LEARNING What is learning ?

The term is generally used to denote the process through which people acquire the knowledge and skills required for a specific purpose. Psychologists have given a broader scope to this terminology. According to them learning signifies a change in behaviour as a result of experience. It is impossible to measure learning directly. It can be measured only by noting the changes it brings about in behaviour. Any change in attitudes or approaches unaccompanied by behavioural changes cannot be considered to fall under the purview of learning. The changes in behaviour must be relatively permanent; besides this, it must be a natural outcome of experience, which may be acquired either directly (through a persons own observations or practices), or indirectly (by experiences reported by others). Theories of Learning : Learning theories can be broadly classified into two connectionist behaviouristic theories and cognitive theories. A brief discussion about these theories is given below. Connectionist Behaviouristic Theories The classical theories consider learning to be a result of the connection between stimulus and response. The stimulus response connection deals with respondent classical conditioning. The operant behaviouristics on the other hand, focus attention on the role that consequences play in learning i.e. the response stimulus connection. This stimulus deals with operant conditioning. Let us examine what classical and operant conditioning are :Classical Conditioning :- Using a simple surgical procedure, Pavlov was able to accurately measure the saliva secreted by a dog. In the first instance, when the dog was presented with a meat piece (unconditioned stimulus), an increase in saliva (unconditioned response) was noticed. When the bell was merely rung (neutral stimulus), the dog did not salivate. In the second, Pavlov linked the meat to the ringing of the bell. After several attempts at hearing the bell before getting the meat, the dog began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. Thus the dog became classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned response) to the bell (conditioned stimulus). Behavioural scientists opine that human beings too can be conditioned. A conditioned response can be learnt by associating a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning is passive and can explain only simple reflexive behaviour. But organizational behaviour is complex and is voluntary. (eg. Workers being prompt, cooperative etc.) Hence such behaviour is better understood by operant conditioning. Operant Conditioning : The theory was put forth by Skinner. The belief underlying the theory is that behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is voluntary in nature. The tendency to repeat a specific behaviour is influenced by reinforcement (i.e. strengthening a behaviour by rewards) or the lack of reinforcement, resulting from the consequences of the behaviour. Positive reinforcement increases the changes of the behaviour being repeated. Thus rewards (eg. Pay rise, greater freedom, appreciation etc) are used by organizations to improve productivity (i.e. desired behaviour). It has also been observed that when a

behaviour is not rewarded or is punished (negative reinforcement) it is seldom repeated. Operant conditioning is a useful technique with which organizations can induce desired behaviour. Organisations may adopt either a continuous reinforcement schedule or an intermittent reinforcement schedule. In the continuous schedule, the desired behaviour is reinforced each time it is repeated. For example, let us consider the case of a worker who absents himself frequently from his work. Each time the worker is observed to report for duty without breaks, the superior would do well to appreciate his presence. This appreciation is likely to instill in him the desire to avoid absence from his work. In the case of intermittent schedule, reinforcement is not given each time a desirable behaviour is observed. It is done only at intervals, sufficient to induce the person to repeat the behaviours. Take the case of an organization, which decides to reward salesmen who attain a specific target through a lucky draw to be conducted at intervals of six months. All salesmen would be prompted to achieve the target, for each time period, eventhough only a few are likely to be rewarded. Intermittent reinforcement may take the form of ratio type or an interval type. In ratio type of reinforcement, the schedules are determined on the basis of a ratio. Thus the number of times a person responds favourably is taken into account. An organization may thus decide on reinforcement only after a person exhibits a desirable behaviour for a specific number of times. Reinforcement is given only after a certain time span has elapsed, after the previous one was made, in the case of the interval type. A fixed interval type is one where the reinforcement is done at uniform time intervals. The yearly bonus for productivity, given to workers is an example of this type of reinforcement. In variable-interval type, reinforcements cannot be predicted as rewards are distributed in time (eg. sudden visits to the factory by top officials). In fixed-ratio schedule a reward is given after a specific number of responses 9eg. piece rate incentives). In variable ratio schedule, rewards vary relative to the persons behaviour (eg. commission given on the basis of successful calls made by a salesman). Variable schedules are considered better than the continuous schedule. This is because, the continuous one loses its importance because of frequent repetition. The latter is ideal in cases of new, low frequency and occasional behaviours. Cognitive Theories Tolman considered learning to be a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectations. He felt that a stimulus usually leads to another stimulus. This refuted the earlier views that a stimulus leads to a response; and a response leads to a stimulus. Further he did not consider reinforcement to be a precondition for learning. However, most of

Tolmans views were dismissed off as wrong by behaviourists, but its influence on human relations movement cannot be denied. Social Learning Theory : It combines and integrates the behaviouristic and cognitive concepts. It also emphasizes their interaction with the environment. While this theory is significantly influenced by classical and operant conditioning, it goes beyond their scope. It emphasizes that learning can take place via modeling and self-control processes. According to the theory a modeling process generally involves observational learning. Bandura showed that people can learn from others. The process involves two stages. In the first, a person observes the actions of others and then deduces the relationship between the acts and their consequences (i.e. the rewards or punishments). In the second step the person acts out what he has observed and if its results in a positive consequences, he will be prompted to repeat it. Conversely, if the consequence is negative, he will not repeat it. Modeling thus involves interrelated sub-processes such as attention, retention, motor reproduction and reinforcement. Modeling is widely used by organizations to effectively improve human performance. Organisational Applications of Learning Theory : Learning theory has a wide range of applications. Some of these are : 1. Absenteeism can be effectively checked through the use of learning theory. Reinforcement has an effective part in encouraging employees to be productively present on their jobs. 2. Employees could be disciplined effectively, using the learning theory techniques. While bad behaviour can be punished and thereby negatively reinforced, good behaviour can be positively reinforced. Thus employees will get cues about what sort of behaviour is acceptable to their organizations. 3. Training programs can be designed on the basis of the social learning theory. The training model should be capable of attracting the trainees attention, sustaining it, and inducing its use in common practice. Resultant positive changes in behaviour must be suitably rewarded to ensure its continued use. The trainee may then even successfully impart the knowledge gained to others. 4. It could be used by superiors to determine some subordinates whose potentials could be developed through greater attention, advice and guidance on his part. The subordinate is the protg, and the superior, the mentor. This method is gaining ground of late, as it is the best method of appreciating talent, and retaining it for top jobs of the future. 5. Special rewards could be used to promote specific behaviours. Thus for example, employees could be rewarded for not taking leave. This will encourage the employees to be present regularly. Rewards may also be given for meeting targets etc. Thus it ensures high productivity.

ORGANISAIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION Organisational behaviour modification is an applied behavioural technique used by practicing managers in the management of human resources. The technique is not considered to be an alternative but a supplement to existing traditional management techniques. The combination of these two approaches is considered to be useful in ensuring effective performance. Organisational behaviour modification involves five steps identification, measurement, analysis, intervention and evaluation. Each of these steps are discussed below so as to understand how employees behaviour towards performance is actually changed. 1. Identification of critical behaviours : In almost all organizations today, a large part of performance is accounted for by a small percentage of behaviours. It is crucial for organizations to determine these behaviours. The problem at hand is great as there are numerous behaviours occurring at a particular time. And it is almost impossible to determine which of these affect performance significantly. There are two methods which will help solve the above problem. The first is to ask the immediate superior or the job holder himself to identify the critical behaviours. This is a method of using OB modification as a problem solving technique. Since the person involved is very familiar with the job, he is able to identify the appropriate behaviours accurately, besides ensuring commitment to the OB modification process. Yet another approach is to obtain a list of critical behaviours (behavioural audit), from internal specialists and consultants. The audit would enable the systematic analysis of the job. This approach has the advantages of the former besides the gains associated with having the expertise of the staff and consultants.

STEPS IN O.B. MODIFICATION Identity Performance related Behavioural Events Measurement : Baseline Response Frequency

Identify Existing Behavioural contingencies through Functional Analysis

Develop Intervention Strategies

Apply Apppropriate Strategy

Measure : Chart Response Frequency intervention YES Problem Solved ? Maintain Desirable Behaviour

after

Evaluate for Performance Improvement Are there any guidelines for determining critical behaviours ? Yes. In O.B. modification only direct behaviours are included (eg. absenteeism, promptness, efficiency etc.) Thus critical behaviour is a behaviour which can be measured and which has a direct impact on performance. Yet another guideline is to determine any deficiency in performance and then identify the behaviours relevant to it. This a backward analysis of jobs. Of course, not all performance inefficiency can be attributed to behaviour. Some may arise out of technical difficulties or other factors such as faulty standards of measurement, lack of training, lack of skills etc.

But since behaviour does influence performance to a large extent, it is essential for organizations to reinforce acceptable behaviour while negating undesirable ones. 2. Measurement : A baseline performance data is developed. It denotes the number of times the identified behaviour occurs under existing conditions. This is obtained either through observation or from existing records. It provides an objective frequency data of the identified behaviours. Sometimes the behaviour identified may be noticed to repeat itself less or more frequently than is anticipated. If a superior wishes to ensure that positive behaviours are adopted by his subordinates, he must ensure that he keeps a track of the changes in behaviour of his subordinates. Otherwise no meaningful conclusions about behaviour can be made. Tally sheets, graphs, observational techniques, and self-reporting could be used for the purpose of measuring behaviour. 3. Functional Analysis : Functional analysis is performed to determine the antecedent cues and the consequences of behaviour (for eg. a lazy worker may avoid going to work often, thereby attracting disciplinary proceedings against him). Only after identifying these, can steps be taken to rectify or reinforce the behaviour. 4. Intervention : The former three steps are preliminary in nature. Once they are complete, action is taken to implement an intervention strategy. Intervention strengthens desirable performance while weakening or nullifying undesirable ones. Usually this is done through any of the following three techniques. : 1. Positive Reinforcement 2. Punishment positive reinforcement 3. Extinction positive reinforcement These are discussed below : Positive reinforcement : It strengthens behaviour and increases the frequency of its occurrence. It is recommended for O.B. modification as it is a positive control of behaviour unlike punishment or negative reinforcement which is a negative control of behaviour. It is considered to induce productivity. Besides, it is more effective and the impact remains longer. If a person who is working earnestly is praised by his superiors, he is likely to repeat the behaviour in future too. Thus he will contribute more to organizational effectiveness. Punishment-Positive reinforcement : Sometimes it is necessary to use punishment to prevent certain behaviours. However, it is not advisable except in extreme cases. The problem with punishment is that the undesirable behaviour often surfaces when the punishment authority is not present on the scene. For eg. a person may be rebuked for not wearing his safety helmet while working in a factory. He may then begin wearing it only when the superior is around. The purpose is thus not served. If he is appreciated for beginning to wear his helmet, he is likely to continue the practice. Thus punishment and positive reinforcement should be used in combination, so as to ensure compliance over the long run.

Extinction-Positive reinforcement : It is a better way to controlling undesirable behaviour than punishment, as it has no side effects. In this strategy a desirable consequence is withdrawn after the behaviour occurs. It is desirable to use positive reinforcement with extinction to get better results. For eg. if a worker is found to be quarrelsome the best thing would be to ignore his behaviour. It is likely that when the worker does not get the attention he desires he will slowly stop doing it. This change in behaviour should be positively reinforced (eg. through appreciation, counseling etc.) so that it continues in future too. 5. Evaluation : The last step is to evaluate the model to establish its credibility. One method of evaluation would be to ascertain the reactions of the people to who, the model is directed i.e. whether they are adopting it and are finding its use beneficial. Otherwise, its use is wasteful. Yet another is to determine whether the users are able to understand all aspects of the model. Unless it is easily understood by the target users the purpose will not be served. Evaluations have also to be made to determine if there are any behavioural changes and if so its extent. This is very important as behaviour influences performance to a large extent. Lastly, it must be determined if performance has actually improved. This is the crux of O.B modification. Hence it is of prime importance. Applications : O.B Modification has been found to improve performance in organizations. Some observations about its influence in certain aspects of human performance is summarized below : 1. Productivity : O.B Modification has been found to increase employee productivity both quantitatively and qualitatively. As such O.B Modification has been observed to be increasingly used by practicing managers. 2. Sales Performance : O.B. Modification has been found to improve salesmans performance. This is because it helps to identify desirable selling behaviour. Training will then equip them to use the technique which will help them make a sale. 3. Absenteeism : Rewards for attendance and promptness and punishment for absenteeism and laziness are used by organizations. It has been observed, that reduction in absence and laziness were observed on account of this. 4. Safely : O.B. Modification has been found to reduce accident rates in factories. Increased use of safety aids like ear plugs, helmets, books, gloves etc. have also been observed. These help to reduce the number of accidents. 5. Attitude Changes : General changes in attitude like reduction in complaints, cordial relationships with co-workers, responsiveness to subordinates increasing sense of responsibility etc. have also been observed. Though OB modification has wide implications in organizational settings, its use is not as is desired. This is because of an inherent fear that managers feel towards using new approaches. Considering its potential, practicing managers would do well to adopt it in managing their human resources efficiently.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS People will engage in desired behaviours if they are positively reinforced to do so. A reinforcer is anything that increases the strength of a behavior. A reward that accompanies or follows a behavior is the reinforcer of that behaviour. Reinforcers are of two types primary and secondary. A primary reinforcer is rewarding in itself and its effects are independent of past experiences. Food, water and sex are examples of primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are instinctual needs and are not learned. Primary reinforcers have little relevance to understanding complex behavior in organizations. Secondary reinforcers are conditioned needs that we have learned to value. The best example of a secondary reinforcer is money a reward that organizations offer to their employees. Other secondary reinforcers include such rewards as prestige, praise, fame, approval and recognition. METHODS OF SHAPING BEHAVIOR There are three ways to shape behavior through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment. When a response is followed with something pleasant, it is called positive reinforcement. When the boss praises a worker for better performance, it is a case of positive reinforcement. When a response is followed by the withdrawal of something unpleasant, it is called negative reinforcement. If the teacher asks a question and you do not know the answer, looking through your lecture notes is likely to avoid your being called upon. This is a negative reinforcement because you have learned that looking busily through your notes terminates being called on by the teacher. Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. An employee who has been suspended from work for a week without pay for riotous behavior in the factory is an example of punishment. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. But punishment weakens behavior and decreases its subsequent repetition. The term reinforcement is conceptual related to the psychological process of motivation. Though sometimes reinforcement is equated with motivation, they are different. Motivation is a basic psychological process and is broader than the learning principle of reinforcement. Motivation represents unobservable inner states and reinforcement is environmentally based. Motivation is an internal explanation of behavior and reinforcement is an external explanation of behavior. Reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement. ADMINISTERING REINFORCEMENT The role of reinforcement in the study of organizational behavior cannot be overestimated. It plays an important role in human resource management areas such as training, appraisal, performance and adaptation to change. Overall organization development depends upon reinforcement. Reinforcement will increase the strength of desired organizational behavior.

The impact of reinforcement on organizational behavior can be summed up as follows :1. 2. 3. Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce change. Some types of rewards are more effective for use in the organization than are others. How far learning takes place and also how lasting its effects will be is determined by the timing of reinforcement.

How the reward is administered can greatly influence the specific organizational behavior that takes place. The four major techniques of administering rewards are fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio and variable interval. Let us explain them. If a schedule is administered on a ratio basis, reinforcement is given after a certain number of responses. If the schedule is a fixed ratio, the exact number of responses is specified. A fixed ratio that reinforces after every response is designated as 1 : 1. The 1 : 1 fixed ratio is generally is used in basic conditioning experiments and every type of learning situation begins with this schedule. But as learning advances, it is more effective to shift to a fixed ration of 2 : 1 and even 20 : 1. Administering reward under a fixed ratio schedule will produce a high rate of response. The person soon determines that reinforcement is based on the number of responses and performs the responses quickly in order to receive the reward. An example of how the fixed ratio schedule is applied to industrial organizations is the piece rate incentive system. The other way to administer reward is on a fixed interval basis. Under this schedule, reinforcement is given under a specified period of time, which is measured from the last reinforced response. The length of time that can be used by this schedule varies a great deal. In the beginning of any learning situation, a very short interval is required. However, as learning advances, the interval can be stretched out. Behavior resulting from a fixed interval method of reinforcing is quite different from that exhibited by a fixed ratio. While under fixed ratio there is a vigorous response pattern, under fixed interval there is an uneven pattern that varies from a very slow, unenergetic response following reinforcement to a fast, vigorous response preceding reinforcement. This type of behavior pattern can be explained by the fact that the person thinks that another reward will be immediately follow the last one. So the person may relax a little until it is time to be rewarded again. An example of administering reward on a fixed on a fixed interval schedule is the payment of employees by the hour or week or month. Monetary reinforcement comes at the end of a period of time. Both ratio and interval schedules can be administered on a variable or intermittent basis. This means that the reinforcement is given in an unsystematic manner. In variable ratio, the reward is given after a number of responses but the exact number is randomly varied. When the variable ratio is expressed as some number, say 40, this means that on the average the organism is reinforced after 40 responses. The variable interval schedule works basically the same as the variable ratio except that reward is given after a randomly distributed length of time rather than after a number of responses.

Both variable ratio and variable interval schedules tend to produce stable, vigorous behavior. The behavior under variable schedules is similar to that produced by a fixed ratio schedule. Under variable schedules, the person has no idea when reward is coming, so the behavior tends to be steady and strong. Administration of reinforcement provides some guidelines for effective human resource management. For example, the timing of the reward should be kept close to the desired response. In addition, ratio schedules are generally more desirable than interval schedules because they tend to produce steady, strong response. Although some types of employees may work better under continuous schedules, variable schedules may be better for other types of employees. Understanding and then applying the administration of reinforcement can be of great assistance to modern human resource managers.