Experiment No.

07 (Sampling and Re-construction of Signals )

Object:(a) Experimentally verify the Sampling Theorem and observe the Aliasing effect, using the Scientech Sampling Trainer Kit model ST-2101. Trace the Sampled signal at any three different sampling frequencies. (b) Observe the effect of the variation of duty cycle of the sampling pulses and the order of the lowpass filter on the re-construction of the sampled signal. Trace the wave-shapes of the re-constructed
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signal using 2 order and 4 order LPF. Apparatus Used:1. Sampling and Reconstruction Trainer kit, model ST-2101 (Scientech Technologies) 2. A 20 MHz, dual channel Oscilloscope.

Brief Theory
NYQUIST CRITERION (Sampling Theorem):The Nyquist criterion states that a continuous signal band limited to f Hz, can be completely
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represented by and reconstructed from, the samples taken at a rate greater than or equal to 2 f

samples per second. This minimum frequency is called as "Nyquist Rate". Thus, for the faithful reconstruction of the information signal from its samples, it is necessary that the sampling rate, f must be greater than 2f .
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Aliasing;If the information signal is sampled at a rate lower than that stated by Nyquist criterion, than there is an overlap between the information signal and the side bands of the harmonics. Thus the lower and the higher frequency components get mixed and cause unwanted signals to appear at the demodulator output. This phenomenon is termed as Aliasing or Fold-over Distortion. The various reasons for aliasing and the ways for its prevention may be summarized as under:A) Aliasing due to under-Sampling:Ifthesignalissampledataratelowerthan2f ,thenitcausesaliasing,asillustratedinthefollowingfigure,
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whereasinusoidalsignaloffrequencyf isbeingsampledataratef <2f ,andthedotsrepresentthe

m s m

samplepoints. TheLPFatdemodulatoreffectivelyjoinsthesamplecausinganunwantedfrequencycomponenttoappear attheoutput.Thisunwantedcomponenthasafrequency=(fsfm) B)Aliasingduetowidebandsignal: ThesystemisdesignedtotakesamplesatafrequencyslightlygreaterthanthatstatednyNyquistrate.If higherfrequenciesareeverpresentintheinformationsignal,oritisaffectedbyH.F.noise,thenthe aliasingwilloccur.Topreventthealiasing,Antialiasingfiltersareusuallyinstalledpriortosampling.In telephonenetworks,thespeechsignalsarebandlimitedbyfiltersbeforesamplingtoavoidtheeffectof aliasing. C)Aliasingduetonoise: Ifverysmalldutycycleisusedinsampleandholdcircuit,aliasingmayoccurifthesignalhasbeenaffected bythenoise.HighfrequencynoisegenerallymixwiththeHighfrequencycomponentofthesignal.and hencecausesundesirablefrequencycomponentstoappearattheoutput.Thistypeofaliasingmay, therefore,bepreventedbyslightlyincreasingthedutycycleofthesamplingpulses.

D)AliasingduetoFilterRolloff:
Aliasingmayalsooccur,ifappropriatefilterresponseisnotchosenandthefrequenciesabovethenominal cutofffrequencyofthefilter,havesignificantamplitudesatthefilter'soutput.ThisiscalledAliasingdueto FilterRolloff.

BriefDescriptionoftheKit
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Thelayoutdiagramoftheexperimentalkitisshownonthenextpage: Thekitcontainsthecircuitsforthefollowingfivesections:

1.SamplingFrequencySelectorSection:
Bydefault,thesamplingfrequencyissetto32KHz.Butpushingsuccessivelythesamplingfrequency selectorswitchcanchangeitandthevalueoftheselectedfrequencyisonetenthofthefrequency indicatedbythecorrespondingglowingLED.Forexample,iftheLEDcorrespondingto20KHzisglowing, thentheselectedvalueofthesamplingfrequencyis2KHz.

2.Dutycyclecontrolsection:
Herethedutycycleofthesamplingpulsescanbevariedfrom10%to90%.

3.SamplingSection:
Itprovides:SampledoutputatTP37andthesampleandholdoutputatTP39.Theinputsampling pulsesarealsoselectedinthissectionbytheINTERNAL/EXTERNALsamplingselectorswitch. NB:Theinternalpulsesareusuallyselected;becausetheexternalpulsesneedtobesynchronizedwith theinformationsignal(1KHzinternallygeneratedsinusoidalsignalavailableatTP12onthesampling frequencyselectioncircuitboard)togetthestabletraceontheCROscreen. 4.TwoLowpassFiltersections: The2ndorderand4thorderLPFs,whichprovidethereconstructedsignalattheiroutputs,TP42andTP46 respectively. The4thorderandthe2ndorderLowPassFilters: Thenthorderfilterhasarateoffalloffof6ndB/Octaveor20ndB/decadeandonecapacitororinductoris requiredforeachpole(order).Thefollowingtablesummarizestheeffectoffalloffgradientonasignal suchassquarewave: PROCEDURE: 1.SettheINTERNAL/EXTERNALsamplingselectorswitchinINTERNALposition. 2.PuttheDUTYCYCLESELECTORswitchinposition5(toset50%dutycycle). 3.Connect1KHzinternallygeneratedsinusoidalsignalavailableattp12toSIGNALINPUTontheSampling Circuitboard. 4.Now,turntheON/OFFswitchofthekittoON. 5.Observetheinformationsignal(1KHzattp12)ononechannelandtheSampleoutput(atTP37)onthe otherchanneloftheCRO. 6.ConnecttheSampleOutput(TP37)totheinputof4thorderLPF. 7.TracetheSampledoutputatTP37.Notethat32samplesareappearinginonecycleoftheinformation signal,asthedefaultvalueofthesamplingfrequencyis32KHz. 8.Now,keeponreducingthesamplingfrequencyinstepsandtracethesampledoutputatanyothertwo valuesofthesamplingfrequencies. 9.Observethereconstructedsignalattheoutputofthe4thorderLPFattp46onsettingthesampling frequencyequalto2KHz.Notethatitisdistortedasfs=2fm (Ref:Nyquistcriteria).

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10.Now,ConnecttheSampleOutput(TP37)totheinputof2ndorderLPF,andobservethereconstructed signalattheoutputofthe2ndorderLPF(TP42)atdifferentvaluesofsamplingfrequencies.Comparethe outputsofboththeLPFsforthesamevalueofsamplingfrequency.Whichoneisbetterandwhy?This completesthefirstpartoftheexperiment. 11.Forthesecondpart,keepthesamplingrateconstantatsomeappropriatevalue(say8or16KHz),and varythepositionofDUTYCYCLESELECTORswitch,andobservetheSampledsignal(TP37)andthe reconstructedsignalattheoutputofthe4thorderLPF(TP46)andalsoattheoutputofthe2ndorderLPF (TP42)atdifferentvaluesofthedutycyclevaryingfrom40%(position4)to90%(position9ofdutycycle selectorswitch).Recordyourobservations.Howdoestheamplitudeofthereconstructedsignalvarywith thevariationofthedutycycle? 12.Now,disconnectthesampleoutput(TP37)fromtheinputoftheLPFandconnectSampleandHold output(TP39)totheinputsoftheLPFs,andobservethereconstructedsignalsattheiroutputsonebyone. 13.Varythedutycycleagainandobservethatthereconstructedsignalhasnowbecomeindependentof dutycyclevariation.Measuretheamplitudeofthereconstructedsignalat(TP46)andat(TP42)oneby one. 14.Commentontheresultsobtainedbyusingthe4thorderLPFandthe2ndorderLPF.

OBSERVATIONS:
Fora1KHzsinewave(internalinformationsignalatTP12)andfor50%dutycyclepulses, Minimumsamplingrateforundistortedreconstructedsignalusing4thorderLPF= Minimumsamplingrateforundistortedreconstructedsignalusing2ndorderLPF= Tabulateyourobservationsforthesecondpartoftheexperiment:

RESULTs&Comments: References:
1)B.P.Lathi:CommunicationSystems 2)ScientechTechnologiesPvt.Ltd.:WORKBOOKofSamplingandReconstructionTrainerST2101WB 3)ScientechTechnologiesPvt.Ltd.:OperatingManualofSamplingandReconstructionTrainerST2101OM *************** Thelayoutdiagramoftheexperimentalkit,modelST2101isshownonthefollowingpage: ErM.HadiAliKhan Page3 http://mhakhan.tripod.com/lab.html

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