MEIOSIS

Is a mode of cell replication that occurs only in the gonads(testis and ovary) of eukaryotes, in order to produce germ cells or gametes(sperm and egg). Meiosis is a reductional division, where genetic material is reduced to form daughter cells having the amount of DNA(and genes) found in regular body cells(typically haploid nuclei being formed from diploid nuclei). Gametes are thus considered to be haploid. Following meiosis, sperm and egg cells potentially combine during fertilization to form a fertilized egg called zygote. The zygote now has the full complement of genetic material(1/2 + 1/2). Meiosis is the first step in sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction also results in variation in the genotype of the offspring because during the formation of gametic cells a process called crossing over occurs. At interphase each cell contains pairs of homologous chromosomes, one from each parent. During interphase each chromosome replicates in a similar manner to that of mitosis. Meiosis involves two distinct stages: meiosis I is a reductional division, whereas meiosis II, which is an equational division, is analogous to mitosis. The end result of meiosis is the production of four haploid daughter cells from the diploid parent cell.

Meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiotic division occurs in gonads to produce sex cells or gametes containing only one set of chromosome or half the amount of DNA that is found in diploid somatic cells. Each of meiosis I and meiosis II exhibits a prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Meiosis I
Prophase I Comprises five stages: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis. Leptotene stage: Individual chromosomes, each having previously replicated to form two sister chromatids connected at the centromere, become visible as long, single threads. Zygotene stage: pairing of homologous chromosomes, lengthwise; each pair of homologues is called bivalent. This pairing or synapsis involves the synaptonemal complex. The Pachytene stage: the chromosomes further condense and each pair is observed as four chromatids(tetrad). Between homologous chromosomes appear a protein complex called sinaptonemal complex or sinapton where the crossing over takes place. Diplotene stage: crossing over occurs between pairs of non-sister chromatids(intrachromosomial recombination); each chromosome starts to separate from its homologue. The chromosomes of each pair remain attached at sites of crossing over(chiasmata). Diakinesis stage: the chromosomes have an opposite movement one by another, so they have an aspect of ring. By the end of diakinesis each centriole pair should start to move to the poles and nuclear membrane breaks down. Metaphase I. The homologous chromosomes form a layer at the equator of the cell(as in mitosis). This aspect is called interchromosomial recombination. Anaphase I. The homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the spindle, toward the centrioles. Note that the sister chromatids do not separate, only the pairs of homologous chromosomes. Telophase I. Each of the two groups of chromosomes becomes enclosed by a nuclear membrane and cytoplasmic division occurs to produce two cells. By the end of telophase I, the daughter nuclei are haploid and genetically different from the original nucleus. Interphase II/Interkinesis separate the first and the second meiotic division. It is similar to normal interphase, except DNA synthesis does not take place.

Meiosis II(as normal mitosis) Prophase II. Centrioles migrate to the poles. Nuclear membrane breaks down. Metaphase II. Chromosomes move to the equator of the cell. Anaphase II. Sister chromatids separate and move to poles. Telophase II. Nuclear membrane forms an enclosed and complete set of chromosomes. Cytoplasmic division occurs resulting in a total of four haploid nuclei(n). SPERMATOGENESIS Is the process by which sperm cells or male gametes are produced. In human male spermatogenesis takes place within the seminiferous tubules in testis. The walls of seminiferous tubules consist of diploid spermatogonia, stem cells that are the precursors of sperm. Spermatogonia divide by mitosis to produce more spermatogonia or differentiate into spermatocytes. Meiosis of each spermatocyte produces 4 haploid spermatids. These then differentiate into sperm cells, losing most of their cytoplasm in the process.

Spermatogenesis in humans occurs in the seminiferous tubules. Spermatogonia, which are diploid stem cells, can divide by mitosis to produce more spermatogonia or differentiate into primary spermatocytes. Each spermatocyte undergoes meiosis and produces 4 haploid spermatids. These then differentiate into sperm. Sperm cells are little more than flagellated nuclei. Each consist of a head, which has an acrosome at its top and contains a haploid set of chromosomes(23) in a compact, inactive state. In addition, it has a midpiece containing mitochondria(they supply the ATP to fuel the motion of the tail), a centriole and a tail.

OOGENESIS Oogenesis or egg formation takes place in ovaries. In contrast to males, the initial steps in egg production occur prior to birth. By the time the fetus is 25 weeks old, primordial

germ cells or gonocytes proliferate by mitosis to generate ll the oogonia that she will ever possess. Oogonia are the precursor diploid cells of eggs or female gametes. Hundred of these diploid cells develop into primary oocytes begin the first steps of meiosis and then stop. No further development occurs until years later when the girl becomes sexually mature. Then the oocytes complete their development, usually one at a time and once a month. The primary oocyte grows much larger and completes the first meiotic division, forming a large secondary oocyte and a small polar body. The first polar body does not complete meiosis. In humans(and most vertebrates) the second meiotic division occurs after fertilization, converting the secondary oocyte into an egg(and a second polar body).

GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF MEIOSIS Main features of meiosis: 1. Repeated cycles of meiosis and fertilization maintain the ploidy( the characteristic number of chromosomes) in organisms with sexual reproduction. 2. Maintain de the variability of species. The chromosomes segregate independently into individual sex cells in metaphase I(interchromosomial recombination). For instance, the copy of chromosome 1 that an egg cell receives has no influence on which of the two possible copies of chromosome 6 it gets. Assortment takes place for each of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes. So, any single human egg receives one of two possible chromosome 23 times, and the total number of different possible chromosome combinations is over 8 million(2

raised to the 23-rd power). And thats just for the eggs. The same random assortment goes on as each sperm cell is made. Thus, when a sperm fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote contains a combination of genes arranged in an order that has never occurred before and will never occur again. Genetic recombinations that occur during prophase I(crossing over/intrachromosomial recombination) will generate further variations to the final combinations so that the different kinds of progeny nuclei will reach an extremely high number. 3. Maintain the heredity of parental features to offsprigs. The movements of chromosomes during meiosis are the bases for Mendels laws free segregation and independent assortment, which establishes the rules for hereditary transmission of features. 4. Meiosis is studied because in this process can appear nondisjunction or nonconjunction between chromosomes, which leads to aneuploid gametes, than to aneuploid zygotes(trisomy, monosomy). 5. Tumors. Uncontrolled replication of cells leads to cell overgrowth, that is tumors.