
and traditions can be found. An example of a consumption experience that is unique for iPod users
are the so-called iParties that are coming up mostly in London and New York. APT Club in New York
(http://www.aptwebsite.com), BarTwenty3 in Nashville, and Nambucca in London (http://www.ipod-
dj.com/playlist/) all host iParties. On these nights, the turntables are replaced by a set of iPods and
hosting “iDJs” with names like “iMoon” and “iMickey” spin on their iPods
(http://kr.typepad.com/music_business/images/iPartyEmailer.html). The interesting thing about these
nights is not that Djs play music from a digital source – which has been done for quite a while now –
but that everyone can bring their iPod, plug it in and be the iDJ. Voluntary Djs get to stay up either for
a set period of time or until they get “booed” off the stage in an old-school rap battle fashion. This is
nothing that Apple officially has anything to do with although it does not seem impossible that Apple
would push for these types of events to create word-of-mouth effects among the “right people”.
However, at the end of the day it might not matter, iPod users still take part of this unique consumption
experience, which reinforces the iPod brand community.

21
 iPARTY: iPods instead of turntables at APT club in New York

Another example of how iPod users share consumption experiences is by sharing pictures of their
iPods on public online photo galleries (http://galleries.ipodlounge.com). IPod users show their iPods in
different geographic locations from all continents around the globe. Popular ways to display one’s iPod
is together with another object (e.g. a puppy, another Apple product or another personal favourite
object), together with a person (e.g. a baby or a woman’s body in bikini), or most popularly - in the
foreground of a well-known tourist attraction (e.g. the Eiffel tower or the Disneyland) or beautiful
scenery. The practice of sharing pictures of one’s iPod from all over the globe is particularly
interesting, looking at Muniz and O’Guinn’s definition of a brand community that states that it is a “non-
geographically bound community”. Users of the iPod obviously feel part of a global community and
enjoy sharing, viewing and commenting on other members’ pictures.

iPODS AROUND THE WORLD: Photos taken by iPod users

Moral Responsibility: In the Brand Community article, moral responsibility was the least apparent of
the three traits in brand communities, as compared to traditional communities. One aspect is to assist
other community members in the use of the brand. Evidence of this is shown both for Mac and iPod
communities at different independent Web forums (e.g. http://macusersforum.com, http://www.mac-
forums.com and http://www.ipodlonge.com, http://www.ipodbeat.com) where members can post

22
questions and get trouble-shooting assistance from other members. Members also give each other
assistance in less problem-based issues like how to wear the iPod and how to act with it.

Another important part of the sense of moral responsibility is to integrate and retain members of the
community – this is essential for the survival of the community. In the case of Macintosh, evidence of
this type of practices can also be found on the Web forums. By tradition, Mac homepages tell horror
stories about PC-users and typically show top-ten lists of why Mac beats PC (Muniz and O’Guinn
2001: 425). In the case of iPod, however, we have not found this kind of web content to the same
extent. Even though iPod users clearly demarcate themselves from users of other mp3-players, the
attitude seems to be more open and less hostile towards them. The probable reason for this is that the
iPod system is open for both Mac and PC users. Becoming an iPod user is not as radical as switching
to the Mac system, and consequently the iPod community does not have to “protect its property” to the
same extent as the Mac community does.

Looking at the three markers of community in the iPod case, it is clear that a strong iPod community
exists. Just like the general case of Muniz and O’Guinn’s definition of a brand community, the trait of
moral responsibility exits in a limited and specialized way for the iPod. A brand community is part of
the brand’s larger social construction and directly affects all four components of brand equity:
perceived quality, brand loyalty, brand awareness and brand associations (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001,
p. 427). Moreover, a brand community is active in the process of creating meaning for the brand. The
way people use, talk about, wear and act with the iPod affects its image. The NY Times (Feb 15,
2004) even describes the iPod community as a new type of species because of the way they act:
“New York is invaded by zombielike robots … They carry a secret weapon – no bigger than a deck of
cards … Two white wires that run from their ears into their clothes … They’re already here: the iPod
people …”

6.1.4 Apple and Design

The design of Apple’s products including the graphical user interfaces has been their most important
competitive advantage ever since the first Macintosh appeared on the market. The Apple design
department has over the years received a number of awards within industrial design and besides the
iPod, products like Cube, iBook and Power Book all have a patented design. Apple holds thousands
of different patents and the reason behind their rigid patent policies is found in the company’s history.
Throughout the years many companies have tried to be successful by copying the Apple design. After
the release of iMac many similar products appeared on the market, trying to reproduce the computer’s
characteristic colour and form. In 1999 Apple filed a lawsuit against Future Power for inadmissibly
copying the patented iMac design. Apart from the more apparent similarities in form, the computer
was, just like the iMac, available in five different pastel colours (Wired News 1999).

23
 LEFT: Future Power, RIGHT: Apple’s iMac

With the iPod, Apple again has been subjected to competition from similar products. Below, D Cube
from the Korean manufacturer Nextway is shown. Just like the iPod, it is white, has an LCD display
placed above a scroll wheel, and similar buttons.

LEFT: Nextway’s D Cube, RIGHT: Apple’s iPod

What is it then in the design of Apple’s products and specifically the iPod that makes them so
attractive? In the article The Guts of a New Machine (NY Times 2003) by Rob Walker, Steve Jobs
explains: “Most people make the mistake of thinking design is what it looks like, people think it’s this
veneer – that the designers are handed this box and told, ‘Make it look good!’ That’s not what design
is. It’s not just what it looks like and feel like. Design is how it works.” According to the article the
message from Jobs was that only Apple could have developed the iPod (which was also the opinion of
our focus group). Jobs continues: “As technology becomes more complex, Apple’s core strength of
knowing how to make very sophisticated technology comprehensible to mere mortals is in even
greater demand”. As indicated by Jobs, consumers don’t care about technical specs; they care about
how many songs it holds, how quickly they can transfer them, and how good the sound quality is.

Everything around the iPod is meticulously designed, including the package with the certain way in
which the box opens and how the foam is cut. The iPod together with iTunes form a perfectly
seamless system where all that needs to be done is to plug the iPod into the computer and the music
flow starts automatically. Also the iPod’s surface is seamless; stainless steel behind and white on
front, with the wheel, one button in the centre and four beneath the LCD screen. In the NY Times (Nov
30, 2003), Jonathan Ive, Apple’s vice president of industrial design, accounts for the characteristic
white headphones, delivered with iPod: “I remember there was a discussion: Headphones can’t be
white; headphones are black, or dark grey.” However, as stated in the article, “uniform whiteness
seemed too important to the product to break the pattern, and indeed the white headphones have
become a kind of secondary, unplanned icon”.

24
During the development of the iPod, emphasis was put on usability and simplicity. According to Ive it
was about being focused and not trying to do too much with the device, which would have been its
complication and, therefore, its demise. The key was getting rid of things and the enabling features are
not obvious and evident. Ive further explains: “What’s interesting is that out of simplicity and almost
that unashamed sense of simplicity, and expressing it, came a very different product. But difference
wasn’t the goal. It’s actually very easy to create a different thing. What was exciting is starting to
realize that its difference was really a consequence of this quest to make it a very simple thing.”

As described earlier, Norman (2004) claims that consumers are becoming more dependent on the
‘emotional design’ of an object, which is a process taking place at three different levels (visceral,
behavioural, and reflective) and that good design needs to take all of these into account. These design
rules are all apparent in Apple’s products. The issues of simplicity and usability, as stated by Ive, are
consistent with Norman’s criteria for visceral and behavioural design, respectively. Visceral design is
the design that makes us perceive something as beautiful and in accordance with values inherent in
us as biological beings. Norman mentioned the iMac as a typical example of this type of design with
soft lines, sensual forms and a timeless simplicity. Also the iPod provides an excellent example of this
kind of timeless design that many users will adopt immediately. The second level, behavioural design,
concerns primarily usability; how fast, easily and effectively the product can be used in relation to its
purpose. This too, is something that Apple has taken to its heart and made into one of their main
competitive advantages; design is all about how it works and the key aspect is to make complex
technology understandable for the ordinary customer. In the following sections we shall see how also
the third level, reflective design, has been addressed through the use and promotion of the iPod.

6.2 Marketing

6.2.1 Target Market

An obvious target market for the iPod is that of Macintosh users, but Apple is also breaking new
ground by releasing a product for an open system. Some experts mean that the choice to make the
iPod compatible with PCs is a long-term strategy to sell more Macintosh computers. This is something
that Apple chief financial officer Fred Anderson testifies. He says “We believe the Music Store for
Windows will lead to more iPod sales and generate more Mac sales in the future (Macworld Daily
News 2003). The logic: By making PC-users buy an Apple product, and maybe also use the iTunes
software/service to listen/download music, they might see Macintosh as an alternative when buying a
computer. The identity of the new iMac G5 is clearly an elongation of the switching strategy. It is
positioned as the computer counterpart to the iPod (www.apple.com). By making the iPod a product
for an open system like mp3, new segments are opening up. Traditionally, Apple has been working in
closed market-spheres of creators, designers and schools, but now they are also targeting what is
probably the most attractive target audience of all: Youths. It is mostly in the American market that
Apple is making this new positioning claim through advertisements and celebrity endorsements
relating to Hip-Hop culture. Evidence that Apple’s new positioning is a successful one is that it is found

25
on second place of the list of ‘must-have’-products among U.S. school kids (Macworld Daily News
2003).

SWITCHING STRATEGY PHASE 1: Make PC-users buy iPod

SWITCHING STRATEGY PHASE 2: Make PC-iPod users buy Mac computers

6.2.2 Competition

The most apparent competition is constituted by the expanding range of mp3-players. In comparison,
the iPod is at the high-end of the spectrum when it comes to price, performance and design even
though competitors are catching up. However, we think that the iPod can enjoy some first-mover
advantages - the tangible part of any gadget can be copied, but not the non-tangible ones. For
example the iPod has pre-emptied the position of connecting with celebrities and Hip-Hop culture. If
other mp3-players will do the same they will be viewed upon as followers. A conscious strategy from
Apple is that in all contexts the iPod has been referred to as “the iPod” and not something like “Apple’s
new mp3-player”. A proof that the iPod has been able to clearly differentiate itself from the rest of mp3-
players, is that according to a survey made by youth attitude analyst Look-Look over what cool new
gadgets have been heard of, the iPod is on second place while “mp3-player” is found on place number
six (Macworld Daily News 2003).

26
Moreover, the iPod also competes in a relevant way with a range of product categories. On the
mentioned list of ‘must-have’ products the iPod competes with picture-taking mobile phones, limited
edition sneakers and palm pilots. It seems to compete for spending-money more with other product
categories and status symbols than other products of the same category (i.e. mp3-players). This can
also be observed in our focus group results. For most of the participants, the decision to buy the iPod
did not come from a primary interest in the mp3-product category. Instead, they bought an mp3-player
because the iPod came out.

6.2.3 Promotion

An equally important dimension as the design and usability of a product is the promotion of it. If the
competitive advantages of the iPod are not well communicated to the public, they virtually do not exist.
The initial buzz about the iPod was created by the community of Mac users around the globe (Muniz
and O’Guinn 2001). Most of these surely heard about the iPod through community websites and word-
of-mouth long before it is was officially promoted and released. We have used Normans Emotional
design model when looking at the promotional activities for the iPod. As stated by Norman “Advertising
can work on either the visceral or the reflective level” (Norman 2004, p.87).

One advertisement consists of the iPod against a plain white background. This is obviously a
statement made by Apple: iPod is the hero and need no other connotations; it is strong enough in
itself. A conscious effect of this is that every individual connects the product with different meanings
through personal semantic associations. The iPod’s semiotic meaning consequently obtains a
multifaceted character and its polysemism provides the consumer with interpretive flexibility. This ad
more alludes to the iconic status already possessed by Apple as a company and tries to extend this
status to the iPod. If we look at this ad from the perspective of Normans emotional design model, it
clearly tries to speak to the viewer on the visceral design level. Norman takes up iMac as an example
of visceral design and the iPod is right on the same track. In this ad, the iPod itself is not alluding to a
context to create Halo effects, but instead addresses the viewer directly at the biological plane as a
naturally beautiful and desirable object.

27
 iPOD HERO ADVERTISEMENT

Another advertisement for the iPod shows silhouettes of people dancing against monochrome
backgrounds of different colours. This advertising line is consistently found on the Apple homepage,
on iPod packaging, on TV, on billboards and in magazines and it is the only iPod advertising campaign
on a larger and global scale. The moving picture versions found on the Apple homepage and TV are
accompanied by music by for example American rap group Black Eyed Peas. The all-white iPod
clearly stands out in the stylized, minimalist imagery, fuelling the black silhouettes with energy and joy.
This ad consistently goes along with the iconic theme of the first one, even though more hints about
the iPod’s personality are given through music and dance. From the perspective of Norman’s
Emotional Design theory, this advertisement line is attaching a consistent image to the iPod at the
reflective level. Advertising working at the reflective level is all about message, about culture, and
about the meaning of a product or its use. As apart from visceral design, which directly affects the
emotional plane of a consumer, and behavioural design, which is about how a product actually works,
reflective design is about what cultural meaning is transferred to an object from a context. In this ad,
key concepts that connect with the reflective aspect of the iPod are energy, joy, minimalism and style.

28
 DANCING SILHUETTES ADVERTISING

In the “Pods Unite” print- and TV campaign, Apple co-brands with another iconic brand: Volkswagen.
The deal is to get a free iPod with your New Beetle: What is interesting about the campaign however,
is not the deal but the choice of partner. In an article about the campaign, Alison Overholt talks about
“a marriage between two classic ‘underdog brands’…” and “A psychographic match made in heaven”
(Fastcompany 2003). President of strategist consultancy Reason-Inc Marc Babej comments the
iconicity of the two brands on Brandweek.com (www.reason-inc.com/pdf/Brandweek_0603.pdf): “…the
best ads for VW and Apple feature the product in front of a plain white background. A Beetle or an
iPod is unique – anything else would distract.” The Beetle and the iPod are icons of two generations
and by building a bridge between the two, a symbiotic relationship is the result: the Beetle acquires a
piece of modern pop-culture and the iPod connects with an established cultural icon.

29
 PODS UNITE IPOD AND BEETLE CO-BRANDING AD

The iconic uniqueness of the iPod, and its differentiation from “regular mp3-players” can be further
observed through its distribution. In consumer electronic stores, the iPod is not placed next to the
7
crowd of other mp3-players, but exhibited in its own showcase

Other than pushing the iconic appearance of the iPod, it also associates itself with a number of
celebrities in different ways. It can be seen in music videos by American rapper 50 Cents and RnB-
artists like Mary J Blige and Jennifer Lopez. Neil Strauss of The New York Times (Sep 7, 2003) writes:
“The rapper and the women are dressed all in white, a perfect match for the sleek white design of the
iPod, which has exactly as many close-ups as 50 Cent does in the P.I.M.P. video’s opening scenes”.
In the US, hip-hop and RnB culture is closely linked to youth-culture in general and Hip-Hop culture
has a trend-setting influence among young people. This can be witnessed in the American Billboard
list of most sold songs, which holds a significant number of songs belonging to this category of music.
For example, at the time of the release of 50 Cent’s P.I.M.P. video, nine out of ten songs on the list
were hip-hop/RnB singles (October 2003).

7
For example the OnOff-store at Sveavägen, Stockholm (June 2004).

30
 50 CENT’S P.I.M.P.-MUSIC VIDEO

Other well-known celebrities spotted with the iPod are David Beckham and Madonna. That this is a
planned strategy could be further witnessed at the release of iTunes for Windows in San Francisco,
8
where Steve Jobs talks with Bono, Dr Dre and Mick Jagger via webcam . Whether it is a question of
paid endorsements or not is difficult to find out, seen from the artists’ point of view, the iPod is likely to
be a cool item of choice, with an inverse endorsement effect; the artist acquires the positive
connotations associated with the iPod. Conversely iPod acquires some superstar associations that are
unheard of in the world of mp3-players, and hardly matched by any other gadget. In the U.S., the iPod
has mostly connected itself with celebrities of the world of Hip-hop. Like most other things in the case
of iPod, this is no coincidence.

6.3 Consumption

6.3.1 iPod as a cultural artefact

Analogous to the Sony Walkman as described by Du Gay - the iPod, seen as a cultural artefact – can
be defined as something that is not only a part of our culture; it has also acquired a culture of its own
with particular meanings. These meanings have mainly been created through the representational
practice of advertising and how the product has connected with pop cultural themes. Some of the
connotations the iPod has come to be associated with so far are youth-culture, technical gadgetry, and
trend. But what is more important, the iPod also has the associations normally linked to Apple’s brand.

6.3.2 Perspectives on consumption

If consumption is seen according to the ‘production of consumption’ theory, as introduced by the

Frankfurt School, this would imply that the iPod’s meaning already has been defined by Apple and all
consumers have the same perception of the product. In addition, it would mean that all consumers
have the same needs in relation to the iPod. We would like to put emphasis on the product’s
predestined meanings and call attention to their impact on individual consumers. The producers

8
The whole iTunes for Windows-presentation can be viewed at www.apple.com/quicktime/qtv/musicevent03/

31
behind the iPod have tried hard to inscribe meanings into the product and succeeded well in
positioning it among consumers, which agrees well with this theory. Nevertheless, Baudrillard’s notion
of semantic meaning created from use and consumers’ individual interpretations is highly relevant in
this case: people use it differently depending on their separate needs even though their interpretation
of the object very much has been influenced by the mechanisms of ‘cultural mediation’ such as
marketing, design, and advertising (Du Gay et al. 1997).

6.3.3 Consumption and the formation of identities

In addition to an object’s ‘use’ value Baudrillard also argues for an ‘identity’ value. In this way the iPod
can be interpreted as an indicator of social and cultural difference and subsequently work as a
medium of communication in itself. As noted by Slater (1997) the meanings involved in consumption
are shared but individual preferences form within consumer cultures as well and through culturally
specific forms of consumption we not only produce but also reproduce cultures. Our focus group saw
their consumption of the iPod as a way of reinforcing and fulfilling their own self-image. It reproduced
their own identity by sharing the same associations that they perceived in themselves.

To facilitate consumers’ expression of individual identities, accessories are available to accompany the
iPod. Besides cases in different colours, famous designers have made their own cases so that
consumers can further strengthen their personal preferences, taste, and lifestyle. There are also other
accessories to fit sports enthusiasts, handbag with built-in speakers and much more. Apple also
represents a lifestyle of its own and the use of the company’s products becomes an expression in
itself. For instance, many professionals working in creative fields of work use Apple. These users can
then be said to reproduce the ‘Apple culture’ and take part of its associations.

6.3.4 Consumption as status symbol

Slater also explains how certain artefacts and their consumption can work as status symbols by
means of imitating high status groups’ life-styles. This can be observed in the way that rap artists act
as pop-cultural icons for street-culture. However, we believe that our focus group is more or less
representative for Swedish consumers’ view of the iPod, whereas the ‘street-culture phenomenon” is
more abundant in the US.

6.3.5 Consumption and needs

According to Maslow, once basic needs have been materially fulfilled, the cultural aspect of
consumption manifests itself and the meaning of things becomes more important than their functional
use to meet a ‘real’ need. One might ask oneself: what constitutes a real need? Can the need to carry
around 40 GB of music in your pocket possibly be categorized into one of these? Slater (1997) argues
that culture constitutes the needs, objects and practices that make up consumption. In this view, the
need for mobile storage space and music has existed for quite some time; the Walkman and Zip-drive
took care of that. However, with the iPod these needs are being redefined and reinforced; the
possibility to keep this much information in your pocket has not been there before.

32
The iPod represents different things for different people, depending on which needs it fulfils. The
separate meanings people attach to it can be seen as different semantic networks. A sharp contrast is
here discerned between the Apple loyalists and younger people influenced by street-cultural trends.
For the former group it is almost a question of fulfilling basic needs, whereas for the others the artefact
mainly acts as a luxury good. As seen in the focus group the iPod was merely a natural choice of
purchase in capacity of an Apple extension. Advertising consequently has added other meanings; it is
no longer a matter of just listening to music, the significations have extended to aesthetics, trends, and
status. It should here be stressed that when asked what the most important factor behind purchase
was, our focus group in unison concluded that it was the functional benefits in terms of capacity and
design that were most decisive. However, it was also pointed out that if another company than Apple,
like Sharp for example, had made the iPod it might very well have surpassed their notice. The product
was also seen as something expected by Apple and described as a ‘typical Apple product’. What is
more, we believe that an integrative approach is necessary when analysing the reasons for purchase
decision where the Apple trademark, advertising and design all work together to form the overall
impression.

6.3.6 Advertising and the construction of meaning

The sub-cultural analysis conducted by Willis and Hediges whose results supports the view of
consumers as cultural experts who use artefacts to form identities explains Apple’s marketing
campaign directed towards hip-hop as a trendsetting sub-culture. Whether the iPod’s existence in
music videos by 50 Cents and Mary J Blige, is product placement or not so far remains a secret, but
the aforementioned artists, as well as The Black Eyed Peas has high street-culture credibility in the
US, which Apple most certainly is aware of. Furthermore, through the association of iPod with pop-
cultural icons, Apple surely hopes to extend this association to become part of the iPod itself.

6.3.7 Transformation of meaning

Material and cultural artefacts’ meaning constantly undergoes a transformation through a process
termed ‘Production of meaning’. The iPod has taken on a different meaning now than at the time of its
launch. The first iPod users were Apple fanatics, technical gadgeters and people with a deeply rooted
interest in music. Along with recent ads appealing to a younger audience by alluding to street-cultural
trends, a new market segment not targeted by Apple before has given the product an altered meaning.
Youth attitude analyst Look-Look’s research suggests that “the iPod – and Apple's – market appeal is
about to move beyond Apple's traditional constituencies among professionals and the middle class”
(Macworld Daily News Sept 5, 2003). One theory is that Apple first noticed the fetish-like obsession
with the iPod among certain pop-cultural idols and then followed up this trend by further consolidating
this image.

6.3.8 The Future of iPod

The iPod has pre-emptied a position in the market that gives it a strong competitive advantage. With
iTunes, Apple has obtained media-synergies and established a strong foothold in the market that

33
consists not only of mp3-players, but also of other ‘cool’ gadgets. In the US, the iPod has had great
success among consumers and is a much sought-after item. In Europe however, marketing efforts
have not been as great, which we think has been for the detriment of Apple, and on this side of the
ocean we believe that the iPod’s commercial success is still in its initial stage, where most owners so
far belong to the category of innovators/early adopters. However, sales are gaining momentum and
will probably continue to rise. In Sweden the iTunes feature of downloading music is for example still
not available to consumers. On the other hand, the Windows edition of the program has boosted iPod
sales. A threat to the iPod is the second version of Napster, which is industry-sanctioned and
consequently legal. This edition of Napster provides songs in a new Windows media format that is not
supported by iPod.

The music industry and related technologies are changing fast, which put products in a vulnerable
position in relation to market forces. However, these changes make other, human factors more
important. Consumers need something easy to grip and relate to in the clutter of technological
gadgets. This is where Apple’s brand and marketing has a major significance.

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 7 CONCLUSION
The question posed in this thesis is why certain products become icons of contemporary culture. To
answer this question, we have conducted a case study in the form of a cultural marketing analysis of
Apple’s iPod, which can be seen as a representative example of this type of products, and studied this
artefact’s cultural meaning for consumers and the factors behind its immense popularity.

Many of the results and conclusions obtained in this paper can probably be applied to other products
within the identified category of consumer products of technical character with a strong relation to
contemporary culture. However, the conclusions are not universal and should be applied with care.
Most of all, this report provides an example of why one such product has succeeded. Furthermore, our
analysis has mainly concerned the US market.

One of the keystones behind the iPod’s success is the Apple brand. Ever since Apple’s foundation and
the introduction of the first Macintosh, the company has succeeded in maintaining the associations
and myths around the brand where creativity, innovation and imagination have been keywords. These
same myths and associations were passed on to the iMac and now lately the iPod.

From day one the iPod was surrounded by the Apple aura; the initial hype around it was created by
Mac users who also laid the foundation of the iPod community. This community of loyal consumers
then expanded when groups outside the Mac community who had not been targeted by Apple before
were attracted, mainly through association of the product with pop-cultural phenomena in American
youth-culture. The only ones that can give a product an iconic status are the consumers. The unbiased
opinions, acts and statements of ”people on the street” are far more credible than any profit-driven
organization – and this is where the uniqueness of the iPod lies. The iPod community, consisting of all
iPod users, creates meaning for the product; the way people use, talk about, wear and act with the
iPod affects its image. The community also reinforces the iPod’s perceived quality, brand loyalty,
brand awareness, and brand associations.

Through advertising and design, Apple has successfully implemented all three levels of Norman’s
emotional design model into the iPod. The aesthetics of the iPod, characterized by simplicity, soft lines
and timelessness, provides an example of a visceral design, formed according to values inherent in us
as biological beings. The visceral design also comes out in the advertising where the all-white iPod
stands out in the stylized, minimalist imagery as a naturally beautiful object. In addition, the advertising
works at the reflective design level, and connects the iPod with the concepts of energy, joy, style, and
youth culture. Moreover, Apple has a tradition of considering the consumer in the first place and during
the development of iPod, emphasis was put on usability by creating a product that would fit the
consumers’ needs. This is consistent with the concept of behavioural design.

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People are different, and even though a product or an ad from an objective point of view might look
the same, consumers will still make individual interpretations of them. Producers try to encode
products with certain meanings, and for some consumers these meanings will coincide with their own
image of the product but not for everyone. The more people who interpret the producer’s intended
message in the ’right’ way, the more successful the positioning of the product will be. In capacity of
consumers we use artefacts to reinforce our own identity and transfer their associations and
connotations to ourselves.

The identity of the iPod, as created by the producers, has been well mediated to consumers. However,
this identity is multifaceted and provides interpretive flexibility, which has contributed to its success.
The fact that the iPod was placed second on 2003 year’s list of most wanted gadgets among
teenagers (with mp3-players on sixth place) proves that it has acquired a market position with wider
connotations than being ‘just’ an mp3-player. The iPod has established a close connection with pop-
cultural trends and become a symbol for new consumption patterns of music in modern society as a
contemporary cultural icon. Technology is changing faster than ever and predictions are hard to make,
but Apple has clearly shown their innovative capacity and gained competitive advantage by pre-
emptying a position on the market for the iPod. Rivals have introduced similar devices and the tangible
part of any gadget can be copied, but not the non-tangible ones. When the pace of technological
change is constantly accelerating, consumers need something they can understand and relate to.

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 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baudrillard, Jean (1988) Selected Writings, Cambridge, Polity Press.

Du Gay et al. (1997) Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman, Milton Keynes, The
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Fastcompany, (75 October 2003) ‘The “Pods Unite” ad’,

www.fastcompany.com/magazine/75/ipod.html.

Holt, Douglas B. (March 2003) What Becomes an Icon Most, Harvard Business Review,.

Macworld Daily News (September 05, 2003) “Apple mindshare grows; market to follow?”

Maslow, Abraham Harold (1970), Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row.

Muniz, Albert M. JR. and O’Guinn, Thomas C. (March 2001) Brand Community, Journal of Consumer
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New York Times (September 7, 2003) “Girls? Check. Cristal? Check. IPod? Check.”

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 9 APPENDIX

Technical Specification of the iPod

Storage: 10, 20 or 40 GB

Battery life: Over 8 hours

Skip protection: Up to 25 minutes

Display: 2-inch (diagonal) grayscale LCD with LED backlight

Ports: Dock connector, remote connector, stereo minijack

Connectivity: FireWire 400 and USB 2.0 through dock connector

Charge time: hours (1-hour fast charge to 80% capacity)

Audio support for Windows: MP3 (32 to 320 Kbps), MP3 VBR, Audible, WAV

Size: 4.1 by 2.4 by 0.62 / 0.73 inches

Weight: 5.6 / 6.2 ounces

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