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COLLECTION OF DATA Collection of Primary Data

a) Observational Method a) Structured Observation
b) Interview Method b) Un structured Observation
c) Questionnaire Method c) Controlled Observation
d) Schedules d) Un Controlled Observation
e) Other Methods e) Participant Observation
f) Non Participant Observation
g) Disguised Observation

Interview method—Personal Interview a) structured Interview

Telephonic Interview b) Unstructured Interview

Questionnaire ---- Open Ended Questions

Closed Ended Questions a) Fill in the blanks
b) Dichotomous
c) Ranking Scale
d) Multiple Choices
e) Rating
Schedule Types --- -a) Observation Schedule
b) Rating Schedule
c) Document Schedule
d) Institution Schedule
e) Interview Schedule

SAMPLING Probability TYPES Non Probability

Simple Random Sampling Quota
Stratified Snow Ball
Systematic Judgmental
Multi Stage Accidental
Multi Phase
Interpenetrating

(Procedure) Define the Population

Select the sampling Frame
Specify the sampling Unit
Specify the sampling Method
Specify the sampling Size
Specify the sampling Plan
Select the Sample

RESEARCH DESIGN Parts a) Sampling

b) Observational
c) Statistical
d) Operational

Types 1) For Exploratory Research i) Search in concerned Literature

ii) Experience Survey
iii) Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating examples’

2) For Descriptive Research i) Formulation of objective of study

ii) Designing the data collection method
iii) Processing & analyzing the data
iv) Reporting the analysed data
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ATTITUDE TESTING: Attitude is the mental state of an individual to act or respond against or
in favor in a particular situation or an object.

Scaling: Assigning numbers ( numerical ranking) to the situation

indicative of an individual attitude according to a rule.

Data Analysis Scales:

Nominal- It is least powerful scale, Used for categorizing, personal variables.

Categorization of variable into several subclasses by assigning
numbers, but these numbers can not be treated for arithmetic
treatments.

Ordinal- Various homogeneous groups of the data are formed between

assigning ranks, these ranks might be based on one or more
characteristics of population. Rank order rating, paired comparison
can be used for it.

Interval- It is useful for showing/measuring the interval with its natural

variation like temperature.

Ratio – For measuring properties for those qualities which have a natural zero
Scale/point. It is the strongest scale.

Scale Order Distance Origin

Nominal X X X
Ordinal √ X X
Interval √ √ X
Ratio √ √ √

Scale decision / construction technique--a) Find out suitability of scale

b) Find out necessary statistical analysis
c) Find out suitable scale construction technique
d) Selecting physical layout of scale
e) Determining the scale categories that need to be used

Multiple items scaling- a) Likert’s Summated rating scale

b) Thrustone’s Equal appearing intervals scale
c) Guttman’s Cumulative Scale

Semantic Differential Scale – Factors Used a) Evolution = Good/Bad

b) Potency = Hard/Soft
c) Activity= Slow/Fast

Type of multiple item scaling: i) Pair wise comparison scale

ii) Rank order scale
iii) Constant sum scale
iv) Rasch model scale
v) Continuous rating scale
vi) Likert scale
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Definition of Research: “Research is a systematized effort to gain knowledge”- Redman & Mory

Scope of Research: Finance- Budgeting-Investment

Purchasing- Procurement, production Management
Distribution-Size of warehouse, out lets, Distribution policy
Personnel Management- Recruitment, Job Designing Selection of suitable
person on minimum salary etc.

Characteristic of Research: a) Continuing Process

b) Economic in Nature
c) Methodical Process
d) Interdisciplinary team approach
e) Objective approach

Types of Research: a) Fundamental

b) Applied
c) Descriptive
f) Historical
g) Exploratory
h) Experimental
i) Ex-Post-facto
j) Case study method

a) Qualitative Research-
Classified as a) Experimental- for establishing cause- effect relationship

B) Simulation- For building models, understanding future conditions

c) Inferential- Understanding relationship

D) Field- Going into field for observation

E) Phenomenological- experience of a long period of time.

b) Quantitative Research

PROCESS OF RESEARCH:

a) Selecting the Topic

b) Defining the research Problem
c) Mention the research objectives
d) Survey existing literature
e) Development of working Hypothesis
f) Preparing research design
g) Exploratory Research/Conclusive Research
h) Sampling design
i) Data Collection
j) Execution of Research
k) Analysis of Data
l) Hypothesis Testing
m) Interpretation
n) Preparation of Research Thesis.
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Hypothesis:
An approximate assumption that a researcher wants to test for its logical or empirical
Consequences / Is an uncertain statement that involves the proposed answer to the problem.

Types of Hypothesis:

a) Null Hypothesis- A Statement of “No chance” or “No difference” or “no relationship”. Is

formulated for possible rejection or nullification.
b) Alternative Hypothesis- A logical opposite of” null-hypothesis”.
c) Research Hypothesis- Test for which research is conducted.

Approaches to testing of Hypothesis:

1) Classical- Based on analysis of sampling of data

2) Bayesian- Sampling plus data characteristics

Test of Significance:

a) Parametric b) Non Parametric

Z- test Chi-square test

t- test Sign Test
F- Test Median test
Mann-Whitney U test
Wilcox in-Matched pair test
Kol-mogorov-Simrnov (KS) test

For Normal Distribution:

a) One Tailed test- The rejection region is located on only one side of the normal curve, either
left side or right side.
b) Two Sided test - The rejection region is located on both the sides of the normal curve.

Decision of which sided rejection area test-

It is to be followed/used depends up on the research hypothesis (Ha). When Ha predicts high value-
rejection is located on the right side of the tail and, when the Ha predicts lower value the rejection region
is located n the left hand side of the curve.

Steps in testing hypothesis:

1) State the null hypothesis

2) State the Alternative hypothesis
3) State the appropriate statistical test ( from-F, t, Z)
4) State the Level of Significance
5) Compute the Statistics
6) Selection of the Correct type of distribution-( Normal/Binomial/t-distribution/F-distribution)
7) Compute the significance test level
8) Obtain the critical value
9) Make the decision

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Types of Research Design:

a) Design in exploratory Studies

b) Design in descriptive Studies
c) Design in Causal Studies

Types (Originates) of Alternate Hypothesis:

1) Subject effect
2) History effect
3) Maturation effect
4) Demand effect
5) Testing effect
6) Regression to the mean test
7) Instrumentation
8) Halo effect
9) Mortality effect
10) Expectancy effect

Experiment Design Types

1) Pre-Experimental (Pilot-test) ---- One shot Case study

One Group Pretest
Static group Comparison study

2) Quasi-Experimental-----------------Time Series
Multiple Time Series
Static group designs

3) True Experimental-------------------Post Test Equivalent Group

Pre Test Post test Equivalent Group

Sampling Parameters:

1) Universe: Total number of elements

2) Sample: Representative units from the population
3) Sampling Plan: The process/Technique followed for sample selection
4) Statistics& Parameters: Sample mean is statistics, Population mean is Parameter of the Sample
5) Sampling Error: Due to sample the minimum error that might be there, Larger the sample size
lower will the error.
6) Significance level: The level of likelihood confidence about the happening of the events.
7) Precision: The tolerance within which the exact answer/out come will lie.+- range
8) Sampling distribution: F distribution, t distribution, Z distribution

TYPES OF RESEARCH:

A) Applied Research-------------- B) Pure Research

1) Exploratory Research
2) Descriptive
3) Diagnostic
4) Evaluation
5) Action

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