Abrasion by Glaciers, Rivers, and Waves Author(s): Lewis G. Westgate Reviewed work(s): Source: The Journal of Geology, Vol.

15, No. 2 (Feb. - Mar., 1907), pp. 113-120 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30056365 . Accessed: 27/03/2012 19:32
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ABRASION BY GLACIERS, RIVERS, AND WAVES

LEWIS G. WESTGATE Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, O. INTRODUCTION

where the Erosion' or land sculptureincludesrock disintegration, of rock is coherent, and transportation the material disintegrated. Disintegration has been divided into weathering and corrasion. Stream-and wave-wear though may be eitherchemicalor mechanical, in all ordinarycircumstances mechanicalwear is so much greater the than chemical solution that the latter may be neglected. Ice-wear is purely mechanical. Omitting chemical solution, which is an entirelydistinctprocess,corrasionmay be definedas the mechanical wear performedby wind, streams,waves or glaciers. Gilbert2uses for the term"corrasion," excludingchemicalcorrasion, the "mechanical wear . . . . performed by the aid of hard mineral fragments

which are carriedalong by the current." Chamberlin Salisbury3 and as define stream-corrasion "the wear effected by running water." This use of the term is wider than that of Gilbert,for it includesnot only wear by tools, but also the process of sweepingaway material which has alwaysbeen incoherentand "materialloosenedin advance by the process of weathering." To distinguishthese radicallydifin ferent processesof stream-action, this paper the term "abrasion" wear performed tools, and "pluckwill be used for the mechanical by ing" for the removalof rock fragments. "Corrasion,"includingall mechanical wearby streams,will includeboth abrasionand plucking. None of the terms are new; they have more or less overlappedin use, and it is believedthat the meaninghere assignedto them is that generallyunderstoodtoday. The terms can be applied to glacierand wave-action with the same significancewith which they are 1Gilbert, Geology of the Henry Mountains, pp. 99-102.
2

Ibid., p. 101. 3 Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, Vol. I, p. 113. 113

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LEWIS G. WESTGATE

appliedto stream-action. The analysisof erosionby waves, glaciers, and streams,would be arrangedas follows:
Corrasion Abrasion Erosion Disintegration Plucking Solution Transportation
Rock-

Weathering

In geologicalliteratureabrasionis ordinarily an considered important factor in land sculpture. It is the purposeof this article to suggest that abrasion by glaciers, streams, and waves is in most cases a negligible factor in erosion, and to emphasize the importance of weatheringin the work of erosion by streams and waves. Winderosion is not considered.
GLACIAL ABRASION

The common understandingof glacial erosion has been that it is accomplishedby the wear of solid particlesheld in the bottom of the ice against the rock surface over which the ice moved. This processwould be favoredby the weight of the glacierand by the fact that particlesso held are often in continuouscontact with the bedrock for long distances. If this process were the only or the chief factor involved in glacial erosion, the rasplike action.of the broad glacierbottomshouldproducea smoothed,sub-evensurface. Within the glaciated area of North America there are many nearly level, glaciallysmoothedsurfaces,but these are in regionswhich were level in preglacialtimes, and are areas which there is reason to believe were not deeply eroded. In the hilly regions of glaciated North Americaand in glaciated alpine valleys the detail of such surfaces is controlled by rock jointing, and glacial abrasion is limited to smoothingthe surfacesand roundingthe cornersof the joint blocks. This hackly characterof the topographicdetail of surfaces covered by the Pleistoceneice-sheetmay be in part an inheritancefrom prePleistocenetime, but in glaciatedalpine valleys (see Fig. I), having surfaceof the lower part lateralhangingvalleys, the rounded-hackly of the main valley has been producedby the normalaction of glacial erosionin live rock, scores and perhapshundredsof feet below the original surface. Here plucking, or the removal of large blocks boundedby joint planes, has been the importantelement in erosion.

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Beforeglacialabrasionhas been able to smoothaway the inequalities produced by plucking, the process of plucking has producednew inequalities. The effect of abrasionin wearingdown the valleys is neutralizedby the removal of the joint blocks when only partly abraded. It has been a pluck-and-heal process, with plucking always ahead. It is not a question here whether the blocks pluckedare removed mechanicallyby the ice,orareloosenedby subglacialweathering; the point emphasized is that valley- deepening does not take place through scratching
by material carried

in the bottomof the

ice.
There is nothing

FIG. I.-Joint-controlled glacially eroded surface. Direction of ice-movement was to left. The view

shows the inabilityof abrasion obliterate control, to the

by jointing and plucking, of the surface form. Lake

new in this state-

Creek,aboveTwin Lakes, Colo.

ment of the process of glacial erosion. Plucking is recognizedmore and more. The relativeincompetency glacial abrasionis mentionedhere because of it leads up to the consideration the inadequacy stream-abrasion. of of The same class of facts is appealedto for evidencein both cases, and these facts have been recognizedmuch more widely in the case of glacial erosionthan in that of streamerosion.
STREAM-ABRASION

Stream-abrasion generallybeen consideredan importantelehas ment in valley-cutting. It was clearly distinguishedby Gilbert' and recenttexts usuallyconsiderit, thoughno attempthas ordinarily been made to indicatethe relativeimportanceof abrasion,plucking,
I Gilbert, Geology of the Henry Mountains, p. 101.

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LEWIS G. WESTGATE

and weathering. Chamberlin and Salisbury'go as far as any recent text in emphasizingthe importanceof weatheringand plucking,and so in limiting the relative importance.of abrasionin valley-cutting. They say that in any valley cross-sectionthe amount removed by corrasion may be measured by a rectangle the width of which is the width of the stream, and the height of which is the depth of the valley. It seems, however, that even this relatively small proportionate amount, while allowed to the stream, must be denied to stream-abrasion,and divided between plucking and weathering. is Theoreticallystream-abrasion less probable than abrasion by The cutting particlesare not held against the rock bottom glaciers. by any overlyingmass of ice; indeed, the weight of the particles is lessened by their immersion in watei. The smaller particles are largely carriedin suspension,striking the bottom only at intervals. Fragmentstoo large for suspensionmove over the bottomwith rolling and not with sliding friction. The form usually shown by the rock-bedover which the stream flowsbearsevidenceto the inadequacyof mechanicalwear of detritus in shapingit and in loweringthe bed. The OlentangyRiver below Delaware, 0., for example, is flowing over nearly horizontalbeds of Devonianlimestone. The bed of the river,which has since glacial time been cut a dozen feet into the hardrock, consistsof a succession of very broad, low steps, each step being a limestone stratum, its down-stream limit determined by vertical joint-faces. In some places the edges, and in a few places the surfaces,of these steps are slightlyrounded,as if by mechanicalwear; but this in no way affects the large fact that the rock in the stream-bedis boundedby stratification- and torsion-jointplanes. The agency effective in removing the rock from the stream-bedhas taken it away in large blocks; the rock has not been scratched away by the mechanical rubbing of fragments swept down by the stream. The ordinaryprocesses of weatheringare believed to have loosened the jointed limestone,and the blocks were later swept away by the stream. As in the case of glacial erosion,before abrasioncould reduce a joint-block,weathering processesisolated the partly worn block, and deliveredit to the
1 Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, Vol. I, p. 108.

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streamfor removal. In each case the characterof the bottom bears evidenceto the ineffectiveness abrasion. of This fact in regardto the formof the stream-bed been noticed has the writer in the streamscutting the Ohio shale and Cincinnati by limestone (see Fig. 2) in Ohio, in the sandy shales near Ithaca, in the Berea sandstone
of Ohio, in the Triassic sandstone along the lower Westfield River and the Connecticut River, and in the crystalline rocks along the upper Westfield River. Views showing stream-beds, notably in the collection

Tarr'sNew Physical
Geography, give evidence in the
same

direction.

FIG.2.-Stream in thin-bedded Cincinnati limestone, in which the characteristic irregular surface of the stream-bed, the result of plucking rather than abrasion, is shown. Near Camden, O.

In qualification of what has just been said in reference to stream-abrasion, two things may be mentioned. First, reference should be made to pothole action. It is abrasion, and where numerous potholes are forming and connect, they may decidedly aid downward erosion. This action, however, is believed to be exceptional; the great majority of streams are without it. Secondly, and forming a really important exception, in certain cases streams are flowing over rock-beds which are thoroughly smoothed, and appear to have been deepened by wear of stream-swept detritus. In these cases it is believed that it will be found that the rock is nearly jointless. This is especially the case with crystalline rocks, particularly the more massive granites. This process of wear by abrasion is most common in swift streams in mountainous areas, but even here it is exceptional, and in the consideration of stream-erosion generally it is insignificant. In conclusion, the joint-controlled form of the rock sides and

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G. WESTGATE

bottoms of stream-bedsshows that abrasionhas not been a deterand that the stream is a transmining element in valley-deepening, dislodgedfrom portingand not an abradingagent,removingmaterials its bed or swept into it from its valley sides.
WAVE-EROSION

As in river-erosion, in wave-erosion,abrasion,or the wear by so material thrown against the base of the cliff, has been generally and Salisbury'make corrasion in emphasized the texts. Chamberlin the impact of detritus an importantelement in wave-erosionon by the of hardrocks,at the same time emphasizing co-operation weatherGeikie2 says: "The waves make use of ing along joint planes. loose detritus within their reach to break down cliffs exposed to theirfury. Probably by far the largest amount of erosion is thus accomplished." Le Conte3 says that "fragments hurled against the shore are the principal agent of waveerosion." But if abrasion has been the determiningfactor in wave-cutting, FIG. 3.-Shore on the east side of Easton's Point, the shorein the vertiNewport, R. I. cal zone of breakers should bear evidence of this by its rounded and worn character. The only chance which the writer had to study rock shores with this considerationin mind was at Newport. In the hard conglomerate and sandstone at Easton's Point (see Fig. 3), on the south side of the island, no evidence of abrasionwas found. To be sure, in some protectedpockets,into which gravel had been swept
1 Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, Vol. I, pp. 2 Geikie, Text-Book of Geology, Vol. I, p. 569.
3 327-29.

Le Conte, Elements of Geology, 5th ed., p. 34-

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119

by the waves,the roll of the gravelhad smoothedthe solid rock; but whichhavenot been eitheron surfaces the elsewhere wavesarebreaking eroded,or on a rocky shore composedof angularmasses appreciably of rockof all sizes,whichhavebeenloosenedby weathering.Wherever the shore is being worn, it is by combinedweatheringand plucking, and not by abrasion. Easton's Point is not yet markedby a wavecut cliff, and so is not the best place to show the processof erosion; but along the Cliff Walk, at the west end of Easton'sBeach, where Carboniferous the rock is prevailingly schists, a distinctcliff faces the the base of the cliff, however,is not roundedand smoothed ocean; as would be the case were it being worn back by abrasion. A very suggestive photograph of a raised wave-cut bench on Prudence Island has been published,'in which both cliff and bench are rough and angular,the detail determinedby the jointingof the shales. It will be easy, of course,for anyoneto test the matterfor himself. Detritus protects rather than endangersthe cliff. Except at times of high storm,the beach materialprotectsthe cliff and acts on itself. of It does not seem probablethat the bombardment the cliff at times of heavy storm would seriously affect the cliff. Certainlythere is little evidence of such action in the detail of the cliff base. Waves acting by hydrostaticpressurealong joint planes may be effective; apartfrom that actiontheirworkwould appearto consistin reducing and removingmaterialssupplied them by the processesof weatherand not abradingagents. ing. They, like streams,are transporting
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PLUCKING AND WEATHERING

The mechanical work of corrasion has been divided between abrasionand plucking. Abrasiondoes not appearto be an important factor. It is furthera delicate questionas to how far plucking can fromweathering a be considered separateprocess,to be distinguished on on the one hand and transportation the other. In the case of erosionit is easy to believe that the pressureof the ice may glacial dislodgeblocks from a jointedfloorwhich has not been affectedby thoughit would be difficultto showthat frost-weathering weathering, had not had a sharein looseningthese blocks. It is possible that a
1Geology of the Narragansett Basin, Monograph 33, U. S. Geological Survey, Plate XXIII.

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LEWIS G. WESTGATE

similareffectmay be produced the sea-cliffin time of heavy storms. on But the impactof storm-waves evenwouldseemto be less effectivethan the pressureof glacial ice, and the fact that the cliff base is exposed to the air, and is often, and in some cases always, water-soaked, indicates that the looseningof the rock fragmentswhich are finally dislodgedby the waves is in realitythe result of weathering. In the case of streams flowing over jointed coherentrock, it is difficultto believe that even the swift currentsof flood seasons are able to dislodge rocks from the stream-beds. The impact of the water is too slight, and is exertedon the nearly flat stream-bedat a great disadvantage. The stream is able to sweep away blocks, not too large, which have been loosened and partly dislodgedby weathering; but it is not easy to believe that the stream is the dislodgingagent. as If, as seems certain in the case of stream-erosion,and seems in case of wave-erosion, looseningof the rock fragments the probable is the result of weathering,then plucking becomes merely the first of step in the transportation d6bris, and is reduced to a vanishing between weatheringand transportation. In that case the quantity and not a corradingagent; weatherstreambecomesa transporting as ing becomes the importantfactor in valley-deepening in valleywhile the stream acting as a transporting agent prevents widening; the process from clogging. To the extent that weatheringreplaces plucking by wave-action,the same thing is true of shore erosion. In glacialerosiononly is pluckingleft as a largefactor,and even here it is not certainthat it is the only factor in joint-blockremoval.