Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Standard
Standard is an object or procedure considered by an authority or by general consent as a basis for comparison. Two Types of Standards 1. Proprietary (closed) standards Generally controlled and manufactured by one company. Other companies are generally not allowed to manufacture equipment or write software using these standards. Advantages are tighter control, easier consensus, and monopolization. Disadvantages include lack of choice of customers, higher investment, overpricing, and reduced customer protection. 2. Open system standards Any company can use the standards In some cases, royalty must be paid to the company who developed the standard. Promotes compatibility between vendors equipment and software. Disadvantages include less product control and increased difficulty in obtaining agreement between concerned parties.
Standards Organizations
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) International professional organization founded in the US. Responsible for 802 series of standards such as 802.3, 802.5 and other standards Electronics Industry Association (EIA) A nonprofit US trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. Responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of standards, such as RS-232, RS 422, and RS 423 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) A leading trade association in the communications and information technology. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Official standards agency for the US. Official member of the ISO for the US. Completely private , non profit organization composed of people from professional societies, industry, government, and consumer group. European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Telecommunications standards organization for Europe
Standards Organizations
Internet Architecture Board A technical advisory group of the Internet Society which oversees the architecture and procedures used in Internet. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) A large international committee of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers concerned with the evolution and operation of the Internet. Internet Research Task Force Promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future internet. International Standards Organization (ISO) Created in 1946. International organization for standardization of wide range of subjects Promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Ineternet. Voluntary, non-treaty organization whose membership is comprised mainly of standards organizations of various countries. Responsible for Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model.
Standards Organizations
International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T) One of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union. The standardization work of ITU dates back to May 17, 1865, with International Telegraph Union as its first name. It was formerly called Consultative Committee on International Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT). CCITT was created in 1956, when the International Telephone Consultative Committee (CCIF, set up in 1924) and the International Telegraph Consultative Committee (CCIT, set up in 1925) were merged to form CCITT. Headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland. CCITT was renamed to ITU in 1993. Consists of government authorities from various countries. Standards organization for the United Nations since 1947. After a meeting in 1992, the Union was streamlined into three Sectors, corresponding to its three main areas of activity: Telecommunication Standardization (ITU-T), Radiocommunication (ITU-R) and Telecommunication Development (ITU-D).
Standards Organizations
Published V series standards for modems such as V.32, V.90, and V.92 Published X series standards for data transmission over public networks such X.25. Published I and Q series of standards for ISDN.
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Signalling in the international manual service International automatic and semi-automatic working Basic Recommendations Numbering plan and dialling procedures in the international service Routing plan for international service General Recommendations relative to signalling and switching systems (national or international) Tones for use in national signalling systems General characteristics for international telephone connections and circuits Signalling for satellite systems Signalling for circuit multiplication equipment Functions and information flows for services in the ISDN Methodology Basic services Supplementary services Clauses applicable to ITU-T standard systems General clauses Transmission clauses for signalling Logic and protocols for the control of signal processing network elements and functions Abnormal conditions Specifications of Signalling Systems No. 4, 5, 6, R1 and R2 Digital exchanges Introduction and field of application Exchange interfaces, functions and connections Design objectives and measurement Transmission characteristics
Q.48-Q.49 Q.50-Q.59 Q.60-Q.99 Q.60-Q.67 Q.68-Q.79 Q.80-Q.99 Q.100-Q.119 Q.100-Q.109 Q.110-Q.114 Q.115-Q.115 Q.116-Q.119 Q.120-Q.499 Q.500-Q.599 Q.500-Q.509 Q.510-Q.539 Q.540-Q.549 Q.550-Q.559
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Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)
Specifications of Signalling System No. 7 General Message transfer part (MTP) Signalling connection control part (SCCP) Telephone user part (TUP) ISDN supplementary services Data user part Signalling System No. 7 management ISDN user part Transaction capabilities application part Test specification Q3 interface Digital subscriber Signalling System No. 1 General Data link layer Network layer User-network management Stage 3 description for supplementary services using DSS1 Q.700-Q.799 Q.700-Q.700 Q.701-Q.710 Q.711-Q.719 Q.720-Q.729 Q.730-Q.739 Q.740-Q.749 Q.750-Q.759 Q.760-Q.769 Q.770-Q.779 Q.780-Q.799 Q.800-Q.849 Q.850-Q.999 Q.850-Q.919 Q.920-Q.929 Q.930-Q.939 Q.940-Q.949 Q.950-Q.959
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Broadband ISDN General aspects
Signalling ATM adaptation layer (SAAL) Signalling network protocols Common aspects of B-ISDN application protocols for access signalling and network signalling and interworking B-ISDN application protocols for the network signalling B-ISDN application protocols for access signalling Signalling requirements and protocols for the NGN General Network signalling and control functional architecture Network data organization within the NGN Bearer control signalling Signalling and control requirements and protocols to support attachment in NGN environments Resource control protocols Service and session control protocols Service and session control protocols supplementary services NGN applications Testing for NGN networks Supplements to the Series Q Recommendations
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GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE, INTERNET PROTOCOL ASPECTS AND NEXT-GENERATION NETWORKS Global information infrastructure General Services, applications and middleware Network aspects Interfaces and protocols Numbering, addressing and naming Operation, administration and maintenance Security Performances Internet protocol aspects General Services and applications Architecture, access, network capabilities and resource management Transport Interworking Quality of service and network performance Signalling Operation, administration and maintenance Charging IPTV over NGN Y.100-Y.999 Y.100-Y.199 Y.200-Y.299 Y.300-Y.399 Y.400-Y.499 Y.500-Y.599 Y.600-Y.699 Y.700-Y.799 Y.800-Y.899 Y.1000-Y.1999 Y.1000-Y.1099 Y.1100-Y.1199 Y.1200-Y.1299 Y.1300-Y.1399 Y.1400-Y.1499 Y.1500-Y.1599 Y.1600-Y.1699 Y.1700-Y.1799 Y.1800-Y.1899 Y.1900-Y.1999
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NETWORKING
Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto
Computer Network
Computer network - two or more computers interconnected with one another for the purpose of sharing resources such as database, backup device, and others. The elements of a computer network are (Source: Network Fundamentals Cisco): Protocols rules and agreements on how the different parts of the network will operate. A protocol stack is a list or set of protocols used by a system. Data and Messages information used or transmitted / received in the network. Communications medium interconnects the different devices in the network. It may include copper and fiber optic cables, earths atmosphere, or free space. Devices - includes computers, routers, switches, hubs, bridges and others. Network protocols or networks may be classified as: Current includes most modern and sophisticated protocols or networks Legacy includes old protocols/networks which are still being used for some reasons. Legendary includes protocols which have become antiquated and are no longer being used.
Computer Network
Networks may be classified as: Intranet network which allows only internal employee access. Extranet network which allows non-employee access to the network. Some of the considerations in implementing a network are: Fault tolerance ability of network to withstand failure in some portion of the network, which results to better reliability. Scalability ability of network to grow and react to future changes. Quality of Service indicates the performance level of services provided by the network. Security ability to avoid unauthorized access, use, alteration, or tampering of any part of the network whether hardware, software or data.
Computer Networks
Network model could be: Peer to peer client server all computers share their resources with all the other computers in the network. Dedicated client server one or more computers are assigned as a server and the rest of the computers are clients. Network Architecture outlines the way in which a network is arranged or structured. Network Topology refers to the appearance or the way a network is laid out. Network topology could be: Physical Topology - refers to the physical lay out (geometric representation) of the computers in a network. Logical Topology Describes how data actually flow through the network. It refers to the logical layout of the computers in a network (how computers access other computers in the network) Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies (star, ring )
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Mesh Topology
Tree Topology
Hybrid Topology
It combines two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Advantages Combines the benefits of traditional topologies used. Disadvantages Combines the disadvantages of traditional topologies used.
Components of a Network
The different components of a network may be classified as (Source: Network Fundamentals Cisco): End devices refers to the equipment which acts as the source or destination of data, or both. Examples are servers, computers, printers, VOIP phones, PDAs, and network cameras. Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, network operating systems, and other resources. Example: file server, printer server. Clients are computers that access and use network and shared network resources. Previously, computers typically have network interface cards (NICs) which are used to connect a computer to a network. However, the functions of the NICs are now integrated in the main board of most computers. Intermediary devices refers to equipment which are used by end devices in transferring data across the network. Examples are hubs, switches, bridges, and routers. Communications or transmission medium / media refers to the cables, earths atmosphere, or free space through which data are transmitted between devices. Services and processes refers to the software which run on devices.
Network Backbones
Building Backbone a network connection that usually carries traffic between departmental LANs within a single company. Campus Backbone a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings on a campus. It normally uses fiber optic cables to minimize interference.
4. CSMA/CA
2. Token Passing
3. Polling
CDMA Multiplexer
Code A Station 1 Bit = 0 -1 Code B Station 2 Bit = 0 -1 Code C Station 3 Silent 0 +1,+1,+1,+1
X
+1,-1,+1,-1
-1,-1,-1,-1
X
+1,+1,-1,-1
-1,+1,-1,+1
+
0, 0, 0, 0
-1,-1,-3,+1
X
+1,-1,-1,+1
+1,-1, -1, +1
CDMA Demultiplexer
+1,+1,+1,+1 Code A -1,-1,-3,+1 Code B -1,+1,-3,-1 Code C -1, -1, +3, -1 Code D -1,+1, +3, +1 Divide by Add 4 -4 -1 Divide by Add 4 -4 -1 Divide by Add 4 0 0 Divide by Add 4 +4 +1
X
+1,-1,+1,-1 -1,-1,-3,+1
Bit = 0
X
+1,+1,-1,-1
Bit = 0
X
+1,-1,-1,+1
Silent
Bit = 1
Line Discipline
1. Line discipline refers to the coordination of hop to hop data delivery. According to Tomasi, there are two fundamental ways that line discipline is achieved, namely: ENQ/ACK (Enquiry/Acknowledgment) Works best in simple networks such as when only two DTEs are communicating. Initiating station begins a session by transmitting an enquiry (ENQ) frame to the other station. Frame usually includes the address of the other station. The other station sends an acknowledgment (ACK) frame if it is ready to receive data, or a negative acknowledgment (NAK) frame if it is not ready to receive data. Destination station acknowledges all messages with an ACK or NAK. Poll/Select Best suited for centrally controlled networks using multipoint topology, where one station acts as primary or host station and the others as secondary stations. Primary station polls each station and determines which station should use the transmission medium.
2.
Flow Control
1. Flow control is used to determine how much data should a station send to another station, and when a station should stop or start sending data to another station. According to Tomasi, there are two common methods of flow control, namely: Stop and Wait Transmitting station sends one message then waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next message. Advantage is its simplicity. Disadvantage is its slow speed. Sliding Window Transmitting station can transmit several messages in succession before receiving an acknowledgment. One acknowledgment can be used for several messages. The term sliding window refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and destination. Frames can be acknowledged before the window is filled with data. To keep track of which frames have been acknowledged, modulo n numbering system is required where each frame transmitted is identified with a sequence number between 0 and n-1. n is any integer value equal to 2x, where x is the number of bits in the numbering system.
2.
Error Control
Error control includes both error detection and error correction. Error detection can be accomplished using VRC, LRC, CRC, or other error detection techniques. Error correction is generally accomplished using Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) : ARQ can be stop and wait ARQ or sliding windows ARQ. Sliding window ARQ can be go-back-n frames or selective reject (SREJ). With go-back-n frames, destination tells the source to go back n frames and retransmit all of them. With selective reject ARQ, the destination tells the source to retransmit only the frame with error.
OSI Model
100 Base T Hub or Switch
Computer A 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application layer Presentation Layer Session layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical layer
Computer B Application layer Presentation Layer Session layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical layer 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Physical Layer
Responsible for transmission method and actual propagation of unstructured data bits (1 and 0) through a transmission medium. Deals with creation and reception of physical signals such as voltages, current, and optical signals. Defines allowable circuit characteristics such as impedance and capacitance. Defines communications media to be used. Defines maximum speed of transmission of data. Defines how 0 and 1 is represented in signals. Defines connections, pin assignments, interface parameters, and timing. Defines the carrier system used to propagate signals such as T1 or E1. May provide switching facilities. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called bits. Some standards which operate in the physical layer are RS232, RS422, RS 423, and Ethernet (also includes data link layer).
Network Layer
Provides details that enable the data to be routed between devices in an environment using multiple networks. Responsible for network addressing and delivering packets from ultimate source to ultimate destination. Provides means for routing packets through different portions of computer network. Provides network layer source address and destination address. May provide facilities for error detection and error recovery. May provide flow control of packets. Provides upper layers of the hierarchy independence from the data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called packet. Standards which operate in the network layer includes IP (Internet Protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP protocol, and IPX (Novell)
Transport layer
Controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message propagated through the network between two devices. Responsible for data tracking and process to process delivery of entire message across the network Has the ultimate responsibility of providing efficient and error free delivery of data (not all network layer protocols provide error recovery procedures) Provides segmentation of the data, in which messages are broken into smaller pieces that can be easily transported across a medium. Reassembles segments into streams of application data at the receiver. Generates transport layer addresses which are called port numbers. Provides flow control at the transport layer level. May or may not establish logical connection on the transport layer level. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called segment. Standards which operate in the transport layer include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) which are part of the TCP/IP protocol, , and SPX (Sequence Packet Exchange) which is a protocol used by Novell. Services provided may be connection oriented (such as TCP) or connectionless (such as UDP).
Session Layer
Responsible for job management tracking and network availability (Data storage and processor capacity). Provides logical connection entities at the application layer. Provides means for establishment or reestablishment of connection between user applications. Logon and log off procedures. Creates and maintains dialogs between source and destination. Includes services for virtual connections between applications, synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity units, connection parameter negotiation, and partitioning services into functional groups. Provides means of graceful termination of connection between user applications.
Presentation Layer
Provides independence to the application processes by addressing any necessary code or syntax conversion. Transforms data into a form that the application layer can use. Handles syntax and semantics used by application layer. Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data within the message. Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of the data. May provide code conversion. May provide data compression / decompression. May encrypt data to be transmitted and decrypt received data. May provide virtual terminal translation services. Examples: converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file.
Presentation Layer
Some standards which operate in this layer are: QuickTime - used for video and audio. Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) - used for video compression and coding. Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) used for compression and coding for graphic images. Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) used for compression and coding for graphic images. Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) - used for coding graphic images.
Application Layer
Analogous to General manager of the network. Provides distributed information services and controls the sequence of activities of the applications. Provides support for end user applications such as: file transfer electronic mail remote login accessing resources of other computers Serves as end user interface Manages application processes The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called data. Example is FTP (file transfer protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP
TCP/IP protocol suite contains protocols for network, transport, and application layers.
Application Layer
Protocols which operate in the Application layer are: FTP (file transfer protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP used to transfer files. Domain Name System (DNS) used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used to transfer files that make up the web pages of the World Wide Web. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used for transferring email messages. Telnet used for terminal emulation.
There are two full duplex channels in a 25 pin RS232 interface, although some manufacturers do not used the full RS232 implementation (secondary channel and other primary channel control signals are not used).
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Function Frame Ground Transmitted Data (TD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear To Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Signal Ground Carrier Detect (CD) Positive DC Test Voltage
Pin No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Function Negative DC Test Voltage Sec. Carrier Detect Sec. Clear To Send Sec. Transmitted Data Transmitter Clock Sec. Received Data Receiver Clock
Pin No. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Function Sec. Request To Send Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Signal Quality Detect Ring Indicator (RI) Data Rate Select Ext. Transmitter Clock Busy
+ 25 volts + 3 volts 0 volts - 3 volts - 25 volts Notes: 1. + 3 volts to +25 volts indicate a logical 0 2. -3 volts to - 25 volts indicate a logical 1 3. -3 volts to + 3 volts is undefined
RS449 Standard
Developed by Electronics Industry Association (EIA). Also known as EIA-449 or TIA-449, Intended to replace RS232. Defines mechanical specifications only. Defines the use of 37 pin (DB37) (for primary channel) and 9 pin connectors (DB9) (for secondary channel) Used for RS422 and RS 423 standards, which are electrical specifications. Not readily adopted by the industry and the standard is no longer being recommended for use. Replaced by RS 530 standard also known as EIA/ TIA 530.
RS449 Standard
DB-37 Connector
First Segment Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Function Shield Signaling Rate Unassigned Transmit Data Transmit Timing Receive Data Request to Send Receive Timing Clear to Send Local Loopback Data Mode Terminal Ready Receiver Ready Remote Loopback Incoming Call Rate Selector Terminal Timing Test Mode Signal Ground Pin No. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Second Segment Function Receive Common Unassigned Transmit Data Transmit Timing Receive Data Request to Send Receive Timing Clear to Send Terminal in Service Data Mode Terminal Ready Receiver Ready Select Standby Signal Quality New Signal Terminal Timing Standby Indicator Transmit Common Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Function Shield Secondary Receiver Ready Secondary Transmit Data Secondary Receive Data Signal Ground Receive Common Secondary Request To Send Secondary Clear To Send Transmit Common
DB-9 Connector
+ 6 volts + 200 milivolts 0 volts - 200 milivolts - 6 volts Notes: 1. + 200 milivolts to + 6 volts indicate a logical 0 2. - 200 milivolts to - 6 volts indicate a logical 1 3. - 200 milivolts to + 200 milivolts is undefined
RS485
EIA-485, also known as TIA/EIA-485 or RS-485, is a standard defining the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems. It can span up to 4000 feet or just over 1200 meters. The two ends of the cable have a termination resistor connected across the two wires.
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Function Frame Ground Data Line Received Data Data Line Request Line Data to Send Clear To Send Data Line Data SetLine Data Ready Signal Ground Data Line Carrier Line Data Detect Positive DC Test Data Line Voltage
Pin No. 10 11 12 13 19 to 31 32
Function Acknowledge Line Busy Paper End Select Line Return Lines Fault Line
O volt
O volt
4B5B Coding
4b5b is a line code that maps 4-bit symbols to 5-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance. It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery. Used in Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and 100 Base TX Ethernet.
5B/6B Coding
5b/6b is a line code that maps 5 bit symbols to 6-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery.
8B/10B Coding
8b/10b is a line code that maps 8-bit symbols to 10-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery. It was developed by IBM in 1983 and was patented in 1984. It is also used in USB 3.0 and Gigabit Ethernet except for 1000Base-T (twisted pair). It is DC-free.
XMODEM
Asynchronous data link protocol used for low speed data transfer. Designed for transferring files between computers over the public switched telephone network. Uses asynchronous data and asynchronous modems. Uses half duplex stop and wait protocol. The four fields for XMODEM are start of header (SOH) field, header field, data field, and error detection field. The first byte of the header is the sequence number. A similar protocol called YMODEM was developed.
Synchronous Modem
Secondary Station 2
FEP is a DTE which directs traffic to Synchronous and from many different circuits, which Modem could have different parameters, such as codes, and data formats. LCU is a DTE that directs traffic between one data communication medium and a relatively few terminals which uses the same protocols, character codes, and other parameters
Primary Station
A general poll is sent by a primary station to a specific secondary station (line control unit) to ask if there is any device connected to the station which would want to transmit data. First PAD (Leading PAD) used for bit / clock synchronization between transmitter and receiver. Could have a value of 10101010 (AA Hex) or 01010101 (55 Hex). Second PAD is a string of 1s which is used as time fill so that secondary stations can clear and be ready for the succeeding fields. Last PAD trailing PAD with a value of FF Hex. Used to ensure that RLSD (Receive Line Signal Detect) in the receive modem is held long enough for entire message to be demodulated. SYN (Sync character) used for character synchronization between transmitter and receiver. SYN could have a value of 32 (HEX) for EBCDIC or 16 (HEX) for ASCII. SYN characters are always transmitted in pairs to prevent misinterpretation of a SYN character in the data portion of the frame when a string of bits similar to the SYN character is present in the data portion.
EOT (End of Transmission) in this case used as clearing character to place all secondary stations into line monitor mode. SPA (Station Polling Address) used to indicate the address of the secondary station (line control unit) being polled. Two SPAs are transmitted for error detection (character redundancy). ENQ (Enquiry) format or line turnaround character which initiates a line turnaround. signifies a general poll for all devices connected to the station (line control unit). Any device which needs to send data can answer the poll from the primary station.
A specific poll is sent by a primary station to a specific device connected to a secondary station (line control unit) to ask if that device needs to transmit data. All fields are the same as those for Bisync general poll except the field for was replaced with DA. DA (Device Address) signifies the address of a specific device connected to the secondary station (line control unit). Two DAs are transmitted for error detection (character redundancy). Only the device with the specific DA address can respond to the poll from the primary station.
A selection frame is sent by a polled device to the primary station to indicate the address of the other device to which the polled device wants to communicate with. The selected device may or may not be connected to the same secondary station (line control unit) The fields are the same as those used for poll frame except the Station Poll Address (SPA) was replaced with Station Selection Address (SSA). Station Selection Address (SSA) specifies the secondary station address to which the selected device is connected. Device Address (DA) indicates the address of the selected device. A selected device can respond to a selection with either a positive acknowledgment (it can communicate with the device making the selection) or negative acknowledgment (it cannot communicate with the device making the selection).
Frame is used for transmitting data from one device to another device. PAD used for bit synchronization between transmitter and receiver. Could have a value of 10101010 or 01010101 SYN (Sync character) used for character synchronization between transmitter and receiver. SYN could have a value of 32 (HEX) for EBCDIC or 16 (HEX) for ASCII. SYN characters are always transmitted in pairs to prevent misinterpretation of a SYN character in the data portion of the frame when a string of bits similar to the SYN character is present in the data portion. STX (Start of text) used to indicate that succeeding field contains data. ETB (End of Transmission Block) indicates end of block of data transmitted. ETX (End of Text) indicates end of multiple blocks of data. BCC (Block Check Character) used to detect errors. It typically uses LRC for ASCII and CRC-16 for EBCDIC.
PAD
SYN SYN
DLE
PAD
Positive Acknowledgment Frame (odd numbered blocks) DLE (Data Link Escape) used to indicate that next field contains control characters rather than data
PAD
SYN SYN
DLE
NAK PAD
Positive Acknowledgment is sent by receiving station to transmitting station to indicate that there was no error on the received message frame based on the BCC. Negative Acknowledgment is sent by receiving station to transmitting station to indicate that there was an error on the received message frame based on the BCC.
1 byte
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
NS
FI
FI = 0 (b7) indicates frame is information frame NS = Send sequence number NR = Receive sequence number P/F = Poll / Final
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
Code
FI
Information Frame
FI = 10 (b7 and b6) (indicates frame is supervisory frame) P/F = Poll / Final NR = Receive sequence number Code = 00 (b5 and b4) indicates receiver is ready to receive data (RR) = 10 (b5 and b4) indicates receiver is not ready to receive data = 01 (b5 and b4) indicates a negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data = 11 (b5 and b4) indicates selective negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data
Control
Starting Flag
Code
P/F
Code
FI
FI = 11 indicates frame is unnumbered frame Code = corresponds to a command or response P/F = Poll / Final
SDLC Frame
Format of frame from primary station is similar to that of a secondary station. Starting flag indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110 or 7E Hex) Used for character synchronization Bit stuffing is used when data contains a series of bits same as starting or ending flag. Secondary Station Address contains secondary station address to which frame must go to, or from which frame came from Address 00 Hex is used for network testing and is never used for secondary stations. It is called null address. Address FF Hex is the broadcast address (frame intended for all secondary stations. Can be one or several bytes long Control Field used for polling, confirming received frames, and other functions. NR (Receive sequence number) Indicates the number of the next information frame the transmitting station expects to receive, or the number of the next information frame the receiving station will transmit. Used also to indicate status of previously received frames.
SDLC Frame
P/F (poll bit (P) or final (F) bit) 1 indicates that the frame sent by primary station needs a reply from the secondary station, or 1 indicates that the frame is the last frame sent by a secondary station to the primary station. NS (Send or transmit sequence number) defines sequence number of frame currently being sent. Used to reconstruct data and to identify missing frames or frames with errors. FI (Frame identifier) identifies if the frame is I, S, or U FI = 0 indicates an information frame FI = 10 indicates a supervisory frame FI = 11 indicates an unnumbered frame Payload contains users data Frame check sequence contains error detection information such as CRC. Ending flag indicates end of frame (also has a value of 01111110) can also be used as starting flag of next frame
1 or 2 bytes
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
NS
FI
FI = 0 indicates frame is information frame NS = Send sequence number NR = Receive sequence number P/F = Poll / Final
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
Code
FI
Information Frame
FI = 10 (indicates frame is supervisory frame) P/F = Poll / Final NR = Receive sequence number Code = 00 indicates receiver is ready to receive data (RR) = 10 indicates receiver is not ready to receive data = 01 indicates a negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data = 11 indicates selective negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data
1 or 2 bytes
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
Code
P/F
Code
FI
FI = 11 indicates frame is unnumbered frame Code = corresponds to a command or response P/F = Poll / Final
HDLC Frame
Format of frame from primary station is similar to that of a secondary station. Starting flag indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110 or 7E Hex) Used for character synchronization Bit stuffing is used when data contains a series of bits same as starting or ending flag. Secondary Station Address contains secondary station address to which frame must go to, or from which frame came from Address 00 Hex is used for network testing and is never used for secondary stations. It is called null address. Address FF Hex is the broadcast address (frame intended for all secondary stations. Can be one or several bytes long Control Field used for polling, confirming received frames, and other functions. NR (Receive sequence number) Indicates the number of the next information frame the transmitting station expects to receive, or the number of the next information frame the receiving station will transmit. Used also to indicate status of previously received frames.
HDLC Frame
P/F (poll bit (P) or final (F) bit) 1 indicates that the frame sent by primary station needs a reply from the secondary station, or 1 indicates that the frame is the last frame sent by a secondary station to the primary station. NS (Send or transmit sequence number) defines sequence number of frame currently being sent. Used to reconstruct data and to identify missing frames or frames with errors. FI (Frame identifier) identifies if the frame is I, S, or U FI = 0 indicates an information frame FI = 10 indicates a supervisory frame FI = 11 indicates an unnumbered frame Payload contains users data Frame check sequence contains error detection information such as CRC. Ending flag indicates end of frame (also has a value of 01111110) can also be used as starting flag of next frame
Protocol
Control
Address
Starting Flag
Starting flag - indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110) Address - contains a broadcast address (11111111) Control uses format of U frame of HDLC Protocol defines what is being carried in data field Data carries either user data or other information Frame Check Sequence provides CRC Ending flag - indicates end of frame (has a value of 01111110)
Fail
Establishing link
Fail
Finish
Control
Address
Starting Flag
Code
ID
Length
1 byte
1 byte
2 bytes
Variable
Code defines type of LCP packet ID holds a value used to match a request with a reply. One endpoint inserts a value in this field, which will be copied in the reply packet. Length defines length of entire LCP packet Information contains extra information needed for some LCP packets
Control
Address
Starting Flag
ID
Code 3 1 byte
Authenticate-nak
1 byte
ID
Code 2 1 byte
Authenticate-ack
1 byte
Password
Username
Length Length
ID ID
Code 1 Code 1
Authenticate-request
Variable
Variable
2 bytes
1 byte
1 byte
Challenge Handshake Protocol Three way handshaking protocol which provides greater security than PAP Protocol field contains C223 (HEX) Password is kept a secret and is never sent online.
System sends to user challenge packet containing a challenge value User applies predefined function that uses the challenge value and the users own password, and creates result; user sends result using response packet. System applies same function to password of user and challenge value at the system side; compares its own result with result at user side. If results are the same, access is granted; otherwise access is denied.
Control
Address
Starting Flag
Message Length
ID
Code 4 1 byte
Failure
Message Length
ID
Code 3 1 byte
Success
Name
Length 2 bytes
ID 1 byte
Code 22 Code
Response
Variable Variable
1 byte
Name
ID
Code 12 Code
Challenge
Variable Variable
2 bytes 1 byte
1 byte
Control
Address
Starting Flag
IPCP information
Length
ID
Code
IPCP Packet
Variable
2 bytes
1 byte
1 byte
Ethernet Frame
7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes Destination Address 6 bytes Source Address 2 bytes 46 to 1500 bytes Data and Padding 4 bytes
Preamble
SFD
Length PDU
CRC
Minimum frame length is 64 bytes (without preamble and SFD) Maximum frame length is 1518 bytes (without preamble and SFD) Minimum length restriction is required for correct operation of CSMA/CD -If length is too short, frame could be sent before collisions are detected. Padding is done if length of data is not sufficient to meet minimum frame length.
Ethernet Frame
Preamble contains 7 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s; used to synchronize receiver with transmitter SFD (Start Frame Delimiter) has a value of 10101011; signals the beginning of the frame Destination Address contains physical (MAC, Ethernet, or Network Interface Card (NIC address) of destination station Source Address - contains physical (MAC, Ethernet, or Network Interface Card (NIC) address) of sender of packet Length / Type defines as either a length (if value is less than 1518) or type field (if value is greater than 1536) Defines length of data field that follows (when used as length) Defines type of Protocol Data Unit (PDU) encapsulated in frame Data carries data from upper layer protocols CRC error detection information (CRC-32)
Ethernet Addressing
Usually expressed in hexadecimal (Ex. 01-03-05-0A-23-0A) Source address is always a unicast (from one station) Destination address could be: Unicast for one station only (last bit of byte 1 is 0) Multicasrt for several stations (last bit of byte 1 is 1) Broadcast for all stations (all bits are 1)
Computer A
Computer B
Terminator
Transceiver
Terminator
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals Terminator prevents reflected signals (50 ohms)
Uses Manchester Encoding / Decoding Attachment Unit Interface (Transceiver Cable 4 twisted pairs) Medium Dependent Interface
Computer A
Computer B
NIC
NIC
T Connector
Terminator
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals Terminator prevents reflected signals (50 ohms)
NIC
Twisted pair cable Twisted pair cable
NIC
10 Base T Hub NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals
Computer A
Computer B
Transceiver
Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
10 Base FL Hub
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals
Medium Independent Interface (MII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
Two pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 5 or STP)
NIC
Two pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 5 or STP)
Medium
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends parallel data in 4 bit format to Physical layer Entity Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
Medium Independent Interface (MII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
NIC
Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
Medium
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends parallel data in 4 bit format to Physical layer Entity Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
Medium Independent Interface (MII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
4 pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 3 or higher)
NIC
4 pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 3 or higher)
Medium
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends parallel data in 4 bit format to Physical layer Entity Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
1000 Base SX and 1000 Base LX (1 Gbps Fiber Optic Ethernet) Physical Layer
Reconciliation Usually Embedded in NIC
Computer A Computer B
Gigabit Medium Independent Interface (GMII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
NIC
Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
Medium
NIC - Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends 8 bit parallel data to Physical layer Entity GMII Gigabit Medium Independent Interface; resides only inside the NIC Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
Medium Independent Interface (MII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
4 pairs Twisted Pair Cat 5 cable
NIC
4 pairs Twisted Pair Cat 5 cable
Medium
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends 8 bit parallel data to Physical layer Entity GMII Gigabit Medium Independent Interface; resides only inside the NIC Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
IEEE 802.11
The physical layer specifications are: Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) High rate DSSS (HR-DSSS) Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) First used by the military to secure communications. Message or data is broken into fixed size blocks of data, and each block is transmitted in sequence on a different carrier frequency. Sender sends on one carrier frequency for a short amount of time, then hops to another carrier frequency for the same amount of time, and so on. Cycle is repeated. A pseudorandom code is used to generate a unique frequency hopping sequence, which is known by both transmitter and receiver. Each transmitter-receiver combination can use the same frequency spectrum but each uses a different frequency hopping sequence to prevent interference. Spread spectrum bandwidth = bandwidth of original signal X no. of hops. Spreading makes it difficult for unauthorized persons to reconstruct the transmitted signal.
IEEE 802.11
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (cont.) Uses a industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band Band is divided into 79 subbands of 1 Mhz. A pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence. System allows 1 or 2 bits per baud (2 level FSK or four level FSK) Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) A high bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a low bit rate information signal to generate a high bit rate pseudorandom signal closely resembling noise that contains both data and pseudorandom code. Each bit sent by the sender is replaced with a sequence of bits called chip code. Each transmitter-receiver combination knows the pseudorandom code. Time needed to send one chip code must be the same as the time needed to send one bit. DSSS is implemented in the physical layer. Uses a ISM band Allows 1 or 2 bits per baud.
IEEE 802.11
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) The same as FDM except that all the subbands are used by one source at any given time. Sources contend for access at the data link layer. Uses ISM band, which is subdivided into 52 subbands, with 48 subbands for sending 48 groups of bits at a time and 4 subbands for control information. High rate DSSS (HR-DSSS) Similar to DSSS except for encoding method, which is called complementary code keying (CCK), wherein 4 or 8 bits are encoded to one CCK symbol.
IEEE 802.11
Protocol Freq. (GHz) 2.4 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 5 2.4 2.4 Bandwidth (MHz) 20 20 20 20 Data Rate per stream (Mbit/s) 1, 2 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 1, 2, 5.5, 11 1, 2 , 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 6.5, 13, 19.5, 26, 39, 52, 58.5, 65 13.5, 27, 40.5, 54, 81, 108, 121.5, 135
(Source: WiFi Alliance)
20 802.11n 2.4/5 40