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signal using 2 order and 4 order LPF. Apparatus Used:1. Sampling and Reconstruction Trainer kit, model ST-2101 (Scientech Technologies) 2. A 20 MHz, dual channel Oscilloscope.
Brief Theory
NYQUIST CRITERION (Sampling Theorem):The Nyquist criterion states that a continuous signal band limited to f Hz, can be completely
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represented by and reconstructed from, the samples taken at a rate greater than or equal to 2 f
samples per second. This minimum frequency is called as "Nyquist Rate". Thus, for the faithful reconstruction of the information signal from its samples, it is necessary that the sampling rate, f must be greater than 2f .
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Aliasing;If the information signal is sampled at a rate lower than that stated by Nyquist criterion, than there is an overlap between the information signal and the side bands of the harmonics. Thus the lower and the higher frequency components get mixed and cause unwanted signals to appear at the demodulator output. This phenomenon is termed as Aliasing or Fold-over Distortion. The various reasons for aliasing and the ways for its prevention may be summarized as under:A) Aliasing due to under-Sampling:Ifthesignalissampledataratelowerthan2f ,thenitcausesaliasing,asillustratedinthefollowingfigure,
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samplepoints. TheLPFatdemodulatoreffectivelyjoinsthesamplecausinganunwantedfrequencycomponenttoappear attheoutput.Thisunwantedcomponenthasafrequency=(fsfm) B)Aliasingduetowidebandsignal: ThesystemisdesignedtotakesamplesatafrequencyslightlygreaterthanthatstatednyNyquistrate.If higherfrequenciesareeverpresentintheinformationsignal,oritisaffectedbyH.F.noise,thenthe aliasingwilloccur.Topreventthealiasing,Antialiasingfiltersareusuallyinstalledpriortosampling.In telephonenetworks,thespeechsignalsarebandlimitedbyfiltersbeforesamplingtoavoidtheeffectof aliasing. C)Aliasingduetonoise: Ifverysmalldutycycleisusedinsampleandholdcircuit,aliasingmayoccurifthesignalhasbeenaffected bythenoise.HighfrequencynoisegenerallymixwiththeHighfrequencycomponentofthesignal.and hencecausesundesirablefrequencycomponentstoappearattheoutput.Thistypeofaliasingmay, therefore,bepreventedbyslightlyincreasingthedutycycleofthesamplingpulses.
D)AliasingduetoFilterRolloff:
Aliasingmayalsooccur,ifappropriatefilterresponseisnotchosenandthefrequenciesabovethenominal cutofffrequencyofthefilter,havesignificantamplitudesatthefilter'soutput.ThisiscalledAliasingdueto FilterRolloff.
BriefDescriptionoftheKit
ErM.HadiAliKhan Page1 http://mhakhan.tripod.com/lab.html
Thelayoutdiagramoftheexperimentalkitisshownonthenextpage: Thekitcontainsthecircuitsforthefollowingfivesections:
1.SamplingFrequencySelectorSection:
Bydefault,thesamplingfrequencyissetto32KHz.Butpushingsuccessivelythesamplingfrequency selectorswitchcanchangeitandthevalueoftheselectedfrequencyisonetenthofthefrequency indicatedbythecorrespondingglowingLED.Forexample,iftheLEDcorrespondingto20KHzisglowing, thentheselectedvalueofthesamplingfrequencyis2KHz.
2.Dutycyclecontrolsection:
Herethedutycycleofthesamplingpulsescanbevariedfrom10%to90%.
3.SamplingSection:
Itprovides:SampledoutputatTP37andthesampleandholdoutputatTP39.Theinputsampling pulsesarealsoselectedinthissectionbytheINTERNAL/EXTERNALsamplingselectorswitch. NB:Theinternalpulsesareusuallyselected;becausetheexternalpulsesneedtobesynchronizedwith theinformationsignal(1KHzinternallygeneratedsinusoidalsignalavailableatTP12onthesampling frequencyselectioncircuitboard)togetthestabletraceontheCROscreen. 4.TwoLowpassFiltersections: The2ndorderand4thorderLPFs,whichprovidethereconstructedsignalattheiroutputs,TP42andTP46 respectively. The4thorderandthe2ndorderLowPassFilters: Thenthorderfilterhasarateoffalloffof6ndB/Octaveor20ndB/decadeandonecapacitororinductoris requiredforeachpole(order).Thefollowingtablesummarizestheeffectoffalloffgradientonasignal suchassquarewave: PROCEDURE: 1.SettheINTERNAL/EXTERNALsamplingselectorswitchinINTERNALposition. 2.PuttheDUTYCYCLESELECTORswitchinposition5(toset50%dutycycle). 3.Connect1KHzinternallygeneratedsinusoidalsignalavailableattp12toSIGNALINPUTontheSampling Circuitboard. 4.Now,turntheON/OFFswitchofthekittoON. 5.Observetheinformationsignal(1KHzattp12)ononechannelandtheSampleoutput(atTP37)onthe otherchanneloftheCRO. 6.ConnecttheSampleOutput(TP37)totheinputof4thorderLPF. 7.TracetheSampledoutputatTP37.Notethat32samplesareappearinginonecycleoftheinformation signal,asthedefaultvalueofthesamplingfrequencyis32KHz. 8.Now,keeponreducingthesamplingfrequencyinstepsandtracethesampledoutputatanyothertwo valuesofthesamplingfrequencies. 9.Observethereconstructedsignalattheoutputofthe4thorderLPFattp46onsettingthesampling frequencyequalto2KHz.Notethatitisdistortedasfs=2fm (Ref:Nyquistcriteria).
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10.Now,ConnecttheSampleOutput(TP37)totheinputof2ndorderLPF,andobservethereconstructed signalattheoutputofthe2ndorderLPF(TP42)atdifferentvaluesofsamplingfrequencies.Comparethe outputsofboththeLPFsforthesamevalueofsamplingfrequency.Whichoneisbetterandwhy?This completesthefirstpartoftheexperiment. 11.Forthesecondpart,keepthesamplingrateconstantatsomeappropriatevalue(say8or16KHz),and varythepositionofDUTYCYCLESELECTORswitch,andobservetheSampledsignal(TP37)andthe reconstructedsignalattheoutputofthe4thorderLPF(TP46)andalsoattheoutputofthe2ndorderLPF (TP42)atdifferentvaluesofthedutycyclevaryingfrom40%(position4)to90%(position9ofdutycycle selectorswitch).Recordyourobservations.Howdoestheamplitudeofthereconstructedsignalvarywith thevariationofthedutycycle? 12.Now,disconnectthesampleoutput(TP37)fromtheinputoftheLPFandconnectSampleandHold output(TP39)totheinputsoftheLPFs,andobservethereconstructedsignalsattheiroutputsonebyone. 13.Varythedutycycleagainandobservethatthereconstructedsignalhasnowbecomeindependentof dutycyclevariation.Measuretheamplitudeofthereconstructedsignalat(TP46)andat(TP42)oneby one. 14.Commentontheresultsobtainedbyusingthe4thorderLPFandthe2ndorderLPF.
OBSERVATIONS:
Fora1KHzsinewave(internalinformationsignalatTP12)andfor50%dutycyclepulses, Minimumsamplingrateforundistortedreconstructedsignalusing4thorderLPF= Minimumsamplingrateforundistortedreconstructedsignalusing2ndorderLPF= Tabulateyourobservationsforthesecondpartoftheexperiment:
RESULTs&Comments: References:
1)B.P.Lathi:CommunicationSystems 2)ScientechTechnologiesPvt.Ltd.:WORKBOOKofSamplingandReconstructionTrainerST2101WB 3)ScientechTechnologiesPvt.Ltd.:OperatingManualofSamplingandReconstructionTrainerST2101OM *************** Thelayoutdiagramoftheexperimentalkit,modelST2101isshownonthefollowingpage: ErM.HadiAliKhan Page3 http://mhakhan.tripod.com/lab.html
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