Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism: Energy yielding reactions in which complex molecules are broken down to small molecules. Catabolism produces chemical energy (usually ATP) where it is utilized for various cellular functions: Synthesis of proteins, RNA, DNA for growth, adaptation and repair. Synthesis of fats and glycogen. Performance of mechanical work. Eg: Cellular respiration. Anabolism: Energy requiring reactions in which simple precursor molecules are converted into complex molecules. It requires chemical energy (usually ATP) which is provided by catabolism. Eg: Synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids etc.

Catabolism & Anabolism

Cell metabolism
Energy is the ability to do work. Living things need to acquire energy; this is a characteristic of life. Cells use acquired energy to: Maintain their organization Carry out reactions that allow cells to develop, grow, and reproduce. Organisms use enzymes to break down energy-rich glucose to release its potential energy. This energy is trapped and stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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Cellular Energy-ATP
Components: 1. adenine: nitrogenous base 2. ribose: five carbon sugar 3.phosphate group: chain of 3

Three phosphate groups-(two with high energy bonds Last phosphate group (PO4) contains the MOST energy

adenine

phosphate group

P ribose

ATP: Energy for Cells

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of cells. ATP is constantly regenerated from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) after energy is expended by the cell. Use of ATP by the cell has advantages: 1) It can be used in many types of reactions. 2) When ATP ADP + P, energy released is sufficient for cellular needs and little energy is wasted.
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Function of ATP
Cells make use of ATP for: Chemical work ATP supplies energy to synthesize macromolecules, and therefore the organism. Transport work ATP supplies energy needed to pump substances across the plasma membrane. Mechanical work ATP supplies energy for cellular movements.
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Biological Energy Cycle

Food + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy Chemical Mechanical 60-70% of this energy is heat The rest is used for Muscle contraction Cellular operations (respiration) Digestion and absorption Synthesis of new compounds Glandular function

Biological Energy Cycle

Cellular Respiration - The process by which cells transfer energy from food to ATP in a stepwise series of reactions; relies heavily upon the use of oxygen Anaerobic - In the absence of, not requiring, nor utilizing oxygen Aerobic - In the presence of, requiring, or utilizing oxygen

Biological Energy production

Bioenergetics

The study of energy in living systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize them Energy: Required by all organisms May be Kinetic or Potential energy Kinetic Energy: Energy of Motion Heat and light energy are examples Potential Energy: Energy of position Includes energy stored in chemical bonds

Two Types of Energy Reactions

Endergonic Reactions: Chemical reaction that requires a net input of energy. Photosynthesis
photons
SUN

Light Energy

6CO2 + 6H2O

C6H12O6 + 6O2
(glucose)

Exergonic Reactions : Chemical reactions that releases energy Cellular Respiration C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O+
(glucose)

Energy

ATP

Dehydration of ATP

ADP + P ATP + H2O (endergonic)

Dehydration (Remove H2O
P P + P

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) P P P

Energy is restored in chemical bonds

Hydrolysis of ATP

ATP + H2O ADP + P

P P

ATPase

(exergonic)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) P

Hydrolysis (add water)

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Energy is used by cells

Endergonic Reaction Photosynthesis Autotrophs produce their own food (glucose). Process called photosynthesis. Mainly occurs in the leaves: a. stoma - pores b. mesophyll cells

Mesophyll Cell

Chloroplast Stoma

Photosynthesis
Involves the Use Of light Energy to convert Water (H20) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) into Oxygen (O2) and High Energy (sugars, e.g. Carbohydrates Glucose) & Starches

Stomata (stoma)
Pores in a plants cuticle through which water vapor and gases (CO2 & O2) are exchanged between the plant and the atmosphere.
Oxygen (O2) Stoma

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Guard Cell

Guard Cell

Found on the underside of leaves

Mesophyll Cell of Leaf

Nucleus Cell Wall Chloroplast Photosynthesis occurs in these cells!

Chloroplast

Organelle where photosynthesis takes place.

Stroma Outer Membrane Thylakoid Inner Membrane

Granum

Thylakoid stacks are connected together

Chlorophyll In addition to water, carbon dioxide, and light energy, photosynthesis requires Pigments Chlorophyll is the primary light-absorbing pigment in autotrophs Chlorophyll is found inside chloroplasts Located in the thylakoid membranes Chlorophyll have Mg+ in the center Chlorophyll pigments harvest energy (photons) by absorbing certain wavelengths (blue-420 nm and red-660 nm are most important) Plants are green because the green wavelength is reflected, not absorbed.

Two reactions photosynthesis:

Two Parts of Photosynthesis

make up

1.Light Reaction or Light-dependent Reaction Produces energy from solar power (photons) in the form of ATP and NADPH. Occurs in Thylakoid membranes 2. Calvin Cycle or Light-independent Reaction Also called Carbon Fixation or C3 Fixation 3-carbon molecule called Ribulose Biphosphate (RuBP) is used to regenerate the Calvin cycle Uses energy (ATP and NADPH) from light reaction to make sugar (glucose). Occurs in Stroma

1.Light Reaction or Light-dependent Reaction

The 'light-dependent reactions', or photosynthesis, is the first stage of photosynthesis, the process by which plants capture and store energy from sunlight. In this process, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the form of the energy-carrying molecules ATP and NADPH. It occurs in thylakoid membranes.

2. Calvin Cycle or Light-independent Reaction

In the light-independent reactions, the formed NADPH and ATP drive the reduction of CO2 to more useful organic compounds, such as glucose. It also called dark reactions, they are not independent of the need of light, for they are driven by ATP and NADPH, products of light. They are often called the Calvin Cycle or Carbon fixation. It occurs in stroma.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis Amount of available water. Temperature. Amount of available light energy.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is found in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway does not require oxygen, and can therefore function under anaerobic circumstances. The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid).

Glycolysis
Before glucose can be converted into ATP, it has be broken down into two pyruvate molecules (the ionized form of pyruvic acid). This process is known as glycolysis. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and can occur without the presence of oxygen and is the primary energy source for most organisms. This process consumes two ATP molecules, and produces four ATP molecules and two NADH2+ molecules. Glycolysis is summarized below: 1. Glucose 6-phosphate is formed when the 6th carbon on the glucose molecule is phosphorylated by an ATP molecule. 2. Glucose 6-phosphate is converted into a 5-carbon ring isomer, fructose 6-phosphate. 3. Fructose 6-phosphate is phosphorylated by another ATP to form fructose 1, 6-diphosphate. 4. Fructose 1, 6-diphosphate is processed by an enzyme into two glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecules. 5. Two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are oxidized, losing hydrogen atoms and gaining phosphate groups to form 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate. Two molecules of NAD+are converted into NADH2+ in the process. 6. Two 1,3-diphosphoglycerate molecules phosphorylate ADP (adenine diphosphate) to yield two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate and two ATPs are produced. 7. The phosphate groups on 3-phosphoglycerate move to the 2nd carbon, forming2phosphoglycerate. 8. The two 2-phosphoglycerate molecules are dehydrated and forms two high-energy phosphoenolpyruvate molecules. 9. The two phospoenolpyruvate phosphorylates two ADPs and produces two more ATPs and two molecules of pyruvate.

Citric acid cycle or Kreb s cycle

This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, two processes can occur, aerobic or anaerobic respiration. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transpor chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving different enzymes and coenzymes. Throughout the entire cycle, acetyl-CoA(2 carbons) + Oxaloacetate(4 carbons). Citrate(6 carbons) is rearranged to a more reactive form called Isocitrate(6 carbons). Isocitrate(6 carbons) modifies to become -Ketoglutarate(5 carbons), Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, and finally, Oxaloacetate.

Citric acid cycle

Krebs cycle
Aerobic Respiration The pyruvate produced in glycolysis undergoes further breakdown through a process called aerobic respiration in most organisms. This process requires oxygen and yields much more energy than glycolysis. Aerobic respiration is divided into two processes: the Krebs cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain, which produces ATP through chemiosmotic phosphorylation. Krebs Cycle The pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis contain a lot of energy in the bonds between their molecules. In order to use that energy, the cell must convert it into the form of ATP. To do so, pyruvate molecules are processed through the Kreb Cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle. 1. Prior to entering the Krebs Cycle, pyruvate must be converted into acetyl CoA (pronounced: acetyl coenzyme A). This is achieved by removing a CO2 molecule from pyruvate and then removing an electron to reduce an NAD+ into NADH. An enzyme called coenzyme A is combined with the remaining acetyl to make acetyl CoA which is then fed into the Krebs Cycle. The steps in the Krebs Cycle are summarized below: 2. Citrate is formed when the acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate from the previous Krebs cycle.. 3. Citrate is converted into its isomer isocitrate.. 4. Isocitrate is oxidized to form the 5-carbon -ketoglutarate. This step releases one molecule of CO2 and reduces NAD+ to NADH2+. 5. The -ketoglutarate is oxidized to succinyl CoA, yielding CO2 and NADH2+. 6. Succinyl CoA releases coenzyme A and phosphorylates ADP into ATP. 7. Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, converting FAD to FADH2. 8. Fumarate is hydrolized to form malate. 9. Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate, reducing NAD+ to NADH2+. We are now back at the beginning of the Krebs Cycle. Because glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules from one glucose, each glucose is processes through the kreb cycle twice.