Introduction to Applied Geophysics

Non-mathematical - but you will still need your calculators!!! Basic Principles Applications

Relevant Text Milsom: Field Geophysics, 1996. Open University Press. Kearey and Brooks: An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration., Blackwell Science 1991(ISBN 0-632-02923-4). Telford, Geldhart, Sheriff & Keys: Applied Geophysics,1990. Cambridge University Press Reynolds: An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics. Wiley 1997. (ISBN 0-471-95555-8) Relevant Journals Geophysics Geophysical Prospecting Applied Geophysics Environmental and Engineering Geophysics Other Relevant information Sources CSM see: http://magma.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/ crb at St. Andrews Geoscinece web site

Applications
Engineering Environmental Groundwater, Mining

Geophysical Targets - Environmental

Problems for environmental engineers where did all those nasty contaminants go to? what will happen if there is a leak here? how can I design a contamination safety plan

Targets for environmental engineers Confining layers Barriers to water/contamination Fractured Bedrock Coarse channel fill Weathered bedrock Perched/permanent water tables High porosity/permeability confined units

IN SUMMARY Rock Type Rock Fabric Geometry Fluid Content

Geophysical Targets - Mining

Problems mining engineers where is the primary resource How large is the primary resource How difficult is it to extract the primary resource How can the primary resource be extracted in an environmentally sensitive manner

Targets for mining engineers Depth to target,size of target Physical nature of target Overlying material type and structure Perched/permanent water tables IN SUMMARY Rock Type/mineral type Rock Fabric Geometry Fluid Content

Geophysical Targets - Engineering

Problems for Engineers How strong is the rock/soil How easily can it be removed/dug into

Targets for engineers Depth to bedrock Fractured Bedrock Coarse channel fill Weathered bedrock Perched water tables High porosity/permeability confined units

IN SUMMARY Rock Type Rock Fabric Geometry Fluid Content

Geophysical Targets - Groundwater

Ideal Well High Flow rate Good Quality Sustainable Yield Shallow (ish) Depth Targets for hydrogeologists and geologists Fractured Bedrock Coarse channel fill Weathered bedrock Perched water tables High porosity/permeability confined units Typical Well Variable Flow rate Variable Quality Seasonal (intermittent) Yield Medium to Deep Targets parameters for geophysics Porosity - primary and secondary Density Pore fluid - amount and type IN SUMMARY Rock Type Rock Fabric Geometry Fluid Content

Common Well Conditions 1. Shallow perched aquifer in alluvium or weathered bedrock, discontinuous flow rate 2. Deep aquifer, seasonal recharge 3. Bedrock aquifer, sustainable yield, low flow rate 4. Bedrock aquifer, sustainable yield, high flow rate Perched WT

Typical Well Locations - Geophysical Targets

3/4

3 1 4

WT

Fracture zone

Weathered horizons

Clay

Alluvium

Sand and Gravel

Granite

Global Regional Local/ Field Scale Scale

Field Scale
channeling

Scale

Hand specimen

Microscopic
clay rich

weathering

secondary fracturing sand rich

fracturing

Micro Scale

Factors influencing Porosity - fabric Packing

100Vv n= Vt b n = 1001 d
Where Vv - void volume Vt - total volume b - bulk density d - particle density Density (rock type) is important

Porosity = 47.65%

Porosity = 25.95%

Factors influencing Porosity - fabric

Shape
mixed grain sizes reduce porosity

Fabric (rock type) is important

Factors influencing Density

Mineral Type
Different minerals have different densities

Density of minerals (rock type) is important

Factors influencing Strength and Geophysical Signatures

In homogeneous, isotropic media the velocities of compression and shear waves can be described in simple terms of elastic modulii and density.

(4 + k) 3 Vp =

Vs =
P k= v / V

Bulk Modulus (k)- incompressibility of the medium

Shear Modulus( ) - resistance to shearing; shear stress/shear strain. Note that from the above equations, it is implied that fluids and gases do not allow the propagation of S waves.

Any changes in the shear or bulk modulii or the density will therefore cause a change in shear and compression velocity

Factors influencing Porosity - cements & fracturing Secondary Porosity NB these diagenetic changes also affect the material strength

Fracturing

Cementation e.g. calcite, dolomite, silica

Diagenesis (rock type) is important

Hydrogeological factors of geophysical interest Specific yield - ratio of the volume of water that drains from a saturated rock owing to attraction of gravity, to the total rock volume (Sy) Specific retention - ration of water retention to total rock volume (Sr) specific retention specific yield

Porosity,

n = Sy + Sr, also remember

b 100Vv n= , n = 100 1 Vt d

Hydraulic Conductivity and Specific Yield

Specific Yield in % (after Fetter)
Material Clay Sandy Clay Silt Fine sand Medium sand Coarse sand Fine gravel Medium gravel Coarse gravel Maximum 5 12 19 28 32 35 35 26 26 Minimum 0 3 3 10 15 20 21 13 12 Average 2 7 18 21 26 27 25 23 22

Other Geophysical Properties

Thermal conductivity Radioactivity

Newtons Second Law of Gravitation (motion)

However, when measuring the Earths gravity we measure the acceleration (g) resulting from the gravitational attraction. Newtons Second Law Force is proportional to acceleration

F = m2 g
Thus from 1) and 2)

Gm1 g= 2 r
G=6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2

Magnetic Fundamental Principles Couloumbs Equation

The expression for magnetic force experienced between two magnetic monpoles is given by

1 1 2 Fm = 2 r
where is the magnetic permeability, p1and p2 are the strengths of two magnetic monopoles Note similarity with Newtons Universal Gravity Law

Gm1m2 Fg = 2 r

Electrical Resistivity - Conductivity

Ohms Law Empirical relationship between the current (I) flowing through a wire, of resistance R and the voltage potential (V) required to propagate the current.

V = IR

Further

L R A

where L is the length and A the cross sectional area of wire. However, as we are not concerned with wires in the Earth, and electrical current is not constrained, the resistivity, of a material is a more useful concept where.

= RA L

or

= VA IL

Summary of Geophysical Target Properties

Density Magnetic Susceptibility Velocity (p and s wave) Attenuation Resistivity Relative Dielectric Constant

Rock Type Pore (fluid) Content Geometry

Geophysics
The Study of the Earth Using Quantitative Physical Methods Remote Insight into the Earth

Objectives of Geophysical Investigation

Remotely map changes in subsurface geologic and hydrogeologic conditions Optimise locations for drilling wells Recognize and map economic resources Extend Ground Truth knowledge from boreholes into formations Geophysical applications Whole Earth Geophysics - Classical Geophysics Exploration Geophysics - measure specific physical properties of the earth to determine subsurface conditions and typically locate an economic resource (typically oil, gas and minerals but also includes water) Characterization Geophysics - remotely map changes in subsurface geologic, engineering and hydrogeologic conditions (map distribution and properties of aquifers and aquicludes)

Exploration, Groundwater and Environmental Geophysics

Exploration Oil and Gas Structural Highs Reservoir Seals High porositypermeability formations Station spacing >25m Resolution 5-15m Seismic Reflection dominant Targets 1-6km
Adapted from Steeples

Characterization Groundwater Structural Lows Reservoir Seals & leaks High porositypermeability formations Station spacing 125m Resolution 0.5-10m Multi-technique Targets 10m-1.5km Environmental Structural Lows Reservoir Leaks Low porositypermeability formations Station spacing <3m Resolution 0.5-2m Multi-technique Targets 1m-500m

Geophysics doesnt/didnt Work!!

The geophysical methods are/were not used in an appropriate manner/setting Key points Geophysics is just another tool to help solve geologic/hydrogeologic problems Geophysics measures physical parameters that must be interpreted in terms that the end user will understand There is rarely a unique geophysical solution To ensure success, every geophysical survey must be conducted within an appropriate geologic framework

Geophysical Methods
Active Artificially generate a signal Transmit this through the Earth and record changes to signal e.g.
Seismic reflection and refraction surveying Direct current electric methods controlled source electromagnetics

Passive Detect variations in natural fields associated with Earth e.g.

Gravity surveying Magnetic surveying

Geophysical Methods and Physical Properties

Method Property Major Influence Lithology (clay content) Moisture (dissolved solids) Lithology (magnetic mineral) Lithology (mineral, porosity) Typical Ranges 104 (sea water) to 10-4 (dry sand) millimohs/m 0 (air filled void) to 1 (sediments) to 3 (massive rocks) gm/km 10-6 (sediments) to 102 (iron alloys) 102 (soil) to 104 (massive rocks) m/sec 10 (ice) to 102 (water)

Electrical Electrical & Electromagnetic Conductivity (resistivity) Gravity Magnetic Seismic Ground Penetrating Radar Density Magnetic Susceptability

Seismic Lithology (porosity, velocity/attentuation saturation, pressure) Dielectric constant Lithology, watercontent, density

Note: Geophysics measures properties that are not unique to a particular soil or rock type!

The Geophysical Survey - Budget

Staffing Operating Costs
general logistics - non-specific equipment, transportation, access, damages, politics, social constraints, geophysical equipment - cost of rental, depreciation

Insurance - liability Overhead - administrative, consumables Development - skills, software Contingencies - something unplanned for will always happen!

Planning a Survey
Define Objectives

Resolution Cultural factors Cost QA/QC Safety Data reduction Forward Model Field Operations plan Line/Station/Grid Processing/interp Integration

Desk Top Survey Cost evaluation

Recommend No Geophysics

Select Geophysics Methodology

Site Check GOOD Survey Design

BAD

Recommend No Geophysics

Data Collection, Processing, Interpretation

Data Integration, Presentation and Recommendation

Data Reduction - Data Processing - Data Presentation

How is data to be reduced? Computer aided? Hand analysis and drafting? How is data to be processed? Computer aided? Dont collect more data than you can process - this is a great temptation with digital acquisition How is data to be interpreted? If computer aided interpretations used are the results geologically/hydrogeologically realistic? Contouring is a particular problem with some sparse data sets Final data presentation? How will the information finally be presented? Can the data be converted into a useable form for presentation to the client?

Noise
Coherent - systematic noise that can be filtered e.g. power line Incoherent - random noise that can be stacked e.g. wind

Noise Sources

Cultural (manmade)

Dynamic Electrical power Radio transmitters Vehicle

Static Buried pipes Drains Foundations

Natural

Rain Wind Wave Electrical Storms Magnetic Storms

Any geologichydrogeologic noise not related to target

Noise Sources

The Geophysical Survey - Typical Survey Types

Sounding - 1D measure variation in properties (usually with depth) at one physical location on surface, e.g. electrical sounding giving borehole like result Profiling - 2D measure variation in properties along the surface of a 2D cross section must consider line orientation (usually perpendicular to anticipated major anomaly or strike of target) Mapping - 2 D usually involves extrapolating between a number of parallel profiles join all points of equal value with isolines (equivalent to contours on a map) Mapping - 3D grid of survey points simultaneously recording (live) for every source initiation 4D - 3D 3D data acquired using time lapse

Resolution
Critical to all types of survey is the issue of required survey resolution. This is a function of sampling and can be either a time criteria or a distance criteria Station spacing/station interval lead to spatial aliasing line interval lead to issues of spatial aliasing too small: spatially undersampled too small: waste time and money too large: miss target completely

Rule of Thumb Geophysical signature (anomaly) typically at least twice actual size of feature.

Spatial Aliasing
(spatial) loss of high frequency information 2D - True Profile Data

Aliased (undersampled)

Optimally sampled

Oversampled 3D example - Bulls Eye Effect

Data Interpretation and Presentation

Qualitative Pattern recognition
Can be applied to any data (property) set Correlate a certain geologic (hydrogeologic) condition with a geophysical character or range or values. Change in values is usually the important criteria Target will not be identified if the variations in properties of the background material are similar in contrast and scale to those associated with the target.

Quantitative inversion numerical modeling neural networks

Line Profiling - 2D data

30 20 10 0 30

Fracture Zone
20

10
EM 34 Horizontal Coils, 20m spacing EM 34 Vertical Coils, 20m spacing

Linear position

Data Presentation - 3D data

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Simple Contour Map

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Monotonic contour
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Colour Contour Map

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Shaded Relief Map

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3D Relief