SUMMARY The objective of this experiment was to 1 - Compare the observed pressure of water flowing through a Venturi tube

with that predicted by the Bernoullis Theorem. 2 To calibrate the Venturi tube for use as a flow measurement device, and to determine the coefficient of charge, Cd for this setup It was observed that Bernoullis theorem predicts that for a fluid flow, the sum of all the energies is constant. Though after calculating the values, it was found experimentally that our results do follow Bernoullis theorem. The value of Cd calculated was 0.852. The negative value indicates that as the distance between hpF and hpE increases the flow rate generally decreases.

APPARATUS The apparatus consisted of a venturi tube and a hydraulic bench. The venture tube has 6 side-hole pressure tappings, which are connected directly to a manometer to measure the pressure heads. Since only the differences of head are of interest, the absolute values are not important. An additional manometer tube is connected to a total pressure probe, which can be moved along the centre of the venturi tube to measure the total pressure at different positions. Great caution is required to make sure that the additional manometer is straight and at the centre of the venturi tube, or else the readings prove to be faulty. Water is supplied from the hydraulic bench, in which measurement of flow rate can be made by measuring the water collected over a specific period of time. The hydraulic bench contains a reservoir of water, the sump which held the venturi tube mounted on it. Measuring cylinders were used to measure the volume of the water because the flow rates were very small. A stopwatch was also required to measure the flow rate. CALCULATIONS Bernoullis theorem states that for an incompressible fluid undergoing frictionless flow the sum of the kinetic, potential and flow energies is constant. In our experiment the venturi tube was set up horizontally so the potential energy does not change and the equation was:

Where P is the pressure of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, z is the height above a datum level, p is the fluid density and g is the acceleration due to gravity. To find the coefficient of discharge, we use this equation: [ ]

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. The value for this is determined experimentally. The factor in the square brackets is a constant for a particular venture meter. In this case the value is 3.52 x 10-4 m2.5/s. The formula for dynamic pressure heads is

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS Table 1: Pressure Heads Pressure head, h (mm), at Max Pressure head Min Pressure head difference between F difference between F and E and E 260 160 45 135 55 135 75 135 140 140 195 150

Section F E D C B A

Manometer 6 5 4 3 2 1

Diameter 25.0 10.0 10.7 11.8 13.9 25.0

Table 2: Total Heads(Manometer number: 8) Total head (mm), at Max Pressure head Min Pressure head difference between difference between F and E F and E 280 165 280 165 280 165 280 165 265 160 240 155 215 155 215 155 210 150

Distance from F (mm) -10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150

Table 3: Venturi Meter Calibration Water Volume V (m3) 5.5x10-4 5.3x10-4 6.5x10-4 6.4x10-4 6.5x10-4 6.5x10-4 7.7x10-4 6.4x10-4 Time Interval T (s) 13.19 5.25 6.00 5.31 5.19 4.50 5.06 4.69 Flow Rate Q (m3/s) 4.17x10-5 1.01x10-4 1.08x10-4 1.21x10-4 1.25x10-4 1.44x10-4 1.52x10-4 1.36x10-4

hpF (mm) 180 195 205 215 225 245 250 225

hpE (mm) 120 110 100 90 80 65 60 75

(hpF-hpE) (m) 0.060 0.085 0.105 0.125 0.145 0.180 0.190 0.150

(hpF-hpE)0.5 (m0.5) 0.245 0.292 0.324 0.354 0.381 0.424 0.436 0.387

Taking data from table 2, a graph of maximum head difference between inlet (F) and throat (E) against distance along venturi tube is plotted.
Graph of max pressure head difference against distance along Venturi tube.

350

300

250

Max pressure head difference/mm

200 y = -0.5375x + 289.29 150 Series1 Linear (Series1)

100

50

0 -50 0 50 100 150 200 Distance along venturi meter/mm

Taking data from table 2, a graph of minimum head difference between inlet (F) and throat (E) against distance along venturi tube is plotted.
Graph of min pressure head difference against distance along Venturi tube. 170 168 166 164 162 Min pressure head difference/mm 160 158 156 154 152 150 148 -50 0 50 100 150 Distance along venturi meter/mm 200 y = -0.1x + 166.44 Series1 Linear (Series1)

Using the equations from the 2 graphs above, Max pressure and Min pressure have been calculated.

Total Head (mm), at Max pressure head difference between Fand E 289.9 256.8 252.5 250.1 Min pressure head difference between Fand E 166.7 160.4 159.6 159.2

Dynamic Head, hv (mm), at Min Pressure head difference between F and E 6.7 25.4 62.5 -19.9

Distance from F/ mm 0.00 60.46 68.96 72.86

Max Pressure head difference between F and E 21.9 211.8 197.5 115.1

81.26 141.54

245.6 213.2

158.3 152.3

105.6 182.0

-34.4 32.0

350 300 250 200 Heads/mm 150 100 50 0 0 20

Graph of max Heads against distance from inlet Total head Pressure head dynamic pressure head

40

60 80 100 Distance from inlet/mm

120

140

160

Graph of min Heads against distance from inlet 200

150

100 Heads/mm 50

Pressure Head Total head dynamic pressure head

0 0 50 100 150

-50

Distance from inlet/mm

Graph 0.00016 of flow rate against squre root of head difference. 0.00014 0.00012 0.0001 Flow 0.00008 mrate/m3/s 0.00006 0.00004 0.00002 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 y = 0.0003x

Series1 Linear (Series1)

Square root of pressure head difference/m0.5

Determining the value of Cd:

This formula has been given previously:

Q =

Cd

Now, since the value of the brackets is constant we can eliminate it from the equation in order to produce another equation which makes use of the graph above. Since the y-axis is the pressure head square roots and the x-axis is the flow rate, the equation becomes: Y = mx + c X=0 Gradient= [ Cd [ ]

]= 0.0003

Cd = 0.0003 3.52 x 10-4 = 0.852

Discussion The experiment carried out was centred on Bernoullis theorem. It can be observed on the graph that the total head is decreasing slightly. According to theory it should have been constant. Reasons for this discrepancy are maybe heat loss, friction and use of a liquid which is compressible and has a significant viscosity. Also, it can be deduced that pressure head is inversely proportional to dynamic pressure head since the graphs above shows that when dynamic head increases at a particular area of the tube, pressure head decreases accordingly. The value obtained for Cd was 0.852. This value is relatively correct given that theory predicts that this value should be around 0.9. The difference in Cd value can be explained by errors produced during the experiment. It could be because of the parallax error which while reading values on the tubes and errors in calculations. The pressure probe is used to measure the pressure at a particular location in a flowing liquid. The pressure measured by the probe is the pressure head + the dynamic pressure head. Hence, the probe measures the total pressure.

Conclusion Overall, it can be concluded that the experiment has been a success and it has been found that Bernoullis theorem is only valid for incompressible fluid. Also, the experiment showed that the Calibration of the Venturi tube can be used as a flow flow measuring apparatus.