THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF

SINGAPORE
Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering

CN4121

Design of Cooling Tower

Name:

Zou Changlong

Data:

19/03/2012

U083731A

Contents
Basic design ....................................................................................5
Computation scheme ......................................................................6
Calculation and results ...................................................................7
Step 1) Driving force and NTU (KaV/L) Calculation .....................7
Step 2) Plot Design NTU Curve .....................................................9
Step 3) Fill Selection ................................................................... 10
Step 4) Optimal L/G value selection............................................. 12
Step 5) Other Calculation............................................................ 17
Appendix ........................................................................................ 21
Reference ........................................................................................ 29

Nomenclature
Hot water temperature
Cold water temperature
Wet bulb temperature
Dry bulb temperature
Enthalpy of saturated air, kJ/kg

Enthalpy of moist air, kJ/kg

Enthalpy of exit air, kJ/kg
Enthalpy of inlet air, kJ/kg
Flowrate,
L Mass flowrate of liquid, kg/h
G Mass flowrate of gas, kg/h
Relative humidity

Introduction of cooling towers

The synthesis of ethyl benzene is a very exothermal process. The temperature of raw product is
so high that need to be cooled down to a moderate temperature before it goes to distillation
column or storage. Generally, the excess heat from the synthesis process is transferred to cooling
water. If the temperature is high enough, the heat can also be used to generate steam which can
be used in distillation column or next process. However, most unwanted excess heat has to be
released to the environment without creating ecological hazard and havoc or adding unnecessary
expense by using cooling water as intermedia. Hence, cooling tower is introduced to cool down
the cooling water and recycle it, which not only solve the possible ecological problem caused by
releasing hot water directly to environment but also recycle most water to decrease the
investment of cooling process and do help to the crisis of worlds water supply.
Cooling tower is a thermodynamic artifact combined with a recalculating water system that
serving as a transport medium for heat exchanging between heat source and heat sink. [11]
Cooling towers mainly have two divisions: Nature draft and Mechanical draft.
For Nature draft, the driving force of air flows is attributed by the buoyancy which is cause by
the difference between the densities of warm moist air and dry air. It usually uses very large
concrete chimney which is applied for water flow rates above

. [12]

For Mechanical draft, fans are used to force or induce air flow through cooling towers. The
position of fans determines that whether it is forced draft type or induced draft type. The hot
water falls downward over fill surfaces which maximum the contact time between water and air
which maximize heat transfer process.
Cooling towers are also classified into counter flow and cross flow type. However, in theories
and practical, counter flow is more efficiency than cross flow [15], because it provides more
contact surface and time.

Cooling tower selection

In Singapore, chemical plan size is limited by the geometry of Singapore which indicates that
small size cooling tower is preferred. The average high temperature and humidity also limit the
4

type of cooling tower. Hence, Nature draft cooling tower is not applicable, because its cooling
efficiency would be very small in high air temperature and humidity, and its size would be very
large in order to fulfill the cooling requirement. For the forced draft type, the back flow of moist
air at top and the big energy request of fans at bottom would be troubles. It can be concluded that
an induced draft counter flow cooling tower is a better choice. The basic structure of this kind of
cooling tower is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1, basic structure of cooling tower. a) Fan, b) Water

distribution, c) Fill packing, d) Drift eliminators, e) Cold
water basin, f) Air inlet louver.[1][2][15]

Cooling tower design and calculation

Basic design
The designing stream data is according to the Hysys simulating result. The dry air temperature
and relative humidity is according to the literature.[6] For the determination of cooling water
outlet temperature, the outlet temperature should not excess

based on industrial safety

requirement.[12] Hence, the designing cooling water inlet temperature is set to be

after

taking account of 10% safety margin for varying of temperature. With known dry bulb
temperature and relatively humidity, wet bulb temperature of air can be read from Psychrometric
5

figure or calculated by Psychrometric calculator. When dry bulb temperature is

relatively humidity is 80%, wet bulb temperature should be
seldom closer than
then changed to be

[6][12]

, and

. In practical, approach is

The cooling water outlet temperature is initially set to be

based on the calculation of NTUs.

Computation scheme
Step 1: Use the Merkel equation to calculate the
driving force and NTU numbers with an initial guess
L/G ratio.
Step 2: Vary the L/G ratio and redo step one. The
NTU numbers for different L/G ration can be
obtained to generate a demand curve of cooling
tower. (Design NTU curve)

Step 3: Set L/G ratio to be 0.75 and 1.5 and calculate

the volume transfer coefficient (Ka/L) for different
fill types. Then calculate the packed height for
different fill types and select the one which gives the
lowest packed height.

Step 4: Calculate the air loading, pressure drop, fan

power, dimension of tower and etc. for the selected
fill with different L/G ratio. Compare the results and
find out the optimal L/G ratio.

Step 5: Based on the optimal L/G ratio, calculate the

rest information and data for cooling tower.

Calculation and results

Capacity (Q):

(including 10% safety margin)

Dry bulb temperature of air (

):

Wet bulb temperature of air (

):

Relative humidity ( ): 80%

Cooling water inlet ( ):
Cooling water outlet ( ):

(initial design

Altitude (Z): 0 m.

Approach
Heat load
Step 1) Driving force and NTU (KaV/L) Calculation
According to the Merkel theory, the driving force of heat transfer is proportional to the
differences between the enthalpy of saturated air at the water temperature and the enthalpy of
unsaturated air at the point contacting with water.

Forward finite difference method is applied to solve the integration equation. Divide the
temperature range into n small segments so that the integration part can be replaced by[2]:

Then, the cooling characteristic KaV/L which is a degree of difficulty to cooling can be
approximately calculated.
7

For most cooling tower, evaporation lost is negligible compared to the total amount of cooling
water.[1][2] Based on this assumption, heat balance for cooling tower can be simplified into:

Therefore

Hence, an equation representing the air operating line of the cooling tower can be obtained:

By using equation (5), any point lying on the air operating line can be calculated.
Combined with saturation curve in Psychrometric, the driving force can be schematized on
Figure 2.

Figure 2, Driving force diagram [6][4]

The area enclosed by saturation curve and air operating line is proportional to the total amount of
driving force which equal to the sum of NTU numbers and KaV/L.
8

Sample calculation:
According to the industrial design, L/G usually is from 0.75-1.5 for counter flow induced draft
cooling tower. KaV/L is usually from 0.5-2.5.[1][6][4]
For initial design:
hw for all temperature points and

are calculated by using Psychrometric calculator.(Appendix

1) Then, the rest ha is calculated by equation (5) for all temperature points. NTU numbers for
each temperature can be calculated using equation (2), which can be summed up to calculate
KaV/L. Results are listed in Appendix 2.
The results show that:
This result is out off the normal range of KaV/L values. Besides, when L/G varies slightly
towards to 1.8, sum of NTU numbers shoot up to around 200 and encounter negative value of
NTU during calculation (Appendix 3). This indicates that the cooling water outlet temperature is
too close to the wet bulb temperature which lead to very small driving force for heat transfer.
When L/G increases, the air operating line is getting too close to the saturation curve, even
crossing it at last. It results in big or negative NTU numbers which is not desirable. Considering
such reasons, the cooling water outlet temperature need to be adjusted littler high to decrease
NTU numbers. After some trials, the cooling water outlet temperature is set to be

Step 2) Plot Design NTU Curve

Repeat step 1 calculation procedure for L/G varying from 0.4 to 2. Use Matlab to do the loop
calculation for different L/G and plot the sum of NTUs against their L/G values respectively.
Results are presented in Appendix 4 and Figure 3.

Figure 3, relation between L/G and KaV/L (NTUs)

This curve is also known as design NTU curve. For every L/G value, it has an unique NTU and
KaV/L number, which also indicates that the tower characteristic term KaV/L is only influenced
by L/G.[1][2][4][6][9]
Step 3) Fill Selection
Fill is an important structure in cooling tower, because it provides sufficient contacting surface
for air and water to transfer hear. This step aims to choose a better fill from different types of
fills by comparing their packed height for certain L/G. Generally, 16 different arrangements of
triangular splash bars, flat asbestos sheet, corrugated asbestos sheets, rectangular splash bars,
asbestos louvers and typical cellular constructions are commonly used in industry.[2][3]The
packed height of the tower is calculated directly using the data of Lowe and Christie.[3] The
volume transfer coefficient Ka/L is represented by the equation:

where

and

are coefficients that define the transfer characteristics of this type of packing. For

different types of packing, their coefficients are summarized in Table 1.

10

Table 1, coefficients of different packing type [3]

The details of structure and shape of these fills are presented in Appendix 5. Considering the
industry L/G range 0.75 to 1.5, volume transfer coefficient Ka/L of each type of packing is
calculated for smallest L/G (0.75) and largest L/G (1.5) respectively. According to the results
obtain in Step 2, KaV/L values for each NTU is already known. Then, the packed height can be
calculated by dividing KaV/L by volume transfer coefficient Ka/L just gotten.
For example, when L/G equals 0.75, for type PN-1:

All other result is shown in Appendix 6.

11

Compared with the capital cost caused by towers height, the difference between capital costs of
different packing masteries can be negated, which indicates that the height of packing is the
crucial factor. Hence, the best packing type should give the smallest packed heights compared to
others at the same L/G value.[7]
After analyzing the result data, it can be found that the packed height V of type PN-11 is the
smallest one for both L/Gs. It can be concluded that PN-11 packing is the best choice for this
cooling tower design. Packed heights of PN-11for other L/G values are listed in Table 2.
L/G

NTU(KaV/L)

Ka/L

V (m)

0.75

1.509326

1.39287468

1.083605

0.8

1.547576

1.33479044

1.159415

0.85

1.588224

1.28243685

1.238442

0.9

1.631519

1.23495867

1.321112

0.95

1.677749

1.19166696

1.407901

1.727243

1.152

1.499343

1.05

1.780386

1.11549478

1.596051

1.1

1.837629

1.08176595

1.698731

1.15

1.899501

1.05048996

1.808205

1.2

1.966632

1.02139295

1.925441

1.25

2.039775

0.99424146

2.051589

1.3

2.11984

0.9688351

2.18803

1.35

2.20794

0.94500083

2.336442

1.4

2.30545

0.92258837

2.498893

1.45

2.41409

0.90146651

2.677958

1.5

2.536048

0.88152016

2.876903

Table 2, packed heights of PN-11

Step 4) Optimal L/G value selection
The type of packing is determined to be PN-11. The next main object is to find the optimal L/G
value for the cooling tower.
In design targeting, the objective is to minimize the total cost which consists of capital and
operational cost.[7][10][13] The capital cost mainly includes cost of tower, fills, fan and pump. The
12

operational cost is mainly contributed by makeup water, operating of fan and pump which is
related directly to their powers.
Calculation of dimensions
The tower floor area is determined by the equation:

where water loading can be approximately determined from Figure 4.

Figure 4, Sizing char for counter flow induced draft cooling tower [6]
The water concentration is

Tower floor area is:

Then the overall height of tower can be calculated empirically as[3]:

For n number of packing cells,

Referring to the industry, the flow rate per cell should less than

[10][11]

, because too

large flow rate will decrease the performance of packing. Considering a big total flow rate of
, it is better to use 6 cells instead of single cell in order to guarantee a good cooling
performance and avoid too big height.[14][15] Hence, over height for different L/G values from
0.75 to 1.5 can be calculated.
For example, when L/G equals 0.75,

13

Hence the dimensions of cooling tower is

, total volume of

tower is:

Other results are listed in Appendix 7.

Operational cost of cooling tower
Calculation of fans power
The power of induced fan is determined by the discharge rate Q which represents the amount of
air need to be induced. It can be determined by knowing the total water flow rate through the
tower[3].

where TWFR is the total flow rate (

(

),

is the density of saturated air leaving the tower

. Then, the horsepower required to drive the fans can be empirically calculated using a

rule of thumb that each 226.5

of air discharged by the fan requires 1 hp, approximately

0.75 kW. The total flow rate is constant. Hence, the power is related to L/G values and saturated
air density at outlet. Assuming the humidity of outlet air is 99%, for different L/G values, the
enthalpy of outlet air is varying, which indicates that temperature is varying according to L/G
values. That leads to different densities for different L/G values. For L/G changes from 0.75 to
1.5 at 0.05 step size, enthalpy of outlet air can be calculated from equation (5) respectively. The
temperature and density can be calculated by trial and error method using Psychrometric
calculator. For example, when L/G equals 0.75

Varying the dry bulb temperature with Psychrometric calculator until the enthalpy is fitted. Then:

14

Hence:

Other results with rest L/G values are listed in Appendix 7&8.
Calculation of Pumps power
For a counter flow type cooling tower with spray nozzles, the pumping head equals to static lift
plus nozzle pressure drop. The static lift equals to the overall height of tower, which is related to
L/G values will influence pumps power. The nozzle pressure drop for induced draft tower is
around 0.02MPa to 0.05MPa in industry[8], which equals to 2 to 5m water height. Hence, the
nozzle pressure drop for this paper is taken to be 3m water height. Then, the pumps power can
be calculated as[6]:

Generally, the efficiency of pump is around 0.5 to 0.65. Then, the pumps power with respect to
each L/G values can be calculated. For example, when L/G equals 0.75

Other results are listed in Appendix 7&8.

Capital cost of cooling tower
The capital cost of cooling tower includes the capital cost of tower, fill, fan and pump.
According to Turton, these capital cost can be calculated empirically. At ambient operating
pressure and using carbon steel construction, the purchased cost of the equipment can be
calculated from equation (12)[4]:

where A is the capacity or size parameter of the equipment. The coefficients, maximum and
minimum values used in the correlation are given in that Turtons book.[4] For those equipments
15

whose capacity excess maximum values, the costs are calculated based on the maximum capacity
as compensation[4].

and multiplied by

However, for different working pressures, materials and years, this cost will vary. Hence, in
order to estimate the cost exactly, Pressure factors, Material factor and Bare module factor
should be taken in consideration as an compensation. Then, the capital cost can be expressed as[4]:
For tower and pumps:

For Fans with electric drives:

For tower packing:

For pressure factors:

The values of the constant

tower and pumps.

and

are given in the book for different materials and type of

is known for different types of fans and packing. The pressure factors

for all equipments are calculated to be 1, because the operation pressure is not very high which
leads to 0 values of all constant C.[4] For different L/G values, capacities of different equipments
will be different that will influence the capital costs.
For example, when L/G equals 0.75, the volume of tower is

which excess the

maximum values of capacity. Then the capital cost of tower is calculated as:

16

Considering the construction material for cooling tower should has a good resistance to rustiness
and corrosion at highly moist environment, referring to the industrial material of cooling tower,
stainless steel is chosen for this design though it has a higher price than carbon steel. Then:

Other capital costs of equipments are list in Appendix 8.

Total cost of cooling tower
Assuming 10 year and 8000 hours per year operation time, the total cost of overall cooling tower
can be estimated with respect to L/G values from 0.75 to 1.5. Data is listed in Appendix 8. The
relation between L/G values and total cost is represented on Figure 5.

Figure 5, L/G vs. total cost

It can be found that the lowest cost appear when L/G equals 1.2. Then, it can be determined that
the optimal design L/G is 1.2.
Step 5) Other Calculation
When L/G is 1.2, other details can be calculated easily.
For makeup water, the amount can be calculated by a empirical equations:[1][6]

17

where

is makeup water,

is circulation water,

is evaporation loss,

is drift loss and

is blown down. For this design of cooling tower, Newater is used as cooling water, because
Newater contains less amount of chlorate and salts which contributes to less corrosion and larger
cycles number (about 10). Besides, Newater is recommended by Singapore government for the
purpose of saving water resources. Then, makeup water is calculated as:

For pressure drop across the packing: [3][13]

For PN-11 type,

18

Details of Cooling Tower

Capacity

5400

Range

13

Relative

99%

outlet

Air Flow

1184.68

rate

humidity
Density of

998.1

Approach

4.2

L/G

1.2

water

Pressure

66.4 Pa

Drop across
fill

Dry bulb

Effectiveness

75.58%

KaV/L

1.967

temperature

Enthalpy of

92.9

air (inlet)

kJ/kg

Enthalpy of

158.20

air (outlet)

kJ/kg

Fan power

235.37

of air (inlet)
Wet bulb

Cell width

11.54m

Floor area

799.68

temperature
of air (inlet)
Relative

80%

No. of cells

Volume

15387.76

inlet

kW

humidity:
Cooling

Tower Width

23.09m

water inlet

Water

6739.89

Pump power

Loading

502.07
kW

( ):
Cooling

Tower Length

34.63m

Air velocity

water outlet

across

( ):

packing

Altitude (Z):

0m

Tower Height

19.24 m

Density of

1.42

Capital cost

1.05

Operational

air at Fan
Heat load

Packed height

1.925m

Dry bulb

cost(10 year)
39.2

Total cost

temperature
of air
(outlet)

19

Height 19.24 m

Length 34.63 m

Height 19.24 m

Width 23.09 m

Cell 11.54 m

20

Appendix
Appendix 1
For saturated air
Temperature( )

Hw(kJ/kg

30

99.6709

30.5

102.3102

31

105.0097

31.5

107.7712

32

110.5962

32.5

113.4866

33

116.444

33.5

119.4703

34

122.5674

34.5

125.7371

35

128.9816

35.5

132.3028

36

135.7028

36.5

139.1839

37

142.7482

37.5

146.3981

38

150.1359

38.5

153.9642

39

157.8854

39.5

161.9021

40

166.0171

40.5

170.2332

41

174.5532

41.5

178.9801

42

183.517

42.5

188.167

43

192.9335

43.5

197.8198

44

202.8295

44.5

207.9662

45

213.2337

Appendix 2
Temperature ( )

Ha (kJ/kg)

Hw (kJ/kg)

Hw-Ha (kJ/kg)

1/(Hw-Ha) (kg/kJ)

NTU

30

92.9

99.6709

6.770901

0.147691

30.5

96.0395

102.3102

6.27066

0.159473

0.321447

31

99.179

105.0097

5.830707

0.171506

0.346369

31.5

102.3185

107.7712

5.452666

0.183397

0.371405

32

105.458

110.5962

5.138209

0.19462

0.395595

32.5

108.5975

113.4866

4.889054

0.204539

0.417720

33

111.737

116.444

4.706972

0.212451

0.436379

33.5

114.8765

119.4703

4.593782

0.217686

0.450138

34

118.016

122.5674

4.551361

0.219714

0.457739

34.5

121.1555

125.7371

4.581639

0.218263

0.458343

35

124.295

128.9816

4.686602

0.213374

0.451708

35.5

127.4345

132.3028

4.86830

0.205411

0.438258

36

130.574

135.7028

5.128841

0.194976

0.419004

36.5

133.7135

139.1839

5.470399

0.182802

0.395345

37

136.853

142.7482

5.895216

0.169629

0.368819

37.5

139.9925

146.3981

6.405602

0.156113

0.340889

38

143.132

150.1359

7.003938

0.142777

0.312789

38.5

146.2715

153.9642

7.692683

0.129994

0.285454

39

149.411

157.8854

8.474372

0.118003

0.259528

39.5

152.5505

161.9021

9.351621

0.106933

0.235396

40

155.69

166.0171

10.32713

0.096832

0.213241

40.5

158.8295

170.2332

11.40369

0.087691

0.193104

41

161.969

174.5532

12.58418

0.079465

0.174928

41.5

165.1085

178.9801

13.87158

0.07209

0.158602

42

168.248

183.517

15.26896

0.065492

0.143980

42.5

171.3875

188.167

16.7795

0.059597

0.130906

43

174.527

192.9335

18.40649

0.054329

0.119223

43.5

177.6665

197.8198

20.15332

0.04962

0.108782

44

180.806

202.8295

22.02352

0.045406

0.099444

44.5

183.9455

207.9662

24.02073

0.041631

0.091084

45

187.085

213.2337

26.14871

0.038243

0.083588

8.679205

22

Appendix 3
Ha (kJ/kg)

Hw (kJ/kg)

Hw-Ha (kJ/kg)

1/(Hw-Ha) (kg/kJ)

30

92.9

99.6709

6.770901

0.147691

30.5

96.6674

102.3102

5.64276

0.177218

0.340017

31

100.4348

105.0097

4.574907

0.218584

0.414207

31.5

104.2022

107.7712

3.568966

0.280193

0.52197

32

107.9696

110.5962

2.626609

0.380719

0.691645

32.5

111.737

113.4866

1.749554

0.571574

0.996575

33

115.5044

116.444

0.939572

1.064315

1.711958

33.5

119.2718

119.4703

0.198482

5.03823

6.386313

34

123.0392

122.5674

-0.47184

-2.11937

3.054588

34.5

126.8066

125.7371

-1.06946

-0.93505

-3.19645

35

130.574

128.9816

-1.5924

-0.62798

-1.63572

35.5

134.3414

132.3028

-2.0386

-0.49053

-1.17053

36

138.1088

135.7028

-2.40596

-0.41563

-0.9483

36.5

141.8762

139.1839

-2.6923

-0.37143

-0.82366

37

145.6436

142.7482

-2.89538

-0.34538

-0.75014

37.5

149.411

146.3981

-3.0129

-0.33191

-0.70878

38

153.1784

150.1359

-3.04246

-0.32868

-0.6913

38.5

156.9458

153.9642

-2.98162

-0.33539

-0.69495

39

160.7132

157.8854

-2.82783

-0.35363

-0.72106

39.5

164.4806

161.9021

-2.57848

-0.38783

-0.77593

40

168.248

166.0171

-2.23087

-0.44826

-0.87496

40.5

172.0154

170.2332

-1.78221

-0.5611

-1.05629

41

175.7828

174.5532

-1.22962

-0.81326

-1.43827

41.5

179.5502

178.9801

-0.57012

-1.75402

-2.68666

42

183.3176

183.517

0.199361

5.016023

3.413685

42.5

187.085

188.167

1.082001

0.924213

6.216458

43

190.8524

192.9335

2.081089

0.480518

1.470051

43.5

194.6198

197.8198

3.200024

0.312498

0.829891

44

198.3872

202.8295

4.442324

0.225107

0.562604

44.5

202.1546

207.9662

5.81163

0.172069

0.415645

45

205.922

213.2337

7.311712

0.136767

0.323196

Temperature ( )

NTU

9.1758

23

Appendix 4
L/G

NTU

0.4

1.293297

0.45

1.319627

0.5

1.347266

0.55

1.376323

0.6

1.406915

0.65

1.439176

0.7

1.473257

0.75

1.509326

0.8

1.547576

0.85

1.588224

0.9

1.631519

0.95

1.677749

1.727243

1.05

1.780386

1.1

1.837629

1.15

1.899501

1.2

1.966632

1.25

2.039775

1.3

2.11984

1.35

2.20794

1.4

2.30545

1.45

2.41409

1.5

2.536048

1.55

2.67415

1.6

2.832122

1.65

3.014988

1.7

3.22971

1.75

3.486246

1.8

3.799422

1.85

4.19243

1.9

4.70394

1.95

5.404212

6.437482

24

Appendix 5

25

Appendix 6
Type

L/G

Ka/L

NTU

PN-1

1.5

0.295

0.5

0.240866

2.536048

10.52885

PN-2

1.5

0.236

0.47

0.195051

2.536048

13.00194

PN-3

1.5

0.288

0.7

0.216835

2.536048

11.69577

PN-4

1.5

0.459

0.73

0.341402

2.536048

7.428332

PN-5

1.5

0.276

0.49

0.226269

2.536048

11.20813

PN-6

1.5

0.689

0.69

0.520854

2.536048

4.869015

PN-7

1.5

0.36

0.66

0.275475

2.536048

9.206088

PN-8

1.5

0.558

0.58

0.441064

2.536048

5.749845

PN-9

1.5

0.243

0.52

0.196806

2.536048

12.88601

PN-10

1.5

0.666

0.7

0.50143

2.536048

5.05763

PN-11

1.5

1.152

0.66

0.88152

2.536048

2.876903

PN-12

1.5

0.331

0.63

0.256384

2.536048

9.891608

PN-13

1.5

0.282

0.52

0.228392

2.536048

11.10391

PN-14

1.5

1.01

0.8

0.730211

2.536048

3.473034

PN-15

1.5

0.814

0.79

0.590898

2.536048

4.291855

PN-16

1.5

0.99

0.45

0.824886

2.536048

3.074421

PN-1

0.75

0.295

0.5

0.340637

1.509326

4.430898

PN-2

0.75

0.236

0.47

0.270168

1.509326

5.586631

PN-3

0.75

0.288

0.7

0.352249

1.509326

4.28483

PN-4

0.75

0.459

0.73

0.566263

1.509326

2.665417

PN-5

0.75

0.276

0.49

0.317782

1.509326

4.749568

PN-6

0.75

0.689

0.69

0.840286

1.509326

1.796206

PN-7

0.75

0.36

0.66

0.435273

1.509326

3.467537

PN-8

0.75

0.558

0.58

0.659324

1.509326

2.289204

PN-9

0.75

0.243

0.52

0.282211

1.509326

5.348214

PN-10

0.75

0.666

0.7

0.814576

1.509326

1.852899

PN-11

0.75

1.152

0.66

1.392875

1.509326

1.083605

PN-12

0.75

0.331

0.63

0.396771

1.509326

3.804029

PN-13

0.75

0.282

0.52

0.327504

1.509326

4.608567

PN-14

0.75

1.01

0.8

1.271371

1.509326

1.187164

PN-15

0.75

0.814

0.79

1.021706

1.509326

1.477261

PN-16

0.75

0.99

0.45

1.126828

1.509326

1.339447

26

Appendix 7

L/G

KaV/L

Packed

Packed

Height (m)

Volume(

Total

Total

Width of

Height (m)

Volume

cell (m)

0.75

1.5093

1.0836

866.5354

18.4006

14714.5778

11.5447

0.80

1.5476

1.1594

927.1587

18.4764

14775.2011

11.5447

0.85

1.5882

1.2384

990.3550

18.5555

14838.3974

11.5447

0.90

1.6315

1.3211

1056.4646

18.6381

14904.5070

11.5447

0.95

1.6777

1.4079

1125.8672

18.7249

14973.9096

11.5447

1.00

1.7272

1.4993

1198.9914

18.8164

15047.0338

11.5447

1.05

1.7804

1.5961

1276.3268

18.9131

15124.3692

11.5447

1.10

1.8376

1.6987

1358.4378

19.0158

15206.4802

11.5447

1.15

1.8995

1.8082

1445.9820

19.1252

15294.0244

11.5447

1.20

1.9666

1.9254

1539.7330

19.2425

15387.7754

11.5447

1.25

2.0398

2.0516

1640.6105

19.3686

15488.6529

11.5447

1.30

2.1198

2.1880

1749.7192

19.5051

15597.7616

11.5447

1.35

2.2079

2.3364

1868.4017

19.6535

15716.4441

11.5447

1.40

2.3054

2.4989

1998.3099

19.8159

15846.3523

11.5447

1.45

2.4141

2.6780

2141.5046

19.9950

15989.5470

11.5447

1.50

2.5360

2.8769

2300.5958

20.1939

16148.6382

11.5447

L/G

G (kg/h)

G(

(kJ/kg)

velocity(m/s)

0.75

7186320.0000

1852.4381

1.0776

35.8600

133.7135

2.2693

0.80

6737175.0000

1741.3860

1.0747

36.2700

136.4344

2.1275

0.85

6340870.5882

1643.2349

1.0719

36.6600

139.1553

2.0023

0.90

5988600.0000

1555.8283

1.0692

37.0300

141.8762

1.8911

0.95

5673410.5263

1477.8689

1.0664

37.4200

144.5971

1.7916

1.00

5389740.0000

1407.3629

1.0638

37.7700

147.3180

1.7020

1.05

5133085.7143

1343.9839

1.0609

38.1600

150.0389

1.6209

1.10

4899763.6364

1285.9578

1.0584

38.5000

152.7598

1.5473

1.15

4686730.4348

1233.1860

1.0557

38.8600

155.4807

1.4800

1.20

4491450.0000

1184.6782

1.0531

39.2000

158.2016

1.4183

1.25

4311792.0000

1140.0825

1.0506

39.5400

160.9225

1.3616

1.30

4145953.8462

1098.9487

1.0480

39.8800

163.6434

1.3092

1.35

3992400.0000

1061.0487

1.0452

40.2400

166.3643

1.2607

1.40

3849814.2857

1025.3551

1.0429

40.5300

169.0852

1.2157

1.45

3717062.0690

992.3678

1.0405

40.8500

171.8061

1.1738

1.50

3593160.0000

961.5328

1.0380

41.1600

174.5270

1.1347

27

Appendix 8
Packing
L/G

Tower Capital($)

Capital($)

Fan Capital($)

Pump

Fan

Pump

Capital($)

Power(kW)

Power(kW)

0.75

28061904.12

338495.46

1850898.75

280916.84

368.03

483.06

0.80

28131215.21

362135.59

1783501.44

281513.49

345.97

484.78

0.85

28203347.07

386784.43

1722488.06

282134.56

326.47

486.56

0.90

28278672.76

412575.59

1666914.95

282783.30

309.10

488.42

0.95

28357606.82

439658.16

1616285.15

283463.28

293.62

490.38

1.00

28440615.53

468200.59

1569567.86

284178.55

279.61

492.45

1.05

28528229.23

498395.23

1526767.42

284933.71

267.02

494.63

1.10

28621057.34

530464.03

1486868.14

285734.05

255.49

496.95

1.15

28719807.20

564665.62

1449951.90

286585.70

245.00

499.42

1.20

28825308.02

601304.44

1415456.96

287495.86

235.37

502.07

1.25

28938541.66

640742.47

1383242.11

288473.07

226.51

504.91

1.30

29060683.18

683414.82

1353078.18

289527.54

218.33

507.99

1.35

29193154.66

729850.45

1324883.28

290671.63

210.80

511.34

1.40

29337698.29

780700.55

1297959.15

291920.51

203.71

515.01

1.45

29496477.08

836777.83

1272740.96

293293.00

197.16

519.05

1.50

29672216.95

899112.28

1248863.25

294812.85

191.03

523.54

Operational
L/G

Capital Cost(S$)

Cost(S$)

Total Cost(S$)

0.75

38394260.57

17164942.95

55559203.53

0.80

38427144.90

16754481.16

55181626.06

0.85

38472903.32

16397177.00

54870080.32

0.90

38530990.34

16084583.73

54615574.07

0.95

38601494.36

15811718.56

54413212.92

1.00

38683922.38

15570837.13

54254759.51

1.05

38779194.43

15360910.19

54140104.62

1.10

38887085.37

15175149.91

54062235.27

1.15

39008920.61

15013536.72

54022457.33

1.20

39145428.34

14872541.74

54017970.07

1.25

39298131.63

14751279.32

54049410.95

1.30

39468779.91

14648574.26

54117354.17

1.35

39659739.23

14564276.65

54224015.87

1.40

39873160.20

14495210.80

54368371.00

1.45

40113355.75

14444551.84

54557907.59

1.50

40384619.20

14411566.90

54796186.11

28

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30