Schizophrenia (Karthik Calling Karthik, Aankhen, Woh Lamhe) Aspergers Syndrome (My Name Is Khan) Progeria (Paa) Amnesia

(Ghajini) Alzheimers (U Me Aur Hum) Dyslexia (Taare Zameen Par) Autism (Apna Asman) Mental Retardness (Koi Mil Gaya) Deafness & Blindness combined with Alzheimers (Black) Cancer (Anand, Dil Ek Mandir Hai, Mili, Shaadi Se Pehle) heart disease (Kal Ho Na Ho) Krazzy 4 (Mental Illness) Chup Chup Ke (Deaf & Mute) Deaf & Blind(Pyare Mohan) Blindness(Naina) HIV/AIDS(Phir Milenge and My Brother Nikhil ) Coma(Sadma ) Dextrocardia(Luck )

Mental illness and movies have always been connected for not only commercial reasons but also those of aesthetic in nature. Each individual, however strong they may claim to be, goes through psychological disturbances at some point in their lives, whether they realize it or they dont. This is perhaps why movies across nations have depicted mental illness in commercial films.

The success of these films also stand as testimonies to the hard hitting fact, that the viewer relates to the character afflicted with mental illness or trauma. Since the beginning of International cinema, madness as a concept has done well both in terms of critical acclaim and box office success. Here are some movies which have left an impact on the critics, audience and movie lovers through the decades. Dementia Alzheimers disease

Iris (2001) De Zaak Alzheimer (2003) Away from Her (2006) The Notebook (2004) Thanmatra (2005) U Me Aur Hum (2008)

Amnesia Anterograde amnesia

A person with anterograde amnesia is unable to form new memories.

Clean Slate (1994) Wintersleepers (1997) Memento (2001) 50 First Dates (2004) The Lookout (2007) Ghajini (2005)

Retrograde amnesia A much-used plot device, retrograde amnesia occurs when a person forgets part or all of his or her past.

I Love You Again (1940) Sullivans Travels (1941) Random Harvest (1942), in which Ronald Colmans character suffers from the condition not once but twice. Crime Doctor (1943) Anastasia (1956) RoboCop (1987) Overboard (1987) Regarding Henry (1991) The Majestic (2001) The Addams Family (1991) The English Patient (1996) Mulholland Drive (2001) The Bourne Identity (2002) Finding Nemo (2003) The Number 23 (2007) Spider-Man 3 (2007) Unknown (2011)

Psychogenic amnesia Psychogenic amnesia is memory loss caused by psychological stress.

Spellbound (1945) The Snake Pit (1948) Shadow on the Wall (1950) Marnie (1964) Mister Buddwing (1966)

Agoraphobia

Grey Gardens 1975

Copycat (1995) Naked Fear (1999) Frozen with Fear (2000) Public Domain (2003) Oceans Twelve (2004) N.H.K ni ykoso! (2006) Nims Island (2008) Restraint (2008) Tokyo! (2008)

Anxiety disorders

Ordinary People (1980) Mrs Dalloway (1997) Session 9 (2001) Elling (2001) White Oleander (2002) Punch-Drunk Love (2002)

Autistic disorder

The Boy Who Could Fly (1986) Rain Man (1988) House of Cards (1993) Cube (1997) Mercury Rising (1998) Molly (1999) Bless the Child (2000) Miracle Run (2004) Mozart and the Whale (2005) Marathon (2005) Snow Cake (2006) Ben X (2007) The Black Balloon (2008) Adam (2009) My Name Is Khan (2010) Temple Grandin (2010) Ocean Heaven (2010) Dear John (2010) Fly Away (2011) Exodus Fall (2011) Little Man Tate

Bipolar disorder

A Fine Madness (1966)

Frances (1982) Mr. Jones (1993) Blue Sky (1994) On the Edge of Innocence (1997) The Horse Whisperer (1998) Bulworth (1998) Pollock (2001) Sylvia (2003) Special (2006) The Flying Scotsman (2006) Michael Clayton (2007) Observe and Report (2009) The Informant! (2009) Boy Interrupted (2009)

Clinical depression

The Fire Within (1963) Interiors (1978) Ordinary People (1980) An Angel at My Table (1990) The Butcher Boy (1998) The Virgin Suicides (1999) Prozac Nation (2001) The Hours (2002) The Assassination of Richard Nixon (2004) Wristcutters: A Love Story (2006) Shrink (2009) Veronika Decides to Die (2009) Helen (2009) Its Kind of a Funny Story (2010)

Dissociative disorders

A Double Life (1947) The Three Faces of Eve (1957) Psycho (1960) Persona (1964) Sybil (1976) Angel Heart (1987) Color of Night (1994) Never Talk to Strangers (1995) Fight Club (1999) The Hurricane (1999) Me, Myself & Irene (2000) Passion of Mind (2000)

A Tale of Two Sisters (2003) Identity (2003) Secret Window (2004) The Machinist (2004) Hide and Seek (2005) The Jacket (2005) 2:37 Thr3e (2007) Mad Detective (2007) Numb (2007) Dark Floors (2008) The Uninvited (2009) Frankie and Alice (2010) Peacock (2010) The Ward (2011) The Number 23(2007)

Eating disorders

The Best Little Girl in the World (1981) Kates Secret (1986) An Anorexics Tale: The Brief Life of Catherine (1988) The Karen Carpenter Story (1989) For the Love of Nancy (1994) 301, 302 (1995) When Friendship Kills (1996) Dying to Be Perfect: The Ellen Hart Pena Story (1996) Perfect Body (1997) A Girl is a Girl (1999) Sharing the Secret (2000) Slender Existence (Short Film) (2000) NOVA: Dying to Be Thin (Documentary) (2000) Dying to Dance (2001) Hunger Point (2003) Perfect Illusions: Eating Disorders and the Family (Documentary) (2003) Thin (Documentary) (2006) Dana: The 8 Year Old Anorexic (Documentary) (2008) Black Swan (2010)

Obsessivecompulsive disorders

Secrets of a Soul (1926) Cat People (1942) What About Bob? (1991) As Good as It Gets (1997) K-PAX (2001)

Matchstick Men (2003) Dirty Filthy Love (2004) The Aviator (2005) Black Swan (2010)

Personality disorders Borderline personality disorder

The Fountainhead (1949) Play Misty for Me (1971) Fatal Attraction (1987) Poison Ivy (1992) The Crush (1993) Mad Love (1995) The Cable Guy (1996) Girl, Interrupted (1999) Allein (Germany, 2004) Chloe (2009) Single White Female (1992) The Hand that Rocks the Cradle (1992) Notes on a Scandal (2006) Black Swan (2010)

Antisocial personality disorder

A Clockwork Orange (1971) The Silence of the Lambs (1991) Natural Born Killers (1994) American Psycho (2000) No Country for Old Men (2007)

Narcissistic personality disorder

A Clockwork Orange (1971) Wall Street (1987) To Die For (1995) White Oleander (2002)

Schizophrenia

Through a Glass Darkly (1961) Images (1972) Videodrome (1983) The Fisher King (1991) Benny & Joon (1993)

Angel Baby (1995) Clean, Shaven (1995) Conspiracy Theory (1997) Julien Donkey-Boy (1999) The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999) A Beautiful Mind (2001) Donnie Darko (2001) K-PAX (2001) Igby Goes Down (2002) Spider (2002) Keane (2004) Spider Forest (2004) Shabd (2005) 15 Park Avenue (2005) Danika (2006) Mr. Brooks (2007) The Soloist (2008) Mirrors (2008) Shutter Island (2010) Black Swan (2010)

Learning disabilities

Taare Zameen Par Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief

Delusional disorder and other psychotic disorders

Repulsion (1965) The King of Comedy (1982) Fatal Attraction (1987) Misery (1990) Alien 3 (1992) Lars and the Real Girl (2007) Obsessed (2009) Black Swan (2010)

Top 20 Medical Journals Medical publications help to keep medical professionals up to date with the latest research and information in their field. Medical journals are usually monthly or bi monthly publications that are generally peer reviewed. 1. New England Journal of Medicine - This is an English-language peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. It is the oldest continuously published medical journal and influential general medical periodical in the world. 2. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association - JAMA, published continuously since 1883, is an international peer-reviewed general medical journal published 48 times per year to promote the science and art of medicine and the betterment of the public health. JAMA is the most widely circulated medical journal in the world. 3. BMJ (British Medical Journal) - The BMJ (British Medical Journal) is an international peer reviewed medical journal and a fully "online first" publication. About 1.3 million unique users download 5.9 million pages from bmj.com every year. 4. Pediatrics - The official peer-reviewed journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. This publication serves authors and readers of the general medical profession as well as pediatricians. 5. Circulation - An American Heart Association journal that is aimed at an audience of cardiologists, cardiovascular surgeons, electro physiologists, internists, nurses and others interested in cardiovascular medicine. 6. Journal of Infectious Diseases - Published for the Infectious Diseases Society of America, This publication represents physicians, scientists and other health care professionals who specialize in infectious diseases. 7. Brain: a Journal of Neurology - Brain provides researchers and clinicians with the finest original contributions in neurology. Leading studies in neurological science are balanced with practical clinical articles. 8. CA: a Cancer Journal for Clinicians - This is a peer-reviewed journal of the American Cancer Society providing cancer care professionals with up-to-date information on all aspects of cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. CA is the most widely circulated oncology journal in the world, with a circulation of approximately 88,000. 9. Clinical Infectious Diseases - Clinical Infectious Diseases, one of the most heavily cited journals in the fields of infectious diseases and microbiology publishes articles on diverse topics in infectious diseases, with a focus on clinical practice.

10. Journal of the American College of Cardiology - JACC publishes original peer-reviewed clinical and experimental reports on topics including coronary artery and valve disease, congenital heart defects, vascular surgery, drug treatment and new diagnostic techniques. 11. Science - Published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, this publication is the world's leading outlet for scientific news, commentary, and research. 12. Annals of Internal Medicine - This is an academic medical journal that is published by the American College of Physicians (ACP). It publishes research articles and reviews in the area of internal medicine 13. Diabetes - Diabetes publishes original research about the physiology and pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus. Submitted manuscripts can report any aspect of laboratory, animal, or human research. 14. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism - The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (JCEM) is the world's leading peer reviewed journal of clinical practice and applied clinical research. 15. Blood - Blood is a weekly medical journal published by the American Society of Hematology with 1,250 articles published annually. 16. Emerging Infectious Diseases - A peer-reviewed journal published by the United States federal agency the Centers for Disease Control. This is published monthly by the CDC's Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases. 17. Journal of Clinical Oncology - This is a medical journal for professionals from all oncology disciplines and subspecialties including medical and surgical oncology, therapeutic radiology, and hematology. 18. Canadian Medical Association Journal - The Canadian Medical Association Journal is a biweekly general medical journal that showcases innovative research and ideas aimed at improving health for people in Canada and globally. 19. BMC Infectious Diseases - An open access journal publishing original peer-reviewed research articles in all aspects of the prevention, diagnosis and management of infectious and sexually transmitted diseases in humans. 20. Archives of Internal Medicine - This is a bi-monthly international professional medical journal published by the American Medical Association with a print circulation of over 100,000 physicians in 75 countries.

WHO has three main divisions. The governing body, the World Health Assembly. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) . The World Bank . UN Economic and Social Council. The United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF)(Head- Anthony Lake) .The United Nation Development Programme (UNDP). United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), also known as private voluntary organizations (PVOs), provide approximately 20% of all external health aid to developing countries. The largest NGO devoted to international health in the United States is Project Hope, with an annual budget exceeding $100 million. Worldwide, the most important NGO in long-term international health is probably Oxfam, International. Six major UN organizations are involved in refugee and disaster relief. The Department of Humanitarian Affairs. UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination Team. UNICEF. The WHO .Division of Emergency and Humanitarian Action. World Food Programme (WFP) .The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) on its programs. UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It helps developing countries prepare for famine through its Global Information and Early Warning System and its Food Security Assistance Scheme, developing countries set up national food reserves. In disasters its principal role is to assist in the re-establishment of agricultural production. Mdecins du Monde (MDM) or Do The Magen David Adom organization was formed by nurse Karen Tenenbaumctors of the World(Bernard Kouchner) Henry Davison, Founding father of the League of Red Cross societies. As is the case with long-term health care, most of the developed countries have a governmental agency dedicated to providing disaster relief. In the United States, disaster relief is for the most part a function of USAID. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is the largest and most prestigious of the world's humanitarian NGOs. It has three components: the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC); the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies; the 160 or so individual national Red Cross societies, e.g. the American Red Cross. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (founder- Henri dunant) .Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) .Founded in 1946 to provide aid to war-devastated Europe, CARE USA is best known for providing food relief in the form of "care-packages. CARE International, headquartered in Brussels. Catholic Relief Services (CRS) specializes in providing food relief. Several hundred American NGOs .The total number of NGOs worldwide has been estimated at 1,500. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) ICMR (indian council for medical research) International Association of National Public Health Institutes IANPHI. State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, also known as the Vector Institute, is a highly sophisticated biological research center in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia. National JALMA Institute for Leprosy & Other Mycobacterial Diseases (NCJILOMD), Agra India, Agra AIIMS-Dean Dr. Rani Kumar Director Dr. Ramesh C. Deka High Security Animal Disease Laboratory (HSADL) India, Bhopal

Chikungunya (in the Makonde language "that which bends up") virus (CHIKV) is an insectborne virus, of the genus Alphavirus, that is transmitted to humans by virus-carrying Aedes mosquitoes. RT-PCR, virus isolation, and serological tests. Biosafety level 4 This level is required for work with dangerous and exotic agents that pose a high individual risk of aerosol-transmitted laboratory infections, agents which cause severe to fatal disease in humans for which vaccines or other treatments are not available, such as Bolivian and Argentine hemorrhagic fevers, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, Lassa fever, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, smallpox, and various other hemorrhagic diseases level 3 level is applicable to clinical, diagnostic, teaching, research, or production facilities in which work is done with indigenous or exotic agents which may cause serious or potentially lethal disease after inhalation.[7] It includes various bacteria, parasites and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease in humans but for which treatments exist, such as Leishmania donovani, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Bacillus anthracis, Chlamydophila psittaci, West Nile virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Hendra virus, SARS coronavirus, Salmonella typhi, Coxiella burnetii, Rift Valley fever virus, Rickettsia rickettsii, and yellow fever virus. Pandemics in popular media Literature The Andromeda Strain a 1969 science fiction novel by Michael Crichton Company of Liars (2008), by Karen Maitland The Decameron, a 14th century writing by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, circa 1353 Earth Abides, a 1949 novel by George R. Stewart I Am Legend, a 1954 science fiction/horror novel by American writer Richard Matheson The Last Canadian, a 1974 novel by William C. Heine The Last Town on Earth, a 2006 novel by Thomas Mullen Pale Horse, Pale Rider, a 1939 short novel by Katherine Anne Porter The Stand, a 1978 novel by Stephen King World War Z, a 2006 novel by Max Brooks Two Journeys, a 2009 novel by Clemens P. Suter The time-travel fiction of Connie Willis (such as The Doomsday Book and To Say Nothing of the Dog) set in the mid-twenty-first century, frequently references a pandemic that occurred in the early part of the century. Film The Last Man on Earth (1964), an Italian horror/science fiction film based upon the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend. The film was directed by Ubaldo Ragona and Sidney Salkow, and stars Vincent Price. The Omega Man (1971), an English science fiction film directed by Boris Sagal, based on the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend. The Horseman on the Roof (Le Hussard sur le Toit) (1995), a French film dealing with an 1832 cholera outbreak. Twelve Monkeys (1995). In a future world devastated by disease, a convict is sent back in time to gather information about the man-made virus that wiped out most of the human population on the planet.

Outbreak (1995). The film focuses on an outbreak of a fictional Ebola-like virus called Motaba in Zaire and later in a small town in the United States. Smallpox 2002 (2002), a fictional BBC docudrama. 28 Days Later (2002), a fictional horror film following the outbreak of an infectious 'rage' virus that destroys all of mainland Britain. End Day (2005), a fictional BBC docudrama. I Am Legend (2007), a film starring Will Smith based on the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend. 28 Weeks Later (2007), the sequel film to 28 Days Later, involving the NATO-led, United States Army supported repatriation of the British people, following the cessation of quarantine measures, and the complete erasure of infection surrounding mainland Britain. The film ends with the evident spread of 'rage' infection to Paris, and the remainder of mainland Europe. Doomsday (2008). Scotland is quarantined following a pandemic, only for a commando team to be sent in years later after the same contagion has re-emerged in England. After Armageddon (2010), fictional History Channel docudrama. Contagion (2011), American thriller film centered on the threat posed by a deadly disease and an international team of doctors contracted by the CDC to deal with the outbreak. 12 October 2011 India encephalitis outbreak kills 400, mainly children in UP( monsoon rains, until 2005 mostly japanese encheph, but now it is sone waterborne strain) At least 19 children have died of Japanese Encephalitis and high fever while 37 others are still undergoing treatment in Gaya town during the past 20 days, officials said. India DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) (see HIV/AIDS in India) 13 National Health Programmes National AIDS Control Programme (AIDS) Plasmodium falciparum containment programme (PfCP) urban malaria scheme (UMS) in 1971-72 and the modified plan of operation (MPO) National Cancer Control Programme (cancer) National Filaria Control Programme (filariasis) National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (iodine deficiency) National Leprosy Eradication Programme (leprosy) National Mental Health Programme (mental health) National Programme for Control of Blindness (blindness) National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness (deafness) National Tobacco Control Programme (tobacco control) National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) (vector-born disease) Pilot Programme on Prevention and Control of Diabetes, CVD and Stroke (diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke) Revised National TB Control Programme (tuberculosis) Universal Immunization Programme

Medical Council of India Dental Council of India Pharmacy Council of India Indian Nursing Council All India Institute of Speech and Hearing (AIISH), Mysore All India Institute of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (AIIPMR), Mumbai Hospital Services Consultancy Corporation Limited (HSCC) Department of Family Welfare The Department of Family Welfare (FW) is responsible for aspects relating to family welfare, especially in reproductive health, maternal health, pediatrics, information, education and communications; cooperation with NGOs and international aid groups; and rural health services. The Department of Family Welfare is responsible for: 18 Population Research Centres (PRCs) at six universities and six other institutions across 17 states National Institute of Health and Family Welfare (NIHFW), South Delhi International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi - founded in 1911, it is one of the oldest medical research bodies in the world Department of AYUSH Main article: AYUSH The Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) deals with ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine), and other yoga, naturopathy, unani, siddha, and homoeopathy, and other alternative medicine systems. The department was established in March 1995 as the Department of Indian Systems of Medicines and Homoeopathy (ISM&H).The department is charged with upholding educational standards in the Indian Systems of Medicines and Homoeopathy colleges, strengthening research, promoting the cultivation of medicinal plants used, and working on Pharmacopoeia standards. Bodies under the control of the Department of AYUSH are: Various research councils Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM) Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH) Central Council for Research in Yoga and Naturopathy (CCRYN) Several educational institutions: National Institute of Ayurveda, Jaipur (NIA) National Institute of Siddha, Chennai (NIS) National Institute of Homoeopathy, Kolkata (NIH) National Institute of Naturopathy, Pune (NIN) National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bangalore (NIUM) Institute of Post Graduate Teaching and Research in Ayurveda, Jamnagar,Gujarat (IPGTR) Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth, New Delhi (RAV)

Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga, New Delhi (MDNIY) Indian Medicine Pharmaceutical Corporation Limited (IMPCL), Mohan, Uttaranchal (a public sector undertaking) Professional councils Central Council of Homoeopathy (CCH) Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) is article is a list of major epidemics. Death toll Region Years Name Species Citation 1968 1969 1972 1974 1981 present 1990s 1994 1996 2000 2001 2001 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006

1,000,000 worldwide Yugoslavia 15,000 India

Hong Kong flu

influenza

1972 outbreak of smallpox smallpox in Yugoslavia 1974 smallpox smallpox epidemic of India HIV/AIDS pandemic HIV/AIDS cholera 1994 plague epidemic plague in Surat meningitis dengue fever cholera cholera SARS SARS coronavirus plague leishmaniasis cholera dengue fever cholera ebola yellow fever 2005 dengue outbreak dengue fever in Singapore Luanda cholera Ituri Province plague malaria 2006 dengue outbreak dengue fever in India Chikungunya outbreaks Chikungunya

25,000,000 worldwide South America 52 India West Africa Central America Nigeria South Africa 775 Asia Algeria Afghanistan Bangladesh Indonesia Senegal Sudan Mali 19 Singapore Angola Congo India 50+ India India

virus 50+ Pakistan Philippines Congo Ethiopia India Iraq Nigeria Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Mexico Somalia Uganda Vietnam Brazil Cambodia Chad China Madagascar Philippines Vietnam 4,293 18 Zimbabwe Bolivia India 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009 2006 dengue outbreak dengue fever in Pakistan dengue fever Mweka ebola cholera cholera 2007 Iraq cholera cholera outbreak polio dengue fever cholera ebola cholera dengue fever dengue fever cholera hand, foot and mouth disease bubonic plague dengue fever cholera 20082009 Zimbabwean cholera cholera outbreak 2009 Bolivian dengue dengue fever fever epidemic 2009 Gujarat hepatitis hepatitis B outbreak dengue fever Mumps outbreaks in mumps the 2000s 2009-2010 West African meningitis meningitis outbreak 2009 flu pandemic 20102011 Haiti cholera outbreak influenza cholera

49 10

Queensland, Australia 2009 worldwide 931 14,286 4,749 West Africa worldwide Hispaniola 2009 2009 2010 2009 2010 2010 present

Congo 81 350+ Vietnam Pakistan

2011 present 2011 present 2011 present

measles hand, foot and mouth disease 2011 dengue outbreak dengue fever in Pakistan

1. Antinuclear antibodies? Your Answer: Lupus 43% of players have answered correctly.

2. Bone density Your Answer: Osteoporosis

3. Plasma or urine catecholamines?

Pheochromocytoma

4. Serum Ceruloplasmin?

Wilson's disease

5. Dexamethasone suppression test? Your Answer: Cushing's disease .

6. Edrophonium (Tensilon) test? Myasthenia gravis

7. Serum glucose?

The correct answer was Diabetes mellitus

8. Ham's test?

The correct answer was Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

12. Rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test?

The correct answer was Syphilis

13. Sweat chloride test?

The correct answer was Cystic fibrosis

14. Troponin I?

The correct answer was Myocardial infarction

Ventilation-perfusion scan? The correct answer was Pulmonary embolus

Top 20 Procedures & Tests Antinuclear Antibody Test A blood test that is used to detect autoimmune diseases. Typically, these unusual antibodies are directed against elements within the nucleus of cells. CA 125 A blood sample or fluid from the chest or abdominal cavity is examined for CA 125, a protein that's a so-called tumor marker. CAT Scan A procedure that produces images of structures within the body created by a computer that takes data from multiple X-ray images and turns them in pictures on a screen. Chemotherapy This treatmentwhich can be given intravenously (through a vein), by mouth, through an injection (shot), or applied on the skindestroys cancer cells. Colonoscopy Procedure using a viewing tube that enables an examiner (usually a gastroenterologist) to evaluate the appearance of the inside of the colon (large bowel). Complete Blood Count A calculation of the cellular (formed elements) of blood. Generally determined by specially designed machines that analyze the different components of blood in less than a Hemoglobin Hemoglobin is the protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Low hemoglobin levels may indicate anemia, while high levels may be caused by lung disease and certain tumors. Hysterectomy The uterus is removed during this common surgical procedure. Lap Band Surgery (Gastric Banding) This is a surgical weight loss procedure that involves the placement of an adjustable belt around the upper portion of the stomach. Liver Blood Tests Blood tests often used to detect and monitor liver damage that measures certain liver enzymes. MRI Scan An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan is a radiology technique using magnetism, radio waves, and a computer to produce images of body structures. Pap Smear During this procedure, cells from a woman's cervix are collected and spread onto a microscope slide and then examined for premalignant or malignant changes.

minute. Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) Surgically creates new routes around narrowed and blocked arteries, which allow sufficient blood flow to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles. Cortisone Injection Used to treat localized inflammation (local injections) or widespread inflammation (systemic injections). Creatinine Blood Test This blood test can detect abnormally high levels of creatinine, which indicates kidney malfunction or failure. Electrolytes The balance of the electrolytes in our bodies is essential for normal function of our cells and our organs. Common electrolytes measured by blood tests include sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate.

Thyroid Blood Tests Blood tests used to determine the adequacy of the levels of thyroid hormones. Total Hip Replacement In this surgical procedure, the diseased cartilage and bone of the hip joint is replaced with artificial material. Total Knee Replacement In this surgical procedure, the diseased knee joint is replaced with artificial material. Tuberculosis Skin Test (PPD Skin Test) This skin test determines if someone has developed an immune response to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. Ultrasound A radiology technique using high- frequency sound waves to produce images of the organs and structures of the body.

Common Medical Tests

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A large number of tests are widely available. Many tests are specialized for a particular disorder or group of related disorders (which are usually described with the appropriate disorders in this book). Other tests are commonly used for a wide range of disorders. Tests are done for a variety of reasons, including

Screening Diagnosing a disorder Evaluating the severity of a disorder so that treatment can be planned Monitoring the response to treatment

Sometimes a test is used for more than one purpose. A blood test may show that a person has too few red blood cells (anemia). The same test may be repeated after treatment to determine whether the number of red blood cells has returned to

normal. Sometimes a disorder can be treated at the same time a screening or diagnostic test is done. For example, when colonoscopy (examination of the inside of the large intestine with a flexible viewing tube) detects growths (polyps), they can be removed before colonoscopy is completed. Types of Tests There are different types of medical tests but the lines that separate them often become blurred. For example, endoscopy of the stomach enables the examiner to view the inside of the stomach as well as obtain tissue samples for examination in a laboratory. Tests are usually one of the six following types. Analysis of Body Fluids: The most commonly analyzed fluids are

Blood Urine Fluid that surrounds the spinal cord and brain (cerebrospinal fluid) Fluid within a joint (synovial fluid)

Less often, sweat, saliva, and fluid from the digestive tract (such as gastric juices) are analyzed. Sometimes the fluids analyzed are present only if a disorder is present, as when fluid collects in the abdomen, causing ascites, or in the space between the two-layered membrane covering the lungs and lining the chest wall (pleura), causing pleural effusion. Imaging: These tests provide a picture of the inside of the bodyin its entirety or only of certain parts (see Common Imaging Tests: Overview of Imaging Tests). Ordinary x-rays are the most common imaging tests. Others include ultrasonography, radioisotope (nuclear) scanning, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and angiography. Endoscopy: A viewing tube (endoscope) is used to directly observe the inside of body organs or spaces (cavities). Most often, a flexible endoscope is used, but in some cases, a rigid one is more useful. The tip of the endoscope is usually equipped with a light and a camera, so the examiner watches the images on a television monitor rather than looking directly through the endoscope. Tools are often passed through a channel in the endoscope. One type of tool is used to cut and remove tissue samples. Endoscopy usually consists of passing the viewing tube through an existing body opening, such as the following:

Nose: To examine the voice box (laryngoscopy) or the lungs (bronchoscopy) Mouth: To examine the esophagus (esophagoscopy), stomach (gastroscopy), and small intestine (upper gastrointestinal endoscopy)

Anus: To examine the large intestine, rectum, and anus (coloscopy) Urethra: To examine the bladder (cystoscopy) Vagina: To examine the uterus (hysteroscopy)

However, sometimes an opening in the body must be created. A small cut (incision) is made through the skin and the layers of tissue beneath the skin, so that the endoscope can be passed into a body cavity. Such incisions are used to view the inside of the following:

Joints (arthroscopy) Abdominal cavity (laparoscopy) Area of the chest between the lungs (mediastinoscopy) Lungs and pleura (thoracoscopy)

Measurement of Body Functions: Often, body functions are measured by recording and analyzing the activity of various organs. For example, electrical activity of the heart is measured with electrocardiography (ECG), and electrical activity of the brain is measured with electroencephalography (EEG). The lungs' ability to hold air, to move air in and out, and to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide is measured with pulmonary function tests. Biopsy: Tissue samples are removed and examined, usually with a microscope. The examination often focuses on finding abnormal cells that may provide evidence of inflammation or of a disorder, such as cancer. Tissues that are commonly examined include skin, breast, lung, liver, kidney, and bone. Analysis of Genetic Material (Genetic Testing): Usually, cells from skin, blood, or bone marrow are analyzed. Cells are examined to check for abnormalities of chromosomes, genes (including DNA), or both. Genetic testing may be done in the following:

Fetuses: To determine whether they have a genetic disorder Children and young adults: To determine whether they have a disorder or are at risk of developing a disorder Adults: Sometimes to help determine the likelihood that their relatives, such as children or grandchildren, will develop certain disorders

Risks and Results Every test has some risk. The risk may be the possibility of injury during the test, or it may be the need for further testing if the result is abnormal. Further testing is often more expensive, dangerous, or both. Doctors weigh the risk of a test against the usefulness of the information it will provide. Normal test values are expressed as a range, which is based on the average values in a healthy population. That is, 95% of healthy people have values within this range.

However, average values are slightly different for women and men and may vary by age. For some tests, these values also vary among laboratories. Thus, when doctors get a laboratory test result, the laboratory also gives them its own normal range for that test. The table below lists some typical normal results. However, because values vary by laboratory, people should consult their doctor about the significance of their own test results rather than refer to this table. Blood Tests* Test

Reference Range or Threshold (Conventional Units) Acidity (pH) 7.357.45 Alcohol (ethanol) 0 mg/dL (more than 0.1 mg/dL usually indicates intoxication) Ammonia 1550 units/L Amylase 53123 units/L Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) 0 (negative result) Ascorbic acid 0.41.5 mg/dL Bicarbonate (carbon dioxide content) 1823 mEq/L Bilirubin Direct: Up to 0.4 mg/dL Total: Up to 1.0 mg/dL Blood volume 8.59.1% of body weight Calcium 8.510.5 mg/dL (slightly higher in children) Carbon dioxide pressure (expressed as 3545 mm Hg a comparison with how high the level of mercury [Hg] rises in a tube due to air pressure at sea level) Carboxyhemoglobin (carbon Less than 5% of total hemoglobin monoxide in hemoglobin) CD4 cell count 5001500 cells/L Ceruloplasmin 1560 mg/dL Chloride 98106 mEq/L Complete blood cell count (CBC) See individual tests: Hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular volume, platelet count, and white blood cell count Copper 70150 g/dL Creatine kinase (CK), also called Male: 38174 units/L creatine phosphokinase (CPK) Female: 96140 units/L Creatine kinase (CK) in its different 5% or less of CK-MB (the form that forms (isoenzymes) occurs mainly in heart muscle) Creatinine 0.61.2 mg/dL Electrolytes See individual tests: Calcium, chloride,

magnesium, potassium, and sodium (which are routinely tested) Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) Male: 113 mm/hour Female: 120 mm/hour Glucose Fasting: 70110 mg/dL Hematocrit Male: 4552% Female: 3748% Hemoglobin Male: 1318 g/dL Female: 1216 g/dL Iron 60160 g/dL (higher in males) Iron-binding capacity 250460 g/dL Lactate (lactic acid) Venous: 4.519.8 mg/dL Arterial: 4.514.4 mg/dL Lactic dehydrogenase 50150 units/L Lead 20 g/dL or less (much lower in children) Lipase 10150 units/L Lipids: Cholesterol, total Less than 225 mg/dL (for age 4049 yr; increases with age) High-density lipoprotein (HDL) 3070 mg/dL Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) 60 mg/dL Triglycerides 40200 mg/dL (higher in males) Liver function tests Include bilirubin (total), phosphatase (alkaline), protein (total and albumin), transaminases (alanine and aspartate), prothrombin Magnesium 1.52.0 mg/dL Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) 2732 pg/cell Mean corpuscular hemoglobin 3236% hemoglobin/cell concentration (MCHC) Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) 76100 cubic m Osmolality 280296 mOsm/kg plasma Oxygen pressure (expressed as a 83100 mm Hg comparison with the level of mercury [Hg] in a tube, which results from air pressure at sea level) Oxygen saturation (arterial) 96100% Partial thromboplastin time (PTT) 3045 seconds Phosphatase (alkaline) 50160 units/L (higher in infants and adolescents, lower in females) Phosphorus 3.04.5 mg/dL Platelet count 150,000350,000/mL Potassium 3.55.0 mEq/L Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) 04 ng/mL (increases with age) Protein: Total 6.08.4 g/dL

Albumin Globulin Prothrombin time (PT) Red blood cell (RBC) count Sodium Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Transaminases (liver enzymes): Alanine (ALT) Aspartate (AST) Troponin in its different forms: I T Urea nitrogen (BUN) Uric acid Vitamin A

3.55.0 g/dL 2.33.5 g/dL 1013 seconds 4.25.9 million/mL 135145 mEq/L 0.55.0 m units/L 121 units/L 727 units/L Less than 1.6 ng/mL Less than 0.1 ng/mL 718 mg/dL 3.07.0 mg/dL 3065 g/dL

White blood cell (WBC) count 4,30010,800 /mL *Blood can be tested for many other substances as well.

Units are explained in Appendix I. Conventional units can be converted to international units by using a conversion factor. International units (IU), a different system, are sometimes used by laboratories.

Other antibodies can also be identified. Other vitamins can also be measured. Body Area or Sample Tested Fluid from the sac surrounding the fetus Description

Diagnostic Procedures Procedure Amniocentesis

Arteriography (angiography)

Audiometry

Analysis of fluid, removed by a needle inserted through the abdominal wall, to detect an abnormality in the fetus Any artery in the body, X-ray study using commonly in the brain, radiopaque dye injected heart, kidneys, aorta, or through a thin tube legs (catheter), which is threaded to the artery being studied, to detect and outline or highlight a blockage or defect in an artery Ears Assessment of the ability to hear and distinguish sounds at specific pitches and volumes using headphones

Auscultation

Listening with a stethoscope for abnormal heart sounds Barium x-ray studies Esophagus, stomach, X-ray study to detect ulcers, intestine, or rectum tumors, or other abnormalities Biopsy Any tissue in the body Removal and examination of a tissue sample under a microscope to check for cancer or another abnormality Blood pressure Usually an arm Test for high or low blood measurement pressure, usually using an inflatable cuff wrapped around the arm Blood tests Usually a blood sample Measurement of substances from an arm in the blood to evaluate organ function and to help diagnose and monitor various disorders Bone marrow aspiration Hipbone or breastbone Removal of a bone marrow sample by a needle for examination under a microscope to check for abnormalities in blood cells Bronchoscopy Airways of the lungs Direct examination with a viewing tube to check for a tumor or other abnormality Cardiac catheterization Heart Study of heart function and structure using a catheter inserted into a blood vessel and threaded to the heart Chorionic villus sampling Placenta Removal of a sample for examination under a microscope to check for abnormalities in the fetus Chromosomal analysis Blood Examination under a microscope to detect a genetic disorder or to determine a fetus's sex Colonoscopy Large intestine Direct examination with a viewing tube to check for a tumor or other abnormality Colposcopy Cervix Direct examination of the cervix with a magnifying lens Computed tomography Any part of the body Computer-enhanced x-ray

Heart

(CT)

study to detect structural abnormalities Cone biopsy Cervix Removal and examination of a cone-shaped piece of tissue, usually using a heated wire loop or a laser Culture A sample from any area Growth and examination of of the body (usually a microorganisms from the fluid such as blood or sample to identify infection urine) with bacteria or fungi Dilation and curettage (D Cervix and uterus Examination of a sample and C) under a microscope to check for abnormalities in the uterine lining using a small, sharp instrument (curet). Dual x-ray absorptiometrySkeleton, focusing on Low-dose x-ray study to (DEXA) specific regions, usually determine the thickness of the hip, spine, and wrist bones Echocardiography Heart Study of heart structure and function using sound waves Electrocardiography Heart Study of the heart's electrical (ECG) activity using electrodes attached to the arms, legs, and chest Electroencephalography Brain Study of the brain's electrical (EEG) function using electrodes attached to the scalp Electromyography Muscles Recording of a muscle's electrical activity using small needles inserted into the muscle Electrophysiologic testing Heart Test to evaluate rhythm or electrical conduction abnormalities using a catheter inserted into a blood vessel and threaded to the heart Endoscopic retrograde Biliary tract X-ray study of the biliary cholangiopancreatography tract done after injection of a (ERCP) radiopaque dye and using a flexible viewing tube Endoscopy Digestive tract Direct examination of internal structures using a flexible viewing tube Enzyme-linked Usually blood Test that involves mixing the immunosorbent assay sample of blood with

(ELISA)

Fluoroscopy

Hysteroscopy

Intravenous urography

Joint aspiration

Laparoscopy

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Mammography Mediastinoscopy

Myelography

Nerve conduction study

substances that can trigger allergies (allergens) or with microorganisms to test for the presence of specific antibodies Digestive tract, heart, or A continuous x-ray study lungs that enables a doctor to see the inside of an organ as it functions Uterus Direct examination of the inside of the uterus with a flexible viewing tube Kidneys and urinary X-ray study of the kidneys tract and urinary tract after a radiopaque dye is injected into a vein (intravenously) Joints, especially those Removal and examination of of the shoulders, elbows, fluid from the space within fingers, hips, knees, joints to check for blood ankles, and toes cells, crystals formed from minerals, and microorganisms Abdomen Direct examination using a viewing tube inserted through an incision in the abdomen to diagnose and treat abnormalities in the abdomen Any part of the body Imaging test using a strong magnetic field and radio waves to check for structural abnormalities Breasts X-ray study to check for breast cancer Chest Direct examination of the area of the chest between the lungs using a viewing tube inserted through a small incision just above the breastbone Spinal column Simple or computerenhanced x-ray study of the spinal column after injection of a radiopaque dye Nerves Test to determine how fast a nerve impulse travels using

electrodes or needles inserted along the path of the nerve Occult blood test Large intestine Test to detect blood in stool Ophthalmoscopy Eyes Direct examination using a handheld device that shines light into the eye to detect abnormalities inside the eye Papanicolaou (Pap) test Cervix Examination of cells scraped from the cervix under a microscope to detect cancer Paracentesis Abdomen Insertion of a needle into the abdominal cavity to remove fluid for examination Percutaneous transhepatic Liver and biliary tract X-ray study of the liver and cholangiography biliary tract after a radiopaque dye is injected into the liver Positron emission Brain and heart Imaging test using particles tomography (PET) that release radiation (positrons) to detect abnormalities in function Pulmonary function tests Lungs Tests to measure the lungs' capacity to hold air, to move air in and out of the body, and to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide as people blow into a measuring device Radionuclide imaging Many organs Imaging test using particles that release radiation (radionuclides) to detect abnormalities in blood flow, structure, or function Reflex tests Tendons Tests using a physical stimulus (such as a light tap) to detect abnormalities in nerve function Retrograde urography Bladder and ureters X-ray study of the bladder and ureters after a radiopaque dye is inserted into the ureter Sigmoidoscopy Rectum and last portion Direct examination using a of the large intestine viewing tube to detect tumors or other abnormalities Skin allergy tests Usually an arm or the Tests for allergies done by back placing a solution containing

Spinal tap (lumbar puncture)

Spirometry

Stress testing

Thoracentesis

Thoracoscopy

Tympanometry

Ultrasonography (ultrasound scanning) Urinalysis

Venography

a possible allergen on the skin, then pricking the skin with a needle Spinal canal Removal of spinal fluid, using a needle inserted into the hipbone, to check for abnormalities in spinal fluid Lungs Test of lung function that involves blowing into a measuring device Heart Test of heart function during exertion using a treadmill or other exercise machine and electrocardiography (if people cannot exercise, a drug is used to simulate exercise's effects) The space between the Removal of fluid from this pleura, a two-layered space with a needle to detect membrane that covers abnormalities the lungs and lines the chest wall (pleural space) Lungs Examination of the lung surfaces, pleura, and pleural space through a viewing tube Ears Measurement of the resistance to pressure (impedance) in the middle ear using a device inserted in the ear and sound waves to help determine the cause of hearing loss Any part of the body Imaging using sound waves to detect structural or functional abnormalities Kidneys and urinary Chemical analysis of a urine tract sample to detect protein, sugar, ketones, and blood cells Veins X-ray study using a radiopaque dye (similar to arteriography) to detect blockage of a vein

African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness): African trypanosomiasis is spread by the tsetse fly, which is common to many African countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that nearly 450,000 cases occur each year. Symptoms of the disease include fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching in the early stage, and confusion, sensory disturbances, poor coordination, and disrupted sleep cycles in the second stage. If the disease goes untreated in its first stage, it causes irreparable neurological damage; if it goes untreated in its second stage, it is fatal. Cholera: Cholera is a disease spread mostly through contaminated drinking water and unsanitary conditions. It is endemic in the Indian subcontinent, Russia, and sub-Saharan Africa. It is an acute infection of the intestines with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Its main symptom is copious diarrhea. Between 5% and 10% of those infected with the disease will develop severe symptoms, which also include vomiting and leg cramps. In its severe form, cholera can cause death by dehydration. An estimated 200,000 cases are reported to WHO annually. Cryptosporidiosis: Cryptosporidiosis has become one of the most common causes of waterborne disease in the United States in recent years; it is also found throughout the rest of the world. It is caused by a parasite that spreads when a water source is contaminated, usually with the feces of infected animals or humans. Symptoms include diarrhea, stomach cramps, an upset stomach, and slight fever. Some people do not exhibit any symptoms. Dengue: WHO estimates that 50 million cases of dengue fever appear each year. It is spread through the bite of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Recent years have seen dengue outbreaks all over Asia and Africa. Dengue fever can be mild to moderate, and occasionally severe, though it is rarely fatal. Mild cases, which usually affect infants and young children, involve a nonspecific febrile illness, while moderate cases, seen in older children and adults, display high fever, severe headaches, muscle and joint pains, and rash. Severe cases develop into dengue hemorrhagic fever, which involves high fever, hemorrhaging, and sometimes circulatory failure. Hepatitis A: Hepatitis A is a highly contagious liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus. Spread primarily by the fecal-oral route or by ingestion of contaminated water or food, the number of annual infections worldwide is estimated at 1.4 million. Symptoms include fever, fatigue, jaundice, and dark urine. Although those exposed usually develop lifelong immunity, the best protection against Hepatitis A is vaccination. Hepatitis B: Approximately 2 billion people are infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV), making it the most common infectious disease in the world today. Over 350 million of those infected never rid themselves of the infection. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver that causes symptoms such as jaundice, extreme fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain; hepatitis B is the most serious form of the disease. Chronic infections can cause cirrhosis of the liver or liver cancer in later years. Hepatitis C: Hepatitis C is a less common, and less severe, form of hepatitis. An estimated 170 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV); 34 million more are infected every year. The majority of HCV cases are asymptomatic, even in people who develop chronic infection. HIV/AIDS: See Understanding AIDS. Influenza: Several influenza epidemics in the 20th century caused millions of deaths worldwide, including the worst epidemic in American history, the Spanish influenza outbreak that killed more than 500,000 in 1918. Today influenza is less of a public health threat, though it continues

to be a serious disease that affects many people. Approximately 20,000 people die of the flu in the United States every year. The influenza virus attacks the human respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as fever, headaches, fatigue, coughing, sore throat, nasal congestion, and body aches. Japanese Encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne disease endemic in Asia. Around 50,000 cases occur each year; 25% to 30% of all cases are fatal. Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a disease spread by the bite of the sandfly. It is found mostly in tropical countries. There are several types of leishmaniasis, and they vary in symptoms and severity. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL, or kala azar) is the most severe; left untreated, it is always fatal. Its symptoms include fever, weight loss, anemia, and a swelling of the spleen and liver. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL, or espundia) produces lesions that affect the nose, mouth, and throat and can destroy their mucous membranes. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) produces skin ulcers, sometimes as many as 200, that cause disability and extensive scarring. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis (DCL) is similar to CL, and infected people are prone to relapses. Approximately 12 million cases of leishmaniasis exist today. Malaria: Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that affects 300500 million people annually, causing between 1 and 3 million deaths. It is most common in tropical and subtropical climates and is found in 90 countriesbut 90% of all cases are found in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of its victims are children. The first stage consists of shaking and chills, the next stage involves high fever and severe headache, and in the final stage the infected person's temperature drops and he or she sweats profusely. Infected people also often suffer from anemia, weakness, and a swelling of the spleen. Malaria was almost eradicated 30 years ago; now it is on the rise again. Measles: Measles is a disease that has seen a drastic reduction in countries where a vaccine is readily available, but it is still prevalent in developing countries, where most of the 777,000 deaths (out of 30 million cases) it caused in 2001 occurred. Symptoms include high fever, coughing, and a maculo-papular rash; common complications include diarrhea, pneumonia, and ear infections. Meningitis: Meningitis, often known as spinal meningitis, is an infection of the spinal cord. It is usually the result of a viral or bacterial infection. Bacterial meningitis is more severe than viral meningitis and may cause brain damage, hearing loss, and learning disabilities. An estimated 1.2 million cases of bacterial meningitis occur every year, over a tenth of which are fatal. Symptoms include severe headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, delirium, photophobia, and a stiff neck. Onchocerciasis (river blindness): Onchocerciasis is caused by the larvae of Onchocerca volvulus, a parasitic worm that lives in the human body for years. It is endemic in Africa, where nearly all of the 18 million people infected with the disease live. Of those infected, over 6.5 million have developed dermatitis and 270,000 have gone blind. Symptoms include visual impairment, rashes, lesions, intense itching, skin depigmentation, and lymphadenitis. Pneumonia: Pneumonia has many possible causes, but it is usually an infection of the streptococcus or mycoplasma bacteria. These bacteria can live in the human body without causing infection for years, and only surface when another illness has lowered the person's immunity to disease. Streptococcus pneumoniae causes streptococcal pneumonia, the most common kind, which is more severe than mycoplasmal pneumonia. S. pneumoniae is responsible for more than 100,000 hospitalizations for pneumonia annually, as well as 6 million cases of otitis media and over 60,000 cases of invasive diseases such as meningitis.

Rotavirus: Rotavirus is the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. It kills more than 600,000 children each year, mostly in developing countries. Symptoms include vomiting, watery diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain. Schistosomiasis: Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that is endemic in many developing countries. Roughly 200 million people worldwide are infected with the flukeworm, whose eggs cause the symptoms of the disease. Some 120 million of those infected are symptomatic, and 20 million suffer severely from the infection. Symptoms include rash and itchiness soon after becoming infected, followed by fever, chills, coughing, and muscle aches. Shigellosis: Shigella infection causes an estimated 600,000 deaths worldwide every year. It is most common in developing countries with poor sanitation. Shigella bacteria cause bacillary dysentery, or shigellosis. Symptoms include diarrhea with bloody stool, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. Strep Throat: Strep throat is caused by the streptococcus bacteria. Several million cases of strep throat occur every year. Symptoms include a sore throat, fever, headache, fatigue, and nausea. Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis causes nearly 2 million deaths every year, and WHO estimates that nearly 1 billion people will be infected between 2000 and 2020 if more effective preventive procedures are not adopted. The TB bacteria are most often found in the lungs, where they can cause chest pain and a bad cough that brings up bloody phlegm. Other symptoms include fatigue, weight loss, appetite loss, chills, fever, and night sweats. Typhoid: Typhoid fever causes an estimated 600,000 deaths annually, out of 1217 million cases. It is usually spread through infected food or water. Symptoms include a sudden and sustained fever, severe headache, nausea, severe appetite loss, constipation, and sometimes diarrhea. Yellow Fever: Yellow fever causes an estimated 30,000 deaths each year, out of 200,000 cases. The disease has two phases. In the acute phase, symptoms include fever, muscle pain, headache, shivers, appetite loss, nausea, and vomiting. This lasts for 34 days, after which most patients recover. But 15% will enter the toxic phase, in which fever reappears, along with other symptoms, including jaundice; abdominal pain; vomiting; bleeding from the mouth, nose, eyes, and stomach; and deterioration of kidney function (sometimes complete kidney failure). Half of all patients in the toxic phase die within two weeks; the other half recover. List of infectious diseases The various causes of common infectious diseases are bacteria, fungus, parasites, prions and viruses. Bacterial infectious diseases Anthrax : multiplication of Bacillus anthracis in the body. Bacterial meningitis : inflammation of the protective membranes of the central nervous system. Botulism : blockage of nerve function and respiratory as well as musculoskeletal paralysis. Brucellosis : entrance of Brucella bacteria by direct contact or untreated/contaminated milk of animals. Campylobacteriosis : an inflammatory and at times bloody diarrhea or dysentery. Cat scratch disease : after 7 to 14 days or 2 months after a cat scratch, tender regional lymphadenopathy, slight fever, headache, chills, malaise, abdominal pain, backache, convulsions or sterile suppurative papules at the site of inoculation occur. Cholera : transmission of Vibrio cholerae by ingestion of contaminated food or water causes diarrheal disease.

Diphtheria : upper respiratory tract illness having sore throat, low-grade fever and an adherent layer on the tonsils, nasal cavity, pharynx. Epidemic Typhus : caused by louse-borne bacteria. Gonorrhea : common sexually transmitted disease caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Impetigo : superficial skin infection common in the age group of 2 to 6. Legionellosis : pneumonia or mild respiratory illness like acute influenza. Leprosy (Hansen's disease) : granulomatous disease of the peripheral nerves and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract. Leptospirosis : biphasic disease with meningitis, liver damage and renal failure. Listeriosis : occurs in newborn infants, elderly people and immunocompromised patients. Lyme disease : rash and flu symptoms followed by musculoskeletal, psychiatric, neurologic, arthritic and cardiac manifestations. Melioidosis : caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei, which is found in soil and water. MRSA infection : characterized by quick weight loss and muscle depletion. Nocardiosis : Nocardia asteroides or Nocardia brasiliensis affects either the lungs or the entire body. Pertussis (Whooping cough) : severe hacking cough followed by high intake of breath. Plague : occurs when person is bitten by an infected flea. Pneumococcal pneumonia : illness of the lungs and respiratory system where the alveoli are inflamed and filled with fluid. Psittacosis : contracted from parrots, pigeons, hens, ducks, sparrows and sea gulls. Q fever : due to inhalation of contaminated particles in the air or contact with the vaginal mucus, milk, feces, semen, urine of infected animals. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever : most severe rickettsial illness in the United States. Salmonellosis : causes typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever and foodborne illness. Scarlet fever : infection may occur through bloodstream or skin and underlying tissues. Shigellosis : dysentery due to poor hygiene. Syphilis : sexually transmitted disease due to sexual contact or congenital mode. Tetanus : prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibers. Trachoma : infectious disease of human eye probably leading to blindness. Tuberculosis : generally attacks the lungs but may affect central nervous system, circulatory system, lymphatic system, bones, joints, genitourinary system and skin. Tularemia : heachache, fatigue, muscle pains, dizziness, nausea, loss of appetite, inflammation of face and eyes and lymph nodes. Typhoid fever : due to ingestion of food or water adulterated with feces of an infected person. Typhus : severe headache, sustained high fever, severe muscle pain, rash, cough, chills, stupor, decreasing blood pressure, delirium characterize it. Urinary tract infections : cystitis or pyelonephritis. Fungal infectious diseases Aspergillosis : allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis or pulmonary aspergilloma or invasive aspergillosis. Blastomycosis : inhalation of fungus from the natural soil habitat. Candidiasis : found in exposed and moist parts of the body like the vagina, vulva, penis, foreskin, skin around nostrils, nostrils, ear, oral cavity, nipples, folds of skin in diaper area. Coccidioidomycosis : caused by inhalation of airborne, fungal particles called arthroconidia. Cryptococcosis : caused by inhalation of soil contaminated with the encapsulated yeast.

Histoplasmosis : primarily affects the lungs. Tinea pedis : affects the epidermis of the foot. Parasitic infections diseases African trypanosomiasis : transmitted by the tsetse fly. Symptoms are fever, headaches and joint pains. Amebiasis : due to ingestion of water or food contaminated with amoebic cysts. Ascariasis : due to ingestion of food contaminated with fecal matter containing Ascaris eggs. Babesiosis : generally transmitted by ticks. Chagas disease : transmitted to humans by blood-sucking assassin bugs. Clonorchiasis : caused by the Chinese liver fluke. Cryptosporidiosis : caused by contaminated material like earth, water, uncooked or crosscontaminated food in contact with the feces of an infected person or animal. Cysticercosis : caused by larvae of tapeworm, generally found in pork. Diphyllobothriasis : characterized by abdominal discomfort, vomiting, weight loss and diarrhea. Dracunculiasis : caused by drinking water containing infected copepods. Echinococcosis : fatal disease due to infection by tapeworm larvae. Enterobiasis : infection due to pinworms leading to poor appetite, restless sleep and itching of the anus. Fascioliasis : caused by Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica. Fasciolopsiasis : caused when aquatic plants are eaten raw and water drunk unheated. Filariasis : transmitted by mosquitoes or deer fly. Free-living amoebic infection : caused by Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba found in lakes, tap water, swimming pools and air conditioning units. Giardiasis : starts in the small intestine. Gnathostomiasis : due to migrating immature worms. Hymenolepiasis : caused by Hymenolepis nana or Hymenolepis diminuta. Isosporiasis : symptoms are diarrhea and weight loss. Sometimes linked with AIDS. Leishmaniasis : transmitted by certain varieties of sand fly. Malaria : transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. Metagonimiasis : symptoms are diarrhea and colicky abdominal pain. Myiasis : caused by fly larvae feeding on the host's necrotic or living tissue. Onchocerciasis : the second leading infectious cause of blindness. Pediculosis : infestation of lice on the human body. Scabies : characterized by superficial burrows, secondary infection and intense itching. Schistosomiasis : due to infection of the blood with schistosome leading to weakness, liver and intestinal damage. Taeniasis : infection involving pork and beef tapeworms. Toxocariasis : caused by ingestion of dog or cat roundworm. Toxoplasmosis : due to ingestion of raw or partly cooked meat, contaminated cat feces, drinking water containing Toxoplasma, transplacental infection in utero or infected organ transplant or blood transfusion. Trichinellosis : caused by eating raw or undercooked pork and wild game products infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm. Trichuriasis : infection of the large intestine by a parasite whipworm. Trichomoniasis : sexually transmitted disease that infects the genitourinary tract. Trypanosomiasis : caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma.

Prion infectious diseases Alpers syndrome : a progressive degenerative disease of the central nervous system. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy : a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of cattle that is transmitted to human beings who eat infected carcasses. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease : rare and incurable degenerative neurological disorder (brain disease). Fatal familial insomnia : rare autosomal dominant inherited brain disease, that is fatal. Kuru : characterized by headaches, joint pains and shaking of the limbs. Affects the brain and is fatal. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy : a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous systems. Viral infections diseases AIDS : specific damage to the immune system caused by human immunodeficiency virus. AIDS related complex : individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. Chickenpox (Varicella) : caused by varicella-zoster virus and spots appear mainly on the body and head. Common cold : disease of the upper respiratory system. Also called acute viral nasopharyngitis. Cytomegalovirus infection : generally concerning salivary glands, though may be found anywhere in the body. Colorado tick fever : transmitted from the bite of an infected wood tick. Dengue fever : transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. Ebola hemorrhagic fever : symptoms are diarrhea, internal and external bleeding, fever, general body pain and vomiting. Hand, foot and mouth disease : common cause is Coxsackie A virus and usually affects infants and children. Hepatitis : characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the liver tissue. Herpes simplex : symptoms are itching, swelling, emission of fluid from swelling, headache, fatigue, overall gloomy mental state. Herpes zoster : affects the nervous system with or without appearance of a rash on the skin. HPV : DNA-based viruses that infect the skin and mucous membranes. Influenza (Flu) : symptoms are sore throat, fever, headache, muscle pains, weakness, coughing and discomfort. Lassa fever : initially mucosa, intestine, lungs, urinary systems are affected, then vascular system and then every tissue in the body. Measles : is spread through respiration and is highly contagious. Marburg hemorrhagic fever : spread though bodily fluids like saliva, vomit, blood and excrement. Infectious mononucleosis : common in adolescents and young adults, characterized by fever, muscle soreness, sore throat, fatigue. Mumps : characterized by painful swelling of the salivary glands and fever. Painful testicular swelling and rash may also occur. Poliomyelitis : spread from one person to other via the fecal-oral route, e.g. poor hand washing. Progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy : occurs exclusively in people with severe immune deficiency. Rabies : transmitted through bites, aerosol through mucous membranes, transplant surgery or kisses. Rubella : virus enters body via nose or throat.

SARS : symptoms are fever, lethargy, myalgia, cough, sore throat, gastrointestinal symptoms. Smallpox (Variola) : caused by Variola major and Variola minor. May cause characteristic skin scars and occasionally blindness due to corneal ulcerations and infertility in male survivors. Viral encephalitis : an acute inflammation of the brain. Viral gastroenteritis : inflammation or infection of the gastrointestinal tract, generally of the stomach and intestines. Viral meningitis : inflammation of the protective membranes covering the nervous system. Viral pneumonia : an illness of the lungs and respiratory system. West Nile disease : transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Yellow fever : important cause of hemorrhagic illness in many African and South American nations. APGAR SCALE The Apgar scale is a standardized scale that is used to determine the physical status of an infant at birth. This simple, easy-to-perform test was devised in 1953 by Dr. Virginia Apgar (19091974), a professor of anesthesia at the New York Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center. The Apgar scale is administered to a newborn at one minute after birth and five minutes after birth. It scores the baby's heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color. This test quickly alerts medical personnel that the newborn needs assistance. APGAR, VIRGINIA Dr. Virginia Apgar (1909-1974), a professor of anesthesiology at the New York ColumbiaPresbyterian Medical Center, devised the Apgar Scale in 1953. The Apgar scale is a simple, easy-to-perform, standardized scale that is used to determine the physical status of an infant at birth. The Apgar scale is administered to a newborn at one minute after birth and five minutes after birth. It scores the baby's heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color. This test quickly alerts medical personnel that the newborn needs assistance. BAND-AID Bandages for wounds had been around since ancient times, but an easy-to-use dressing with an adhesive was invented by Earle Dickson (a cotton buyer at the Johnson & Johnson company). Dickson perfected the BAND-AID in 1920, making a small, sterile adhesive bandage for home use. Dickson invented the BAND-AID for his wife, who had many kitchen accidents and needed an easy-to-use wound dressing. Dickson was rewarded by the Johnson & Johnson company by being made a vice-president of the company. BARNARD, CHRISTIAAN N. Christiaan Neethling Barnard (1923- 2001) was a South African heart surgeon who developed surgical procedures for organ transplants, invented new heart valves, and performed the first human heart transplant (on Dec. 3, 1967, in a five-hour operation with a team of 20 surgeons). The 55-year-old Louis Washkansky received the heart transplant; Washkansky lived for only 18 days after the operation, dying from pneumonia (his immune system had been weakened by drugs designed to suppress the rejection of the new heart). The donor of the heart was a woman who had been fatally injured in a car crash. Barnard performed more successful transplants later in his career; some of his later transplant recipients survived for years. Barnard was the head of the cardiac unit at Groote Schuur Hospital until he retired in 1983

BERSON, SOLOMON A. Dr. Solomon A. Berson (1919-1972) and Dr. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (1921- ) co-invented the radioimmunoassay (RIA) in 1959. The radioimmunoassay is a method of chemically analyzing human blood and tissue and is used diagnose illness (like diabetes). RIA revolutionized diagnoses because it uses only a tiny sample of blood or tissue and is a relatively inexpensive and simple test to perform. Blood banks use RIA to screen blood; RIA is used to detect drug use, high blood pressure, infertility, and many other conditions and diseases. For inventing RIA, Yalow won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977 (Yalow accepted for Berson, who died in 1972). Yalow and Berson did not patent the RIA; instead they allowed the common use of RIA to benefit human health. BLOOD BANK The idea of a blood bank was pioneered by Dr. Charles Richard Drew (1904-1950). Dr. Drew was an American medical doctor and surgeon who started the idea of a blood bank and a system for the long term preservation of blood plasma (he found that plasma kept longer than whole blood). His ideas revolutionized the medical profession and saved many, many lives. Dr. Drew set up and operated the blood plasma bank at the Presbyterian Hospital in New York City, NY. Drew's project was the model for the Red Cross' system of blood banks, of which he became the first director. CONTACT LENSES Contact lenses are tiny removable lenses that are worn in contact with the eye (they rest directly on the cornea of the eye). Like glasses, they improve the wearer's vision. This type of lens was envisioned (but not actually made) by Leonardo da Vinci (around 1508) and later by Ren Descartes (around 1636-1637). Contact lenses were invented and made in 1887 by the German physiologist Adolf Eugen Fick (1829-1901). He first fitted animals with the lenses, and later made them for people. These lenses were made from heavy brown glass and were 18-21mm in diameter. The lenses were improved by August Muller in 1889; he made lenses that corrected myopia (nearsightedness). Plastic contact lenses were first made by the California optician Kevin Tuohy in 1948. Soft contact lenses (hydrophilic lenses) and gas-permeable lenses (which let oxygen pass through the lens and to the cornea) were invented in the 1970s. DICKSON, EARLE Bandages for wounds had been around since ancient times, but an easy-to-use dressing with an adhesive was invented by Earle Dickson (a cotton buyer at the Johnson & Johnson company). Dickson perfected the BAND-AID in 1920, making a small, sterile adhesive bandage for home use. Dickson invented the BAND-AID for his wife, who had many kitchen accidents and needed an easy-to-use wound dressing. Dickson was rewarded by the Johnson & Johnson company by being made a vice-president of the company. DISPOSABLE DIAPER The disposable diaper was invented in 1950 by Marion Donovan. Her first leak-proof diaper was a plastic-lined cloth diaper. Donovan then developed a disposable diaper. She was unsuccessful at selling her invention to established manufacturers, so she started her own

company. DONOVAN, MARION Marion Donovan (1917-1998) was an American mother, inventor, and architect who invented the disposable diaper in 1950. Her first leak-proof diaper were fast-selling "Boaters," plastic-lined cloth diapers (diapers lined with pieces cut from a shower curtain, and later with surplus parachute nylon). Donovan then developed a completely disposable diaper. She was unsuccessful at selling this invention to established manufacturers, so she started her own company, which she later sold. Donovan produced many other consumer-based inventions and held more than a dozen patents DREW, CHARLES RICHARD Dr. Charles Richard Drew (1904-1950) was an American medical doctor and surgeon who started the idea of a blood bank and a system for the long-term preservation of blood plasma (he found that plasma kept longer than whole blood). His ideas revolutionized the medical profession and have saved many, many lives. For more information on Dr, C. R. Drew, click here.

ELION, GERTRUDE Gertrude Belle Elion (January 23, 1918 - February 21, 1999) was a Nobel Prize winning biochemist who invented many life-saving drugs, including 6-mercaptopurine (Purinethol) and 6-thioguanine (which fight leukemia), Imuran, Zovirax, and many others. Elion worked at Burroughs-Wellcome (now called Glaxo Wellcome) for decades (beginning in 1944) with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, with whom she shared the Nobel Prize. She is named on 45 patents for drugs and her work has saved the lives of thousands of people. FARNSWORTH, PHILO T. Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971) was an American inventor. Farnsworth invented many major major components of the television, including power, focusing systems, synchronizing the signal, contrast, controls, and scanning. He also invented the radar systems, cold cathode ray tube, the first baby incubator and the first electronic microscope. Farnsworth held over 300 patents. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was an American statesman, writer, printer, and inventor. Franklin invented bifocal glasses and the Franklin stove. He also experimented with electricity, determining that there are two types of electricity, positive and negative. In 1752, his experiments with a kite in a thunderstorm (never do this, many people have died trying it!) led to the development of the lightning rod.

HYDE, IDA HENRIETTA Ida Henrietta Hyde (1857-1945) was an American physiologist who invented the microelectrode in the 1930's. The microelectrode is a small device that electrically (or chemically) stimulates a living cell and records the electrical activity within that cell. Hyde was the first woman to graduate from the University of Heidelberg, to do research at the Harvard Medical School and to be elected to the American Physiological Society.

KAMEN, DEAN Dean Kamen is an American inventor who has invented many revolutionary devices and holds over 35 U.S. patents. He developed the portable medical infusion pump, which allows patients to receive medication, like insulin, away from the hospital, and has allowed diabetic women to carry and deliver babies much more safely. Kamen designed the iBot, a revolutionary wheelchair (that uses gyroscopes and computers) that the user "wears" - it allows increased mobility (it can even climb stairs) and improved social interaction (the user can "stand"). He also invented intravascular stents (devices that hold blocked arteries open) and the portable kidney dialysis machine, which has enabled kidney dialysis patients to avoid long hospital visits - they can do the dialysis themselves while they sleep. The Segway is a rechargable electric, single-person vehicle he invented. Kamen founded an educational learning center for children called Science Enrichment Encounters (or "SEE"), and FIRST ("For the Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology") which has a yearly robot competition for high school students. MICROELECTRODE Ida Henrietta Hyde (1857-1945) was an American physiologist who invented the microelectrode in the 1930's. The microelectrode is a small device that electrically (or chemically) stimulates a living cell and records the electrical activity within that cell. Hyde was the first woman to graduate from the University of Heidelberg, to do research at the Harvard Medical School and to be elected to the American Physiological Society.

PORTABLE KIDNEY DIALYSIS MACHINE and PORTABLE MEDICAL INFUSION PUMP Dean Kamen is an American inventor who has invented many revolutionary devices and holds over 35 U.S. patents. He developed the portable medical infusion pump, which allows patients to receive medication, like insulin, away from the hospital, and has allowed diabetic women to carry and deliver babies much more safely. Kamen designed the iBot, a revolutionary wheelchair (that uses gyroscopes and computers) that the user "wears" - it allows increased mobility (it can even climb stairs) and improved social interaction (the user can "stand"). He also invented intravascular stents (devices that hold blocked arteries open) and the portable kidney dialysis machine, which has enabled kidney dialysis patients to avoid long hospital visits - they can do

the dialysis themselves while they sleep. The Segway is a rechargable electric, single-person vehicle he invented. Kamen founded an educational learning center for children called Science Enrichment Encounters (or "SEE"), and FIRST ("For the Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology") which has a yearly robot competition for high school students. RADIOIMMUNOASSAY Dr. Solomon A. Berson (1919-1972) and Dr. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (1921- ) co-invented the radioimmunoassay (RIA) in 1959. The radioimmunoassay is a method of chemically analyzing human blood and tissue and is used diagnose illness (like diabetes). RIA revolutionized diagnoses because it uses only a tiny sample of blood or tissue and is a relatively inexpensive and simple test to perform. Blood banks use RIA to screen blood; RIA is used to detect drug use, high blood pressure, infertility, and many other conditions and diseases. For inventing RIA, Yalow won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977 (Yalow accepted for Berson, who died in 1972). Yalow and Berson did not patent the RIA; instead they allowed the common use of RIA to benefit human health. ROENTGEN, WILHELM VON X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Konrad von Roentgen (1845-1923). Roentgen was a German physicist who described this new form of radiation that allowed him to photograph objects that were hidden behind opaque shields. He even photographed part of his own skeleton. X-rays were soon used as an important diagnostic tool in medicine. Roentgen called these waves "X-radiation" because so little was known about them. SALK, JONAS Jonas Salk (1914-1995) was a research physician who formulated a vaccine against the devastating disease polio. Poliomyelitis, also called infantile paralysis, had crippled thousands of children during an epidemic that hit the world during the 1940's and 1950's. It is estimated that one of every 5,000 people (mostly children) fell victim to polio. Some victims were totally paralyzed and need to live in "iron lungs" (a large apparatus that helped the patient breathe). Salk's developed his vaccine in 1947, while working at the University of Pittsburgh Medical School. The vaccine was made from killed polio virus. In 1955, after many trials of the new vaccine, the vaccine was made public, and put an end to the polio epidemic. Salk wrote many books, including: "Man Unfolding" (1972), "The Survival of the Wisest "(1973), "World Population and Human Values: A New Reality" (1981), and "Anatomy of Reality" (1983). When Salk died, he had been working on a vaccine for the AIDS virus. WU, CHIEN-SHIUNG Dr. Chien-Shiung Wu (Shanghai, China, May 31, 1912 - New York, USA, February 16, 1997) was a nuclear physicist who studied beta-decay (a weak interaction in which one of the neutrons in the nucleus of an atom decays into a proton and an electron; the proton enters the nucleus, forming an isotope, and the electron is emitted as a beta-particle). In 1956, Madam Wu did experiments showing that parity is not conserved in weak interactions (demonstrating parity violation in the nuclear beta decay in cobalt 60). Her experiments supported T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang's revolutionary idea that parity was not conserved in weak interactions (parity conservation

had been a basic assumption in physics). Madam Wu worked on the Manhattan Project (a secret US project during World War 2 to develop an atomic bomb in order to defeat Hitler), developing a process for separating the uranium isotopes U235 and U238 by gaseous diffusion. She also helped develop more sensitive Geiger counters (devices that detect radiation). Madam Wu also studied the molecular changes in hemoglobin associated with sickle-cell anemia. X-RAY X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Konrad von Roentgen (1845-1923). Roentgen was a German physicist who described this new form of radiation that allowed him to photograph objects that were hidden behind opaque shields. He even photographed part of his own skeleton. X-rays were soon used as an important diagnostic tool in medicine. Roentgen called these waves "X-radiation" because so little was known about them. YALOW, ROSALYN S. Dr. Solomon A. Berson (1919-1972) and Dr. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (1921- ) co-invented the radioimmunoassay (RIA) in 1959. The radioimmunoassay is a method of chemically analyzing human blood and tissue and is used diagnose illness (like diabetes). RIA revolutionized diagnoses because it uses only a tiny sample of blood or tissue and is a relatively inexpensive and simple test to perform. Blood banks use RIA to screen blood; RIA is used to detect drug use, high blood pressure, infertility, and many other conditions and diseases. For inventing RIA, Yalow won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977 (Yalow accepted for Berson, who died in 1972). Yalow and Berson did not patent the RIA; instead they allowed the common use of RIA to benefit human health.

Infectious Disease (New) Variant CreutzfeldtJakob disease (vCJD, nvCJD) Acinetobacter infections Actinomycosis African sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis) AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome)]] Amebiasis Anaplasmosis Anthrax Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection Argentine hemorrhagic fever

Causative Agent vCJD prion Acinetobacter baumannii Actinomyces israelii, Actinomyces gerencseriae and Propionibacterium propionicus Trypanosoma brucei HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) Entamoeba histolytica Anaplasma genus Bacillus anthracis Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Junin virus Amoebic dysentery

Infectious Disease Ascariasis Aspergillosis Astrovirus infection Babesiosis Bacillus cereus infection Bacterial pneumonia Bacterial vaginosis (BV) Bacteroides infection Balantidiasis Baylisascaris infection BK virus infection Black piedra Blastocystis hominis infection Blastomycosis Bolivian hemorrhagic fever Borrelia infection Botulism (and Infant botulism) Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Brucellosis Burkholderia infection

Buruli ulcer Calicivirus infection (Norovirus Caliciviridae family and Sapovirus) Campylobacteriosis Campylobacter genus usually Candida albicans and other Candida Candidiasis (Moniliasis; Thrush) species Cat-scratch disease Bartonella henselae usually Group A Streptococcus and Cellulitis Staphylococcus Chagas Disease (American Trypanosoma cruzi trypanosomiasis) Chancroid Haemophilus ducreyi Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus (VZV) Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis Chlamydophila pneumoniae Chlamydophila pneumoniae

Causative Agent Ascaris lumbricoides Aspergillus genus Astroviridae family Babesia genus Bacillus cereus multiple bacteria multiple bacteria Bacteroides genus Balantidium coli Baylisascaris genus BK virus Piedraia hortae Blastocystis hominis Blastomyces dermatitidis Machupo virus Borrelia genus Clostridium botulinum; Note: Botulism is not an infection by Clostridium botulinum but caused by the intake of botulinum toxin. Sabia Brucella genus usually Burkholderia cepacia and other Burkholderia species Mycobacterium ulcerans

Infectious Disease infection Cholera Chromoblastomycosis Clonorchiasis Clostridium difficile infection Coccidioidomycosis Colorado tick fever (CTF) Common cold (Acute viral rhinopharyngitis; Acute coryza) Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) Cryptococcosis Cryptosporidiosis

Causative Agent Vibrio cholerae usually Fonsecaea pedrosoi Clonorchis sinensis Clostridium difficile Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV) usually rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. CJD prion Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus

Cryptococcus neoformans Cryptosporidium genus usually Ancylostoma braziliense; multiple other Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) parasites Cyclosporiasis Cyclospora cayetanensis Cysticercosis Taenia solium Cytomegalovirus infection Cytomegalovirus Dengue viruses (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and Dengue fever DEN-4) Flaviviruses Dientamoebiasis Dientamoeba fragilis Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diphyllobothriasis Diphyllobothrium Dracunculiasis Dracunculus medinensis Ebola hemorrhagic fever Ebolavirus (EBOV) Echinococcosis Echinococcus genus Ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia genus Enterobiasis (Pinworm Enterobius vermicularis infection) Enterococcus infection Enterococcus genus Enterovirus infection Enterovirus genus Epidemic typhus Rickettsia prowazekii Epstein-Barr Virus Infectious Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Mononucleosis (Mono) Erythema infectiosum (Fifth Parvovirus B19 disease) Exanthem subitum Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and Human

Infectious Disease Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolosis Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) Filariasis Food poisoning by Clostridium perfringens Free-living amebic infection Fusobacterium infection Gas gangrene (Clostridial myonecrosis) Geotrichosis Gerstmann-Strussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS) Giardiasis Glanders Gnathostomiasis Gonorrhea Granuloma inguinale (Donovanosis) Group A streptococcal infection Group B streptococcal infection Haemophilus influenzae infection Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) Helicobacter pylori infection Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis E

Causative Agent herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7) Fasciolopsis buski Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica FFI prion Filarioidea superfamily Clostridium perfringens multiple Fusobacterium genus usually Clostridium perfringens; other Clostridium species Geotrichum candidum GSS prion Giardia intestinalis Burkholderia mallei Gnathostoma spinigerum and Gnathostoma hispidum Neisseria gonorrhoeae Klebsiella granulomatis Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus agalactiae Haemophilus influenzae Enteroviruses, mainly Coxsackie A virus and Enterovirus 71 (EV71) Sin Nombre virus Helicobacter pylori Escherichia coli O157:H7, O111 and O104:H4 Bunyaviridae family Hepatitis A Virus Hepatitis B Virus Hepatitis C Virus Hepatitis D Virus Hepatitis E Virus

Infectious Disease Herpes simplex Histoplasmosis Hookworm infection Human bocavirus infection Human ewingii ehrlichiosis Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) Human metapneumovirus infection Human monocytic ehrlichiosis Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection Human parainfluenza virus infection Hymenolepiasis Influenza (flu) Isosporiasis Kawasaki disease Keratitis Kingella kingae infection Kuru Lassa fever Legionellosis (Legionnaires' disease) Legionellosis (Pontiac fever) Leishmaniasis

Causative Agent Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) Histoplasma capsulatum Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus Human bocavirus (HBoV) Ehrlichia ewingii Anaplasma phagocytophilum Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) Ehrlichia chaffeensis Human papillomavirus (HPV) Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIV) Hymenolepis nana and Hymenolepis diminuta Orthomyxoviridae family Isospora belli unknown; evidence supports that it is infectious multiple Kingella kingae Kuru prion Lassa virus Legionella pneumophila

Legionella pneumophila Leishmania genus Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium Leprosy lepromatosis Leptospirosis Leptospira genus Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes usually Borrelia burgdorferi and other Borrelia Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) species Lymphatic filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi (Elephantiasis) Lymphocytic choriomeningitis Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Malaria Plasmodium genus Marburg hemorrhagic fever Marburg virus (MHF) Measles Measles virus

Infectious Disease Melioidosis (Whitmore's disease) Meningitis Meningococcal disease Metagonimiasis Microsporidiosis Molluscum contagiosum (MC) Mumps Murine typhus (Endemic typhus) Mycetoma Mycoplasma pneumonia Myiasis Neonatal conjunctivitis (Ophthalmia neonatorum) Nocardiosis

Causative Agent Burkholderia pseudomallei multiple Neisseria meningitidis usually Metagonimus yokagawai Microsporidia phylum Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) Mumps virus Rickettsia typhi numerous species of bacteria (Actinomycetoma) and fungi (Eumycetoma) Mycoplasma pneumoniae parasitic dipterous fly larvae most commonly Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae usually Nocardia asteroides and other Nocardia species

Onchocerciasis (River Onchocerca volvulus blindness) Paracoccidioidomycosis (South Paracoccidioides brasiliensis American blastomycosis) usually Paragonimus westermani and other Paragonimiasis Paragonimus species Pasteurellosis Pasteurella genus Pediculosis capitis (Head lice) Pediculus humanus capitis Pediculosis corporis (Body lice) Pediculus humanus corporis Pediculosis pubis (Pubic lice, Phthirus pubis Crab lice) Pelvic inflammatory disease multiple (PID) Pertussis (Whooping cough) Bordetella pertussis Plague Yersinia pestis Pneumococcal infection Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia multiple Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Prevotella infection Prevotella genus Primary amoebic usually Naegleria fowleri

Infectious Disease meningoencephalitis (PAM) Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Psittacosis Q fever Rabies Rat-bite fever Respiratory syncytial virus infection Rhinosporidiosis Rhinovirus infection Rickettsial infection Rickettsialpox Rift Valley fever (RVF) Rocky mountain spotted fever (RMSF) Rotavirus infection Rubella Salmonellosis SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) Scabies Schistosomiasis Sepsis Shigellosis (Bacillary dysentery) Shingles (Herpes zoster) Smallpox (Variola) Sporotrichosis Staphylococcal food poisoning Staphylococcal infection Strongyloidiasis Syphilis Taeniasis Tetanus (Lockjaw) Tinea barbae (Barber's itch) Tinea capitis (Ringworm of the Scalp) Tinea corporis (Ringworm of

Causative Agent JC virus Chlamydophila psittaci Coxiella burnetii Rabies virus Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) Rhinosporidium seeberi Rhinovirus Rickettsia genus Rickettsia akari Rift Valley fever virus Rickettsia rickettsii Rotavirus Rubella virus Salmonella genus SARS coronavirus Sarcoptes scabiei Schistosoma genus multiple Shigella genus Varicella zoster virus (VZV) Variola major or Variola minor Sporothrix schenckii Staphylococcus genus Staphylococcus genus Strongyloides stercoralis Treponema pallidum Taenia genus Clostridium tetani usually Trichophyton genus usually Trichophyton tonsurans usually Trichophyton genus

Infectious Disease the Body) Tinea cruris (Jock itch) Tinea manuum (Ringworm of the Hand) Tinea nigra Tinea pedis (Athletes foot) Tinea unguium (Onychomycosis) Tinea versicolor (Pityriasis versicolor) Toxocariasis (Ocular Larva Migrans (OLM)) Toxocariasis (Visceral Larva Migrans (VLM)) Toxoplasmosis Trichinellosis Trichomoniasis Trichuriasis (Whipworm infection) Tuberculosis Tularemia Ureaplasma urealyticum infection Venezuelan equine encephalitis Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever Viral pneumonia West Nile Fever White piedra (Tinea blanca) Yellow fever Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection Yersiniosis Zygomycosis

Causative Agent usually Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton rubrum usually Hortaea werneckii usually Trichophyton genus usually Trichophyton genus Malassezia genus Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati Toxoplasma gondii Trichinella spiralis Trichomonas vaginalis Trichuris trichiura usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis Francisella tularensis Ureaplasma urealyticum Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus Guanarito virus multiple viruses West Nile virus Trichosporon beigelii Yellow fever virus Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Yersinia enterocolitica Mucorales order (Mucormycosis) and Entomophthorales order (Entomophthoramycosis)

Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[3] and Helicobacter pylori.[4] Herpes simplex virus 1 is associated with Alzheimer's disease in individuals that possess the APOE4 form of the APOE gene (APOE4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain).[5] The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been associated with Alzheimer's.[6]

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a form of motor neuron disease, is associated with echovirus (an enterovirus)[7] infection of the central nervous system, and with retrovirus[8] activity (whether this is from a human endogenous retrovirus or an exogenous retrovirus is not known at present). Anorexia nervosa Infection with Borrelia[9] species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with Streptococcus[10] bacteria, in rare cases. Anorexia (which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite Dientamoeba fragilis.[11] Anxiety disorder Anxiety is associated with cytomegalovirus.[12] Asthma Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus[13] and Chlamydia pneumoniae.[14] Chlamydia pneumoniae has been particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.[15] Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae[16] Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disorders are associated with the viruses HIV and enterovirus 71, and with the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi and Streptococcus. Febrile seizures due to human herpesvirus 6 and influenza A are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are a risk factor for ADHD.[17] Autism Autism is associated with prenatal maternal infection with rubella virus or cytomegalovirus.[18][19]Clostridia bacterial species are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children.[20] Autoimmune diseases Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B virus.[21] Autoimmune diseases are associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,[22] cytomegalovirus,[23] parvovirus B19[24] and HIV,[25] and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[26] Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with Epstein-Barr virus[27] and Helicobacter pylori.[28] Bipolar disorder Bipolar disorder (manic depression) is associated with bornavirus[29] and infection with Borrelia[9] species bacteria. Cancer Some estimates attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to infectious pathogens.[30][31] This figure, however, might be revised upwards in future, if the pathogens currently associated with cancers (such as those listed to follow) are proved to actually be the cause of those cancers. (Note: for the sake of completeness, some cancers that are known to be caused by pathogens are included in the list, in addition to the cancers associated with pathogens.) Adrenal tumor is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.[32] Anal cancer is associated with human papillomaviruses.[33] Bladder cancer is causally connected to Schistosoma helminths.[34] Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with cytomegalovirus,[35] BK virus, JC virus and simian virus 40.[36] Breast cancer is associated with mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV), Epstein-Barr virus and human papillomaviruses.[37]

Carcinoid tumors are associated with enterovirus infections.[38] Cervical cancer is causally connected to human papillomavirus.[39] Colorectal cancer is associated with Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, human papillomavirus[40] and the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[41] JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.[42] Gallbladder cancer associated with Salmonella typhi.[43] Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[44] hepatitis C virus[45] and HIV.[46] Kaposi's Sarcoma is causally connected to Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV. Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma is causally connected to hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,[47] and the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[48] Lung cancer is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae,[49] and human papillomavirus and Merkel cell polyomavirus.[50] Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia is causally connected to human T-cell leukemia virus-1. Mesothelioma is associated with simian virus 40,[51] especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is causally connected to Epstein-Barr virus. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.[52] Oropharyngeal cancer is causally connected to human papillomaviruses. Ovarian cancer is associated with mumps virus. Pancreatic cancer is associated with hepatitis B Virus and Helicobacter pylori. Prostate cancer is associated with xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) and BK virus. Skin neoplasm is associated with human papillomaviruses. Squamous cell carcinoma is associated with human papilloma virus. Stomach cancer is associated with Helicobacter pylori. Thyroid cancer is associated with simian virus 40. Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is associated with enteroviruses (such as Coxsackie B virus),[53] and newer research is tending to demonstrate that enterovirus infection may have a causal relationship to CFS.[54] Chronic fatigue syndrome is also associated with human herpesvirus 6 variant A,[55] human herpesvirus 7,[56] parvovirus B19.[57][58] The bacteria Coxiella burnetii[59] and Chlamydia pneumoniae[60] have been shown to cause chronic fatigue syndrome (and antibiotics can cure these forms of chronic fatigue syndrome). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae[61] and Epstein-Barr virus.[62] Crohn's disease Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.[63] In a murine model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,[64] but only in combination with a variant of the Crohns susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut (in other words, through a virus-gene-toxin interaction). Coronary heart disease Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae[65] Dementia

Dementia is associated with the viruses herpes simplex type 1, herpes simplex type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus, bornavirus and HIV. Dementia is associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm). Infection with Borrelia[9] species bacteria is associated with dementia. Depression Depression is associated with cytomegalovirus,[12] West Nile virus[66] and Toxoplasma gondii[67] infection. Major depressive disorder is associated with bornavirus,[29] as well as Bartonella[68] and Borrelia[9] species bacteria. Seasonal affective disorder is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[69] Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 1 is generally associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,[70][71] specifically: Coxsackie B virus (coxsackievirus B may directly destroy the insulinproducing beta-cells in the pancreas, in addition to causing indirect autoantibody damage to these beta-cells[72]); and echovirus 4 (echovirus 4 may act as an environmental trigger for type 1 diabetes.[73]) Diabetes mellitus type 2 Diabetes mellitus type 2 is associated with cytomegalovirus,[74] hepatitis C virus,[75] enteroviruses.[71] and Ljungan virus[76] Metabolic syndrome (see below) carries an increased risk of diabetes mellitus type 2, thus the pathogens associated with metabolic syndrome may also be associated with this form of diabetes. Epilepsy Epilepsy is associated with human herpesvirus 6.[77] GuillainBarr syndrome GuillainBarr syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni, and the viruses cytomegalovirus[78] and enterovirus.[79] Irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.[80] IBS has been associated with Giardia lamblia[81] protozoal infection. Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV has been associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.[11] Lupus Lupus is associated with the viruses parvovirus B19,[82] Epstein-Barr virus[83] and cytomegalovirus.[84] Metabolic syndrome Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[85] and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.[86] Multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus[87] (this is a strong association: Epstein-Barr vaccine has been predicted to eradicate the disease), human herpesvirus 6,[88] varicella zoster virus,[89] and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[90] Myocardial infarction Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with cytomegalovirus,[91] Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus)[92] and Chlamydia pneumoniae.[93] Obesity

Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36 which is found in 30% of obese people, but only found in 11% of non-obese people.[94][95] Obesity is also associated with adenovirus 37 and adenovirus 5.[96] Animals experimentally infected with these three human adenoviruses, AD-36, AD-37, and AD-5, developed increased obesity; other pathogens have also been shown to cause obesity in animal studies.[97] Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain problematic Firmicutes[98] bacteria (such as Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Helicobacter pylori) in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria (overweight individuals tend have more of the problematic Firmicutes bacteria in their stomach and intestines; normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria). Abdominal obesity (central obesity) forms part of metabolic syndrome (see above), thus the pathogens associated with metabolic syndrome may also be associated with abdominal obesity. See also: Infectobesity. Obsessivecompulsive disorder Obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus[99] and Borrelia[9] species bacteria. Panic disorder Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia[9] species bacteria, and Bartonella[68] species bacteria.[68] Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is associated with influenza A virus[100] and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[101] Psoriasis Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.[102] Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with parvovirus B19.[82] The detection of antibodies to Borrelia outer surface protein A is associated with rheumatoid arthritis.[103] Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria[104] species, and the bacteria Helicobacter pylori[105] and Borrelia burgdorferi.[106] Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is associated with neonatal infection by Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus), which one study found carries an increased risk of adult onset schizophrenia.[107] Prenatal Influenza virus exposure in the the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of schizophrenia by 7fold.[108] Schizophrenia is associated with bornavirus,[29] and the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,[109] and Borrelia species bacteria.[9] Stroke Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,[110] Helicobacter pylori,[111] Mycobacterium tuberculosis[112] and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.[113] Stroke is associated with the virus varicella zoster virus.[114] Stroke is associated with the fungus Histoplasma.[115] Thromboangiitis obliterans Thromboangiitis obliterans has been associated with Rickettsia [116] Tourette syndrome Tourette syndrome is associated with the bacterium Streptococcus.[99] The bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[117] Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii[118] may be contributory or aggravating factors in Tourette's. Vasculitis

Vasculitis is associated with the viruses HIV, parvovirus B19[82] and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established cause of vasculitis. For some selected pathogens, the set of their disease associations is shown in the bar graphs below. For each bar below, the pathogen in question has been found more frequently in patients with the listed diseases than it has in healthy controls, but it has not been proven that the pathogen plays any causal role in the listed diseases (nevertheless, investigations to examine whether it might play a causal role are generally ongoing). By contrast, the diseases below enclosed in brackets indicate that the pathogen is a proven cause of that disease. Cytomegalovirus Anxiety disorder Autism Autoimmune diseases Brain tumor Dementia Depression Diabetes mellitus type 2 GuillainBarr syndrome Lupus Metabolic syndrome Myocardial infarction Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ADHD Autoimmune diseases Carcinoid tumors Chronic fatigue syndrome Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 2 GuillainBarr syndrome Myocardial infarction Schizophrenia Autoimmune diseases Breast cancer Esophageal cancer Hodgkin's lymphoma (Nasopharyngeal carcinoma) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Seasonal affective disorder Lupus Multiple sclerosis

Enteroviruses

Epstein-Barr virus

Hepatitis B virus

(Hepatocellular carcinoma) Pancreatic cancer Vasculitis

Hepatitis C virus

Hodgkin's lymphoma (Hepatocellular carcinoma) Diabetes mellitus type 2 (Vasculitis)

Herpes simplex virus

Alzheimer's disease Coronary heart disease Metabolic syndrome ADHD Autoimmune diseases Hodgkin's lymphoma (Kaposi's Sarcoma) Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Dementia Vasculitis ADHD Chronic fatigue syndrome Epilepsy Multiple sclerosis

HIV

Human herpesvirus 6

Influenza A

ADHD Parkinson's disease

Parvovirus B19

Autoimmune diseases Chronic fatigue syndrome Lupus Rheumatoid arthritis Vasculitis

Bartonella

Major depressive disorder Panic disorder

Borrelia

Anorexia nervosa ADHD Bipolar disorder Dementia Depression Obsessivecompulsive disorder Rheumatoid arthritis Sarcoidosis Schizophrenia Alzheimer's disease Asthma Atherosclerosis Lung cancer (Chronic fatigue syndrome) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Coronary heart disease Metabolic syndrome Multiple sclerosis Myocardial infarction Stroke Tourette syndrome Alzheimer's disease Autoimmune diseases Pancreatic cancer Stomach cancer Metabolic syndrome Obesity Psoriasis Sarcoidosis Stroke

Chlamydia pneumoniae

Helicobacter pylori

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Autoimmune diseases Stroke

Streptococcus

Anorexia nervosa ADHD Colorectal cancer Obsessive compulsive disorder Tourette syndrome

Toxoplasma gondii

Alzheimer's disease Depression Parkinson's disease Tourette syndrome

Protozoan organisms Common name of Latin name organism or (sorted) disease

Body parts affected

Diagnostic Prevalence specimen

Source/ Transmission (Reservoir/ Vector)

Common name of Latin name organism or (sorted) disease Acanthamoeba

Body parts affected

Diagnostic Prevalence specimen culture worldwide

Acanthamoeb eye, brain a Babesia B. divergens, B. bigemina, B. equi, B. microfti, B. duncani Balantidium coli

Source/ Transmission (Reservoir/ Vector) contact lenses cleaned with tap water

Babesiosis

red blood cells

New York, Martha's GiemsaVineyard, stained thin Nantucket blood (different smear species have worldwide distribution) stool direct microscopy 2 - 20% of of stool population [1] (PCR, anti body) stool stool widespread up to 10% in industrialized countries areas with poor sanitation, high population density and tropical regions widespread

tick bites

Balantidiasis

intestinal mucosa

Blastocystosis

Blastocystis

intestinal

eating food contaminated with feces from an infected human or animal

Coccidia Dientamoebiasis

Cryptosporidi intestines um Dientamoeba intestines fragilis

ingesting water or food contaminated with feces

Amoebiasis

Entamoeba histolytica

Intestines

stool

fecal-oral transmission

Giardiasis

Giardia lamblia

lumen of the small stool intestine

ingestion of dormant cysts in fecal contaminated water or food

Isosporiasis

epithelial Isospora belli cells of small stool intestines

worldwide less common than fecal oral route Toxoplasma or Cryptosporidi um

Common name of Latin name organism or (sorted) disease

Body parts affected

Diagnostic Prevalence specimen

Source/ Transmission (Reservoir/ Vector)

Leishmaniasis

Leishmania

visual identificati on of lesion or cutaneous, microscopi mucocutaneo c stain with us, or visceral Leishman's or Giemsa's stain

Primary amoebic Naegleria meningoencephal fowleri itis (PAM) [2][3] Plasmodium falciparum (80% of cases), Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium knowlesi

brain

culture

Visceral leishmaniasisWorldwide; Phlebotomus - bite Cutaneous of several species of leishmaniasis nocturnal Old World; phlebotomus Mucocutaneou sandflies s leishmaniasis New World Nasal insufflation of contaminated rare but warm fresh water, deadly poorly chlorinated swimming pools, hot springs, soil

Malaria

red blood cells, liver

tropical - 250 Anopheles Blood film million mosquito, bites at cases/year night

reservoir Rhinosporidiu nose, Rhinosporidiosis water and m seeberi nasopharynx soil

Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma Parasitic gondii pneumonia

eyes, brain, heart, liver

nasal mucosa came into contact with India and Sri infected material Lanka through bathing in common ponds ingestion of uncooked/undercoo ked pork/lamb/goat widespread - with Toxoplasma blood and up to one third bradyzoites, PCR of all humans ingestion of raw milk with Toxoplasma tachyzoites,

Common name of Latin name organism or (sorted) disease

Body parts affected

Diagnostic Prevalence specimen

Source/ Transmission (Reservoir/ Vector) ingestion of contaminated water food or soil with oocysts in cat feces that is more than one day old sexually transmitted infection

microscopi c Trichomoniasis examinatio n of genital swab microscopi c examinatio n of blood lymph chancre Trypanosoma and central fluid, Sleeping sickness brucei nervous lymph systems node aspirates, blood, bone marrow colon, esophagus, Giemsa Trypanosoma heart, nerves, stain cruzi muscle and blood blood

female urogenital Trichomonas tract (males vaginalis asymptomatic )

7.4 million Americans

50,000 to tsetse fly, bites at 70,000 people night

Chagas disease

Mexico, Central Triatoma/Reduviida America, e - Insect Vector, South bites at night America - 1618 million

[edit] Helminths organisms (worms) Common name of Latin name organism or disease (sorted) Ancylostoma Ancylostomiasis/Hook duodenale, worm Necator americanus Anisakiasis [4] Anisakis

Roundworm - Parasitic Ascaris sp.

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor lungs, common in small tropical, penetration of stool intestine, warm, moist skin by L3 larva blood climates ingestion of raw allergic incidental fish, squid, biopsy reaction host cuttlefish, octopus Intestines, stool common in

Common name of organism or disease pneumonia

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor liver, tropical and appendix, subtropical pancreas, regions lungs, Lffler's syndrome Intestines, Roundworm Baylisascaris liver, rare: North stool from Baylisascariasis procyonis lungs, America raccoons brain tropical Roundworm-lymphatic Brugia malayi, lymph blood regions of Arthropods filariasis Brugia timori nodes samples Asia Tapeworm - Tapeworm Cestoda intestine stool rare infection Clonorchis sinensis; Clonorchiasis Clonorchis viverrini Dicrocoelium gall rare ingestion of ants dendriticum bladder Ingestion of kidneys Dioctophyme renalis Dioctophyme undercooked or (typically Urine Worldwide infection renale raw freshwater the right) fish Europe, stool Diphyllobothriasis Diphyllobothri intestines, Japan, ingestion of raw (microscop tapeworm um latum blood Uganda, fresh water fish e) Peru, Chile subcutaneo Guinea worm Dracunculus skin us tissues, Sudan Dracunculiasis medinensis blister/ulcer muscle as intermediate host, ingestion of Echinococcus imaging of material granulosus, liver, hydatid contaminated by Echinococcosis Echinococcus lungs, cysts in the Mediterrane feces from a tapeworm multilocularis, kidney, liver, lungs, an countries carnivore; as E. vogeli, E. spleen kidney and definite host, oligarthrus spleen ingestion of uncooked meat (offal) from a

Latin name (sorted) Ascaris lumbricoides

Common name of organism or disease

Latin name (sorted) Echinostoma echinatum

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor herbivore ingestion of raw small Far East fish, mollusks, intestine snails stool; tape widespread; intestines, test around temperate anus anus regions Fasciola hepatica in Europe, Africa, Australia, the Americas and liver, gall Oceania; stool freshwater snails bladder Fasciola gigantica only in Africa and Asia, 2.4 million people infected by both species ingestion of stool or infested water East Asia vomitus plants or water intestines 10 million (microscop (intermediate people e) host:amphibic snails) ingestion of raw or undercooked subcutaneo meat (e.g., physical rare us tissues freshwater fish, examinatio Southeast (under the chicken, snails, n Asia skin) frogs, pigs) or contaminated water ingestion of material contaminated by

Enterobius vermicularis, Pinworm - Enterobiasis Enterobius gregorii

Fasciola Liver fluke - Fasciolosis hepatica, [5] Fasciola gigantica

Fasciolopsiasis intestinal fluke [6]

Fasciolopsis buski

Gnathostomiasis [7]

Gnathostoma spinigerum, Gnathostoma hispidum

Hymenolepiasis[8]

Hymenolepis nana, Hymenolepis

Common name of organism or disease

Latin name (sorted) diminuta

Loa loa filariasis, Calabar swellings

Mansonelliasis, Filariasis

Metagonimiasis intestinal fluke

River blindness

Chinese Liver Fluke

Paragonimiasis, Lung Fluke

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor flour beetles, meal worms, cockroaches blood rain forest Connective (Giemsa, of West Tabanidae - horse Loa loa filaria tissue, haematoxyl Africa - 12- fly, bites in the lungs, eye in, eosin 13 million day stain) people subcutaneo Mansonella us layer of insect streptocerca skin Siberia, Manchuria, ingestion of Metagonimus stool Balkan undercooked or yokogawai states, salted fish Israel, Spain Africa, Yemen, Central and Onchocerca Simulium/Black skin, eye, bloodless South volvulus, fly, bite during tissue skin snip America Onchocerciasis the day near cool, fast flowing rivers Opisthorchis viverrini, consuming 1.5 million Opisthorchis infected raw, bile duct people in felineus, slightly salted or Russia Clonorchis frozen fish sinensis Paragonimus westermani; Paragonimus africanus; Paragonimus ingestion of raw caliensis; or undercooked sputum, Paragonimus lungs East Asia freshwater crabs feces kellicotti; crayfishes or Paragonimus other crustaceans skrjabini; Paragonimus uterobilaterali s

Common name of organism or disease

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor Africa, Caribbean, eastern skin exposure to South Schistosomiasis water Schistosoma America, bilharzia, bilharziosis or contaminated sp. east Asia, snail fever (all types) with infected Middle East fresh water snails - 200 million people Africa, Caribbean, skin exposure to intestine, South water intestinal Schistosoma liver, America, contaminated stool schistosomiasis mansoni spleen, Asia, with infected lungs, skin Middle East Biomphalaria - 83 million fresh water snails people skin exposure to kidney, water Schistosoma bladder, Africa, urinary schistosomiasis urine contaminated haematobium ureters, Middle East with infected lungs, skin Bulinus sp. snails skin exposure to intestine, water China, East Schistosomiasis by Schistosoma liver, contaminated stool Asia, Schistosoma japonicum japonicum spleen, with infected Philippines lungs, skin Oncomelania sp. snails skin exposure to water contaminated Asian intestinal Schistosoma South East with infected schistosomiasis mekongi Asia Neotricula aperta - fresh water snails ingestion of material Spirometra contaminated Sparganosis erinaceieuropa with infected dog ei or cat feces (humans: deadend host)

Latin name (sorted)

Common name of organism or disease

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor Intestines, Strongyloidiasis Strongyloides lungs, skin stool, blood skin penetration Parasitic pneumonia stercoralis (Larva currens) Taenia worldwide ingestion of Beef tapeworm Intestines stool saginata distribution undercooked beef ingestion of Pork tapeworm Taenia solium undercooked pork liver, brain, eyes (Toxocara pica, unwashed canis blood, food contamined Toxocara Visceral ocular worldwide with Toxocara Toxocariasis canis, larva examinatio distribution eggs, Toxocara cati migrans, n undercooked Ocular livers of chicken larva migrans) more Trichinella common in spiralis, developing muscle, Trichinella countries periorbital ingestion of britovi, due to Trichinosis region, blood undercooked Trichinella improved small pork nelsoni, feeding intestine Trichinella practices in nativa developed countries. Trichobilharzi skin exposure to a regenti, contaminated Swimmer's itch Schistosomatid water (snails and ae vertebrates) accidental ingestion of eggs Trichuris in dry goods such large trichiura, common as beans, rice, Whipworm intestine, stool (eggs) Trichuris worldwide and various anus vulpis grains or soil contaminated with human feces ElephantiasisLymphatic Wuchereria lymphatic thick blood Tropical mosquito, bites at

Latin name (sorted)

Common name of organism or disease filariasis

Latin name (sorted) bancrofti

Body parts Diagnostic Transmission/Ve Prevalence affected specimen ctor system smears and night stained with subtropical hematoxyli n.

[edit] Other organisms Common name of Body parts Latin name (sorted) organism affected or disease parasitic Archiacanthocephala worm Halzoun Linguatula serrata Syndrome Oestroidea, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae

Diagnostic Prevalence Transmission/Vector specimen

nasopharynx

physical Mid East examination

ingestion of raw or undercooked lymph nodes (e.g., meat from infected camels and buffalos)

Myiasis Chigoe flea

dead or living tissue

Central Subcutaneous physical Tunga penetrans and South tissue examination America Central Human Subcutaneous physical Mosquitoes and biting Dermatobia hominis and South Botfly tissue examination flies America Urinating in waters Amazon physical inhabited by the fish Candiru Trichomycteridae Urethra River examination without proper Basin protection [edit] Ectoparasites Common Body name of Diagnostic Transmission/Vecto Latin name (sorted) parts Prevalence organism or specimen r affected disease Cimicidae Cimex sharing of clothing Bedbug skin visual Worldwide lectularius and bedding visual identification Head louse hair Common head-to-head Pediculus humanus under Pediculosis follicles worldwide contact magnificatio n

Common name of Latin name (sorted) organism or disease

Body Diagnostic parts specimen affected

Prevalence

Transmission/Vecto r

Body louse Pediculosis

Crab louse Pediculosis

Demodex Demodicosi s

visual identification under Pediculus humanus magnificatio corporis n (Vagabond's disease) visual pubic identification area, Phthirus pubis under eyelashe magnificatio s n Microscopy Demodex eyebrow, of eyelash or folliculorum/brevis/cani eyelashe eyebrow hair s s follicle microscopy of surface scrapings

skin-to-skin contact such as sexual Worldwide activity and via sharing clothing or bedding skin-to-skin contact such as sexual Worldwide activity and via sharing clothing or bedding Pandemic, prolonged skin-toworldwide skin contact skin-to-skin contact such as sexual Worldwide activity and via sharing clothing or bedding North America (eradicated) direct contact with , Central fly America, North Africa

Scabies

Sarcoptes scabiei

skin

Screwworm, Cochliomyia Cochliomyia hominivorax

skin and visual wounds

A Acute lymphoblastic leukemia Acute myeloid leukemia Adrenocortical carcinoma AIDS-related cancers AIDS-related lymphoma Anal cancer Appendix cancer Astrocytoma, childhood cerebellar or cerebral B Basal cell carcinoma Bile duct cancer, extrahepatic Bladder cancer

Bone cancer, Osteosarcoma/Malignant fibrous histiocytoma Brainstem glioma Brain tumor Brain tumor, cerebellar astrocytoma Brain tumor, cerebral astrocytoma/malignant glioma Brain tumor, ependymoma Brain tumor, medulloblastoma Brain tumor, supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors Brain tumor, visual pathway and hypothalamic glioma Breast cancer Bronchial adenomas/carcinoids Burkitt lymphoma C Carcinoid tumor, childhood Carcinoid tumor, gastrointestinal Carcinoma of unknown primary Central nervous system lymphoma, primary Cerebellar astrocytoma, childhood Cerebral astrocytoma/Malignant glioma, childhood Cervical cancer Childhood cancers Chronic lymphocytic leukemia Chronic myelogenous leukemia Chronic myeloproliferative disorders Colon Cancer Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma D Desmoplastic small round cell tumor E Endometrial cancer Ependymoma Esophageal cancer Ewing's sarcoma in the Ewing family of tumors Extracranial germ cell tumor, Childhood Extragonadal Germ cell tumor Extrahepatic bile duct cancer Eye Cancer, Intraocular melanoma Eye Cancer, Retinoblastoma G Gallbladder cancer Gastric (Stomach) cancer Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) Germ cell tumor: extracranial, extragonadal, or ovarian Gestational trophoblastic tumor Glioma of the brain stem

Glioma, Childhood Cerebral Astrocytoma Glioma, Childhood Visual Pathway and Hypothalamic Gastric carcinoid H Hairy cell leukemia Head and neck cancer Heart cancer Hepatocellular (liver) cancer Hodgkin lymphoma Hypopharyngeal cancer Hypothalamic and visual pathway glioma, childhood I Intraocular Melanoma Islet Cell Carcinoma (Endocrine Pancreas) K Kaposi sarcoma L Laryngeal Cancer Leukemias Leukemia, acute lymphoblastic (also called acute lymphocytic leukemia) Leukemia, acute myeloid (also called acute myelogenous leukemia) Leukemia, chronic lymphocytic (also called chronic lymphocytic leukemia) Leukemia, chronic myelogenous (also called chronic myeloid leukemia) Leukemia, hairy cell Lip and Oral Cavity Cancer Liposarcoma Liver Cancer (Primary) Lung Cancer, Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer, Small Cell Lymphomas Lymphoma, AIDS-related Lymphoma, Burkitt Lymphoma, cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma, Hodgkin Lymphomas, Non-Hodgkin (an old classification of all lymphomas except Hodgkin's) Lymphoma, Primary Central Nervous System M Macroglobulinemia, Waldenstrm Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone/Osteosarcoma Medulloblastoma, Childhood Melanoma Melanoma, Intraocular (Eye) Merkel Cell Carcinoma Mesothelioma, Adult Malignant Mesothelioma, Childhood Metastatic Squamous Neck Cancer with Occult Primary

Mouth Cancer Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndrome, Childhood Multiple Myeloma/Plasma Cell Neoplasm Mycosis Fungoides Myelodysplastic Syndromes Myelodysplastic/Myeloproliferative Diseases Myelogenous Leukemia, Chronic Myeloid Leukemia, Adult Acute Myeloid Leukemia, Childhood Acute Myeloma, Multiple (Cancer of the Bone-Marrow) Myeloproliferative Disorders, Chronic N Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer Nasopharyngeal carcinoma Neuroblastoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma O Oral Cancer Oropharyngeal cancer Osteosarcoma/malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone Ovarian cancer Ovarian epithelial cancer (Surface epithelial-stromal tumor) Ovarian germ cell tumor Ovarian low malignant potential tumor P Pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer, islet cell Paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer Parathyroid cancer Penile cancer Pharyngeal cancer Pheochromocytoma Pineal astrocytoma Pineal germinoma Pineoblastoma and supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors, childhood Pituitary adenoma Plasma cell neoplasia/Multiple myeloma Pleuropulmonary blastoma Primary central nervous system lymphoma Prostate cancer R Rectal cancer Renal cell carcinoma (kidney cancer) Renal pelvis and ureter, transitional cell cancer Retinoblastoma Rhabdomyosarcoma, childhood

S Salivary gland cancer Sarcoma, Ewing family of tumors Sarcoma, Kaposi Sarcoma, soft tissue Sarcoma, uterine Szary syndrome Skin cancer (nonmelanoma) Skin cancer (melanoma) Skin carcinoma, Merkel cell Small cell lung cancer Small intestine cancer Soft tissue sarcoma Squamous cell carcinoma see Skin cancer (nonmelanoma) Squamous neck cancer with occult primary, metastatic Stomach cancer Supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumor, childhood T T-Cell lymphoma, cutaneous see Mycosis Fungoides and Szary syndrome Testicular cancer Throat cancer Thymoma, childhood Thymoma and Thymic carcinoma Thyroid cancer Thyroid cancer, childhood Transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter U Unknown primary site, carcinoma of, adult Unknown primary site, cancer of, childhood Ureter and renal pelvis, transitional cell cancer Urethral cancer Uterine cancer, endometrial Uterine sarcoma V Vaginal cancer Visual pathway and hypothalamic glioma, childhood Vulvar cancer W Waldenstrm macroglobulinemia Wilms tumor (kidney cancer), childhood

Antiquity 2600 BC Imhotep wrote texts on ancient Egyptian medicine describing diagnosis and treatment of 200 diseases in 3rd dynasty Egypt.

1500 BC Saffron used as a medicine on the Aegean island of Thera in ancient Greece 500 BC Bian Que becomes the earliest physician known to use acupuncture and pulse diagnosis 420 BC Hippocrates of Cos maintains that diseases have natural causes and puts forth the Hippocratic Oath, marking the birth of medicine in the west 400 the Sushruta Samhita is published, laying the framework for Ayurvedic medicine c. 400 BC - 1 BC The Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine) is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine 280 BC Herophilus studies the nervous system and distinguishes between sensory nerves and motor nerves 270 Huangfu Mi writes the Zhenjiu Jiayijing (The ABC Compendium of Acupuncture), the first textbook focusing solely on acupuncture 250 BC Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum 220 Zhang Zhongjing publishes Shang Han Lun (On Cold Disease Damage), the oldest medical textbook in the world 200 BC the Charaka Samhita uses a rational approach to the causes and cure of disease and uses objective methods of clinical examination 180 Galen studies the connection between paralysis and severance of the spinal cord 5070 Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica a precursor of modern pharmacopoeias that was in use for almost 1600 years Middle Ages c. 800873 Al-Kindi (Alkindus) introducesss quantification into aasdxa with his De Gradibus c. 830870 Hunayn ibn Ishaq transslates Galen's works into Arabic c. 838870 Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development, writes the first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic.[1][2] c. 865925 Rhazes pioneers pediatrics,[3] and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi. 1000 Abulcasis establishes surgery as a profession of in his Kitab al-Tasrif, which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 16th century. The book described the plaster cast,[4] inhalant anesthesia, and many surgical instruments.[5] 1021 Alhazen completes his Book of Optics, which made important advances in ophthalmology and eye surgery, as it correctly explained the process of visual perception.[5] c. 1030 Avicenna writes The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, in which he establishes experimental medicine and evidence-based medicine. The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of clinical trials, the discovery of contagious diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[6] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology.[5] 11001161 Avenzoar carries out human dissections and postmortem autopsy, and proves that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, which contradicted the erroneous theory of humorism.[7] He was also the first to provide a real scientific etiology for the inflammatory diseases of the ear, and the first to clearly discuss the causes of stridor.[8] Modern anesthesia was also developed in al-Andalus by the Muslim anesthesiologists Ibn Zuhr and Abulcasis. They

utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics, and they performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face.[9] 1242 Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation (the cycle involving the ventricles of the heart and the lungs) and coronary circulation,[10] for which he is considered the pioneer of circulation theory[11] and one of the greatest physiologists of the Middle Ages.[12] He emphasized the rigours of verification by measurement, observation and experiment, and was an early proponent of experimental medicine, postmortem autopsy, and human dissection.[13] He also discredited many other erroneous Avicennian and Galenic doctrines on the four humours, pulse bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, and the anatomy of other parts of the human body.[14] Ibn al-Nafis also drew diagrams to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system.[citation needed] c. 1248 Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine, and was a pioneer of veterinary medicine. 1249 Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness 1403 concave lens spectacles to treat myopia early 16th century: Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine 15001800 1543 Andreas Vesalius publishes De Fabrica Corporis Humani which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes European medicine 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities 1553 Miguel Serveto describes the circulation of blood through the lungs. He is accused of heresy and burned at the stake 1556 Amato Lusitano describes venous valves in the zigos vein 1559 Realdo Colombo describes the circulation of blood through the lungs in detail 1563 Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments 1596 Li Shizhen publishes Bnco Gngm or Compendium of Materia Medica 1603 Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which allow blood to flow only toward the heart 1628 William Harvey explains the circulatory system in Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus 1701 Giacomo Pylarini gives the first smallpox innoculations in Europe. They were widely practised in the east before then. 1736 Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy 1747 James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy 1774 Joseph Priestley discovers nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride and oxygen 1785 William Withering publishes "An Account of the Foxglove" the first systematic description of digitalis in treating dropsy 1790 Samuel Hahnemann rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy 1796 Edward Jenner develops a smallpox vaccination method 1799 Humphry Davy discovers the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide

18001899 1800 Humphry Davy announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide 1816 Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope 1818 James Blundell performs the first successful human blood transfusion 1842 Crawford Long performs the first surgical operation using anaesthesia with ether 1846 First painless surgery with general anaesthetic 1847 Ignaz Semmelweis discovers how to prevent puerperal fever 1849 Elizabeth Blackwell is the first woman to gain a medical degree 1867 Lister publishes Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, based partly on Pasteur's work 1870 Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establish the germ theory of disease 1878 Ellis Reynolds Shipp graduates from Womans Medical College of Pennsylvania and begins practice in Utah 1879 First vaccine for cholera 1881 Louis Pasteur develops an anthrax vaccine 1882 Louis Pasteur develops a rabies vaccine 1890 Emil von Behring discovers antitoxins and uses them to develop tetanus and diphtheria vaccines 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen discovers medical use of X-rays in medical imaging 1897 Asprin is invented in Germany. 19001999 1901 Karl Landsteiner discovers the existence of different human blood types 1901 Alois Alzheimer identifies the first case of what becomes known as Alzheimer's disease 1903 - Willem Einthoven discovers electrocardiography (ECG/EKG) 1906 Frederick Hopkins suggests the existence of vitamins and suggests that a lack of vitamins causes scurvy and rickets 1907 Paul Ehrlich develops a chemotherapeutic cure for sleeping sickness 1908 Victor Horsley and R. Clarke invents the stereotactic method 1909 First Intrauterine device described by Richard Richter.[15] 1910 - Hans Christian Jacobeus performs the first laparoscopy on humans 1917 Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane 1921 Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets 1921 Frederick Banting and Charles Best discover insulin important for the treatment of diabetes 1921 Fidel Pags pioneers epidural anesthesia 1923 First vaccine for Diphtheria 1926 First vaccine for Pertussis 1927 First vaccine for Tuberculosis 1927 First vaccine for Tetanus 1928 Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin 1929 Hans Berger discovers human electroencephalography 1932 Gerhard Domagk develops a chemotherapeutic cure for streptococcus 1933 Manfred Sakel discovers insulin shock therapy 1935 Ladislas J. Meduna discovers metrazol shock therapy

1935 First vaccine for Yellow Fever 1936 Egas Moniz discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases; Enrique Finochietto develops the now ubiquitous self-retaining thoracic retractor 1938 Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini discover electroconvulsive therapy 1943 Willem J Kolff build the first dialysis machine 1944 - Disposable Catheter - David Sheridan [18] 1946 - Chemotherapy - Alfred Gilman and Louis S Goodman [18] 1947 - Defibrillator - Claude Beck [18] 1948 - Acetaminophen - Julis Axelrod [18] 1949 First implant of intraocular lens, by Sir Harold Ridley 1949 - Ventilator - Jone Emerson [18] 1952 Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine 1952 - Cloning - Robert Briggs & Thomas King [18] 1953 - Heart-Lung Machine - Dr John Heysham Gibbon [18] 1953 - Medical Ultrasonography - Inge Edler [18] 1954 - Joseph Murray performs the first human kidney transplant (on identical twins) 1954 - Ventouse - Tage Malmstrom [18] 1955 - Tetracycline - Lloyd Conover [18] 1956 - Beta Blockers - Sir James Black [18] 1956 - Metered Dose Inhaler - 3M [18] 1956 - Synthetic Blood - Thomas Chan [18] 1957 William Grey Walter invents the brain EEG topography (toposcope) 1959 - In Vitro Fertilization - Min Chueh Chang [18] 1960 Invention of Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) 1960 First combined oral contraceptive approved by the FDA[15] 1962 - Hip Replacement - John Charnley [18] 1962 First Oral Polio Vaccine 1963 - Artificial Heart - Paul Winchell [18] 1963 - Thomas Starzl performs the first human liver transplant 1963 - James Hardy performs the first human lung transplant 1963 - Valium (diazepam) - Leo H Sternbach [18] 1964 First vaccine for Measles 1965 Frank Pantridge installs the first portable defibrillator 1965 - Rubella Vaccine - Harry Martin Meyer [18] 1965 First commercial ultrasound 1966 - Richard Lillehei performs the first human pancreas transplant 1967 First vaccine for Mumps 1967 Christiaan Barnard performs the first human heart transplant 1968 - Powered Prothesis - Samuel Alderson [18] 1968 - Controlled Drug Delivery - Alejandro Zaffaroni [18] 1969 - Internet - Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) [18] 1969 - Balloon Catheter - Thomas Fogarty [18] 1969 - Cochlear Implant - William House [18] 1970 First vaccine for Rubella 1970 - Cyclosporine, the first effective immunosuppressive drug is introduced in organ transplant practice

1971 - Genetically Modified Organisms - Ananda Chakrabart [18] 1971 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Raymond Vahan Damadian [18] 1971 - Computed Tomography (CT or CAT Scan) - Godfrey Hounsfield [18] 1971 - Transdermal Patches - Alejandro Zaffaroni [18] 1971 Sir Godfrey Hounsfield invents the first commercial CT scanner 1972 - Insulin Pump - Dean Kamen [18] 1973 - Laser Eye Surgery - Mani Lai Bhaumik [18] 1974 - Liposuction - Giorgio Fischer [18] 1976 First commercial PET scanner 1978 Last fatal case of smallpox[16] 1979 Antiviral Drugs - George Hitchings & Gertrude Elion [18] 1980 Raymond Damadian builds first commercial MRI scanner 1980 - Lithotripter - Dornier Research Group [18] 1980 First vaccine for Hepatitis B - Dr Baruch Blimberg [18] 1981 - Artificial Skin - John F Burke & Ioannis V Yannas [18] 1981 - Bruce Reitz performs the first human heart-lung combined transplant 1982 - Humulin insulin - Eli Lilly [18] Interferon Cloning - Dr Sidney Pestika [18] 1985 - Automated DNA Sequencer - Leroy Hood & Lloyd Smith 1985 - Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - Kaery Mullis 1985 - Surgical Robot - Dr Yik San Kwoh 1985 - DNA Fingerprinting - Alec Jeffreys 1985 - Capsule Endoscopy - Tarun Mullick 1986 - Fluoxetine HCl - Eli Lilly and Co 1987 Ben Carson, leading a 70-member medical team in Germany, was the first to separate occipital craniopagus twins. 1987 - Statins - Merck & Co. [18] 1987 - Tissue Engineering - Joseph Vacanti & Robert Langer [18] 1988 - Intravascular Stent - Julio Palmaz [18] 1988 - Laser Cataract Surgery - Dr Patricia Bath [18] 1989 - Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) - Alan Handyside [18] 1989 - DNA Microarray - Stephen Fodor [18] 1989 - World Wide Web WWW - Tim Berners-Lee [18] 1990 - Gamow Bag - Dr Igor Gamow [18] 1992 First vaccine for Hepatitis A available[17] 1992 - Electroactive Polymer (Artificial Muscle) - SRI International [18] 1992 - Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) - Andre van Steirteghem [18] 1998 - Stem Cell Therapy - James Thomson [18] 2000 present 26 June 2000 - Human Genome draft completed 2001 Telesurgery - Jacques Marescaux [18] 2001 Artificial Liver - Kenneth Matsumura [18] 2001 Self-Healing Materials Scott White [18] 2002 Chitosan Bandages by HemCon [18]

2003 Carlo Urbani, of Doctors without Borders alerted the World Health Organization to the threat of the SARS virus, triggering the most effective response to an epidemic in history. Urbani succumbs to the disease himself in less than a month. 2005 Jean-Michel Dubernard performs the first partial face transplant 2006 First HPV vaccine approved 2006 Second rotavirus vaccine approved (first was withdrawn) 2007 - Visual Prosthetic (bionic eye)Argus II [18] 2008 Laurent Lantieri performs the first full face transplant A Abarognosis Acquired Epileptiform Aphasia Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis Adrenoleukodystrophy Agenesis of the corpus callosum Agnosia Aicardi syndrome Akathisia Alexander disease Alien hand syndrome Allochiria Alpers' disease Alternating hemiplegia Alzheimer's disease Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (see Motor Neurone Disease) Anencephaly Angelman syndrome Angiomatosis Anoxia Aphasia Apraxia Arachnoid cysts Arachnoiditis Arnold-Chiari malformation Arteriovenous malformation Ataxia Telangiectasia Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Auditory processing disorder Autonomic Dysfunction B Back Pain Batten disease Behcet's disease Bell's palsy Benign Essential Blepharospasm Benign Intracranial Hypertension

Bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria Binswanger's disease Blepharospasm Bloch-Sulzberger syndrome Brachial plexus injury Brain abscess Brain damage Brain injury Brain tumor Brown-Squard syndrome C Canavan disease Carpal tunnel syndrome Causalgia Central pain syndrome Central pontine myelinolysis Centronuclear myopathy Cephalic disorder Cerebral aneurysm Cerebral arteriosclerosis Cerebral atrophy Cerebral gigantism Cerebral palsy Cerebral vasculitis Cervical spinal stenosis Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease Chiari malformation Chorea Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) Chronic pain CoffinLowry syndrome Coma Complex regional pain syndrome Compression neuropathy Congenital facial diplegia Corticobasal degeneration Cranial arteritis Craniosynostosis Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease Cumulative trauma disorders Cushing's syndrome Cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD) Cytomegalovirus Infection D Dandy-Walker syndrome

Dawson disease De Morsier's syndrome Dejerine-Klumpke palsy Dejerine-Sottas disease Delayed sleep phase syndrome Dementia Dermatomyositis Developmental dyspraxia Diabetic neuropathy Diffuse sclerosis Dravet syndrome Dysautonomia Dyscalculia Dysgraphia Dyslexia Dystonia E Empty sella syndrome Encephalitis Encephalocele Encephalotrigeminal angiomatosis Encopresis Epilepsy Erb's palsy Erythromelalgia Essential tremor F Fabry's disease Fahr's syndrome Fainting Familial spastic paralysis Febrile seizures Fisher syndrome Friedreich's ataxia Fibromyalgia Foville's syndrome G Gaucher's disease Gerstmann's syndrome Giant cell arteritis Giant cell inclusion disease Globoid Cell Leukodystrophy Gray matter heterotopia Guillain-Barr syndrome H HTLV-1 associated myelopathy

Hallervorden-Spatz disease Head injury Headache Hemifacial Spasm Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia Heredopathia atactica polyneuritiformis Herpes zoster oticus Herpes zoster Hirayama syndrome Holoprosencephaly Huntington's disease Hydranencephaly Hydrocephalus Hypercortisolism Hypoxia I Immune-Mediated encephalomyelitis Inclusion body myositis Incontinentia pigmenti Infantile phytanic acid storage disease Infantile Refsum disease Infantile spasms Inflammatory myopathy Intracranial cyst Intracranial hypertension J Joubert syndrome K Karak syndrome Kearns-Sayre syndrome Kennedy disease Kinsbourne syndrome Klippel Feil syndrome Krabbe disease Kugelberg-Welander disease Kuru L Lafora disease Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome Landau-Kleffner syndrome Lateral medullary (Wallenberg) syndrome Learning disabilities Leigh's disease Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Lesch-Nyhan syndrome Leukodystrophy

Lewy body dementia Lissencephaly Locked-In syndrome Lou Gehrig's disease (See Motor Neurone Disease) Lumbar disc disease Lumbar spinal stenosis Lyme disease - Neurological Sequelae M Machado-Joseph disease (Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3) Macrencephaly Macropsia Megalencephaly Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome Menieres disease Meningitis Menkes disease Metachromatic leukodystrophy Microcephaly Micropsia Migraine Miller Fisher syndrome Mini-stroke (transient ischemic attack) Mitochondrial myopathy Mobius syndrome Monomelic amyotrophy Motor Neurone Disease Motor skills disorder Moyamoya disease Mucopolysaccharidoses Multi-infarct dementia Multifocal motor neuropathy Multiple sclerosis Multiple system atrophy Muscular dystrophy Myalgic encephalomyelitis Myasthenia gravis Myelinoclastic diffuse sclerosis Myoclonic Encephalopathy of infants Myoclonus Myopathy Myotubular myopathy Myotonia congenita N Narcolepsy Neurofibromatosis Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Neurological manifestations of AIDS Neurological sequelae of lupus Neuromyotonia Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis Neuronal migration disorders Niemann-Pick disease Non 24-hour sleep-wake syndrome Nonverbal learning disorder O O'Sullivan-McLeod syndrome Occipital Neuralgia Occult Spinal Dysraphism Sequence Ohtahara syndrome Olivopontocerebellar atrophy Opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome Optic neuritis Orthostatic Hypotension Overuse syndrome P Palinopsia Paresthesia Parkinson's disease Paramyotonia Congenita Paraneoplastic diseases Paroxysmal attacks Parry-Romberg syndrome Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease Periodic Paralyses Peripheral neuropathy Persistent Vegetative State Pervasive developmental disorders Photic sneeze reflex Phytanic acid storage disease Pick's disease Pinched nerve Pituitary tumors PMG Polio Polymicrogyria Polymyositis Porencephaly Post-Polio syndrome Postherpetic Neuralgia (PHN) Postinfectious Encephalomyelitis Postural Hypotension Prader-Willi syndrome

Primary Lateral Sclerosis Prion diseases Progressive hemifacial atrophy Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Progressive Supranuclear Palsy Pseudotumor cerebri R Rabies Ramsay Hunt syndrome type I Ramsay Hunt syndrome type II Ramsay Hunt syndrome type III - see Ramsay-Hunt syndrome Rasmussen's encephalitis Reflex neurovascular dystrophy Refsum disease Repetitive stress injury Restless legs syndrome Retrovirus-associated myelopathy Rett syndrome Reye's syndrome Rhythmic Movement Disorder Romberg syndrome S Saint Vitus dance Sandhoff disease Schizophrenia Schilder's disease Schizencephaly Sensory integration dysfunction Septo-optic dysplasia Shaken baby syndrome Shingles Shy-Drager syndrome Sjgren's syndrome Sleep apnea Sleeping sickness Snatiation Sotos syndrome Spasticity Spina bifida Spinal cord injury Spinal cord tumors Spinal muscular atrophy Spinocerebellar ataxia Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome Stiff-person syndrome Stroke

Sturge-Weber syndrome Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis Subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy Superficial siderosis Sydenham's chorea Syncope Synesthesia Syringomyelia T Tarsal tunnel syndrome Tardive dyskinesia Tardive dysphrenia Tarlov cyst Tay-Sachs disease Temporal arteritis Tetanus Tethered spinal cord syndrome Thomsen disease Thoracic outlet syndrome Tic Douloureux Todd's paralysis Tourette syndrome Toxic encephalopathy Transient ischemic attack Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies Transverse myelitis Traumatic brain injury Tremor Trigeminal neuralgia Tropical spastic paraparesis Trypanosomiasis Tuberous sclerosis

V Von Hippel-Lindau disease (VHL) Viliuisk Encephalomyelitis (VE) W Wallenberg's syndrome Werdnig-Hoffman disease West syndrome Whiplash Williams syndrome Wilson's disease YZ Zellweger syndrome

GENETIC DISORDERS Angelman Syndrome Angelman Syndrome is a rare disorder, having neurogenetic causes. The syndrome was first described in 1965 by Dr. Angelman. A syndrome is a based on group characteristics and manifest a specific condition. This syndrome can be described by an intellectual and evolutional delay, difficulty to speak, sleep problems, hand, laughter or just smiling and a happy appearance. Canavan Disease Canavan disease is a genetic disorder which produces gradual damage to nerve cells of the brain. This disease belongs to the category of genetic disorders named leukodystrophies. Leukodystrophies' feature is myelin degeneration that is the phospholipid layer which protects nerve fibers. Celiac Disease Celiac disease is a disorder which is autoimmune affecting the small bowel, which appears in the case of genetically predisposed persons belonging to all age categories, after first infancy stages. Its symptoms can be diarrhea or fatigue, although these can be symptoms of other diseases too. Celiac disease is produced by a reaction to gliadin, which is a gluten protein from wheatThe lining of the small intestine will become flat, which prevents the absorption of nutrients. The unique efficient treatment is a permanent gluten-free diet. Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is a heterogeneous genetic disorder of nerves which is defined by touch sensation and loss of muscle tissue, especially in the legs and feet but in the arms and hands as well, in the advanced phases of disease. Even if for now it can't be cured, this disorder is one of the most popular genetic neurological disorders. According to statistics, 36 in 100,000 are affected. Color Blindness Color blindness, or deficiency to perceive colors can be of genetic nature, but can as well appear because of brain, eye, or nerve damage, or because of contact with some chemicals products. In 1798, the English chemist John Dalton studied for the first time this aspect, that is why it is sometimes called daltonism. Cri du Chat Cri du chat syndrome is a rare genetic disorder which affects an approximately 1 in 20,000 to 50,000 live births. The disease does not depend on ethnic backgrounds, but is most common in the case of women. The disorder gets its name from the typical cry of babies born with this syndrome. The baby sounds like a kitten, because of problems with the nervous system and larynx. The good news is that about 1/3 of kids recover by the age of 2. Negative aspects of this disease may be:

1. Feeding problems because they can't suck and swallow well 2. Low weight at birth and poor evolution 3. Motor, cognitive, and speech delays 4. Behavioral problems such as aggression, hyperactivity, and repetitive movements 5. Uncommon facial traits that can change in time Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disorder which can affect the entire body, leading to gradual disability and death. The most common symptoms are difficulty breathing and not enough enzyme production in the pancreas. Low immune system and dense mucous production lead to frequent lung infections, that are treated, but not always cured, sometimes by intravenous and oral antibiotics. Many other symptoms, like sinus infections, poor evolution, diarrhea can be effects of this disorder in the case of other parts of the body. Sometimes, recurrent lung infections during infancy or childhood may be a sign of cystic fibrosis. Down Syndrome Down syndrome is a hereditary disorder which features problems related to cognitive ability, physical evolution, and facial traits. It is called after John Langdon Down, the doctor who described it in 1866, in Britain. Most of the times it is detected at birth. Duchenne muscular dystrophy Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a mortal disorder which is defined by rapidly gradual muscle weakness and damaged muscular tissue beginning in the pelvis and legs and then affecting the entire. Hemophilia Haemophilia is the name of some genetic disorders which mean the body's inability to control bleeding. The bleeding might be exterior, if the skin is broken by a cut, scrape, or abrasion, or it can be interior, into joints, muscles, or organs which are hollow. The result can be visible on the skin or subtle (e.g., brain bleeding). Klinefelter Syndrome Klinefelter's syndrome has as main effect abnormal testicular evolution and decreased fertility. Neurofibromatosis Neurofibromatosis includes a more different genetic disorder which makes tumors develop along different nerves and, besides, may influence the evolution of tissues which are not nervous, like skin and bones. The tumors may develop anywhere in or on the body. MOST COMMON 1 Tumor arising from bone in adults Adrenal Medullary Tumor Adults Multiple Myeloma Pheochromocytoma

Adrenal Medullary Tumor Children Bacterial Meningitis adults Bacterial Meningitis elderly Bacterial Meningitis newborns Bacterial Meningitis toddlers Bone Tumors Brain Tumor Child Brain Tumor Adult

Neuroblastoma Neisseria meningitidis Strep pneumoniae E. coli Hib Metasteses from Breast & Prostate Medulloblastoma (cerebellum) Astrocytoma (including Glioblastoma Multiforme) then: mets, meningioma, Schwannoma Invasive Duct Carcinoma Fibrocystic Change (Carcinoma is the most common is post-menopausal women) Staph aureus Klebsiella Hib Bacteroides (2nd E. coli) Staph aureus N. Gonnorrhoeae Strep Viridans Myxoma "Ball Valve" Rhabdomyoma

Breast Carcinoma Breast Mass

Bug in Acute Endocarditis Bug in debilitated, hospitalized pneumonia pt Bug in Epiglottitis Bug in GI Tract Bug in IV drug user bacteremia / pneumonia Bug in PID Bug in Subacute Endocarditis Cardiac 1 Tumor Adults Cardiac 1 Tumor Child

Cardiac Tumor Adults Cardiomyopathy Cause of 2 HTN Cause of Addison's Cause of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Cause of Cushings

Metasteses Dilated (Congestive) Cardiomyopathy Renal Disease Autoimmune (2nd infection) 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency (then, 11-) Exogenous Steroid Therapy (then, 1 ACTH, Adrenal Adenoma, Ectopic ACTH) Pneumonia MI Lupus Nephropathy Type IV (Diffuse Proliferative) Alzheimer's Multi-Infarct Dementia Staph aureus Down's

Cause of death in Alzheimer pts Cause of death in Diabetics Cause of Death in SLE pts.

Cause of Dementia Cause of Dementia (2nd most common) Cause of food poisoning Cause of mental retardation

Cause of mental retardation (2nd most common) Fragile X Cause of preventable blindness Cause of Pulmonary HTN Cause of SIADH Chromosomal disorder Congenital cardiac anomaly Congenital early cyanosis Chlamydia COPD Small Cell Carcinoma of the Lung Down's VSD (membranous > muscular) Tetralogy of Fallot

Coronary Artery thrombosis Demyelinating Disease Dietary Deficiency Disseminated opportunistic infection in AIDS

LAD Multiple Sclerosis Iron CMV (Pneumocystis carinii is most common overall) SCCA Cystic Fibrosis Leimyoma Immunologic (Bence Jones protein in multiple myeloma is also called the Amyloid Light Chain) Ulceroglandular Endometrial Carcinoma Mitral Valve Prolapse Mitral

Esophageal cancer Fatal genetic defect in Caucasians Female Tumor Form of Amyloidosis

Form of Tularemia Gynecologic malignancy Heart Murmur Heart Valve in bacterial endocarditis

Heart Valve in bacterial endocarditis in IV drug Tricuspid users Heart Valve involved in Rheumatic Fever Hereditary Bleeding Disorder Liver 1 Tumor Liver Disease Location of Adult brain tumors Location of Childhood brain tumors Mitral then Aortic Von Willebrand's Disease Hepatoma Alcoholic Liver Disease Above Tentorium Below Tentorium

Lysosomal Storage Disease Motor Neuron Disease Neoplasm Child Neoplasm Child (2nd most common) Nephrotic Syndrome Opportunistic infection in AIDS Ovarian Malignancy Ovarian Tumor Pancreatic Tumor Patient with ALL / CLL / AML / CML

Gaucher's ALS Leukemia Medulloblastoma of brain (cerebellum) Membranous Glomerulonephritis PCP Serous Cystadenoma Hamartoma Adeno (usually in the head) ALL - Child / CLL - Adult over 60 / AML Adult over 60 / CML - Adult 35-50 Young male Male Prolactinoma (2nd Somatotropic "Acidophilic" Adenoma) Adenomas (followed by: hyperplasia, then carcinoma) Young Male (except Nodular Sclerosis type Female) Young Child Hypocalcemia of Chronic Renal Failure Chlamydia Sigmoid Colon

Patient with Goodpasture's Patient with Reiter's Pituitary Tumor

Primary Hyperparathyroidism

Pt. With Hodgkin's

Pt. With Minimal Change Disease Secondary Hyperparathyroidism Sexually transmitted disease Site of Diverticula

Site of metastasis Site of metastasis (2nd most common) Sites of atherosclerosis

Regional Lymph Nodes Liver Abdominal aorta > coronary > popliteal > carotid Basal Cell Carcinoma Adeno Seminoma Papillary Carcinoma Lower esophagus joins trachea / upper esophagus blind pouch Hemangioma Mixed Cellularity (versus: lymphocytic predominance, lymphocytic depletion, nodular sclerosis) Follicular, small cleaved Temporal Arteritis HSV Pinworm (2nd Ascaris)

Skin Cancer Stomach cancer Testicular Tumor Thyroid Cancer Tracheoesophageal Fistula

Tumor of Infancy Type of Hodkin's

Type of Non-Hodgkin's Vasculitis (of medium & small arteries) Viral Encephalitis Worm infection in US

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TABLE of GENETIC DISORDERS

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Disease

Category

Pathogenesis / Heredity

Pathology, Cardinal Symptoms Meconium ileus (caused by thick, mucoid meconium), respiratory bronchiectasis, Pseudomonas

Cystic Fibrosis

Autosomal Recessive. CFTR gene defect on Chrom 7 ------> No Cltransport and failure to hydrate mucous secretions

(no NaCl transport) ------> excessively viscous mucoid exocrine secretions

pneumonia, pancreatic insufficiency, hypertonic (high Cl- concentration) sweat. Normocytic anemia with neutropenia. Short stature, microcephaly, hypogenitalism, strabismus, anomalies of the thumbs, radii, and kidneys, mental retardation, and microphthalmia.

Fanconi Anemia

Autosomal Recessive congenital pancytopenia.

Hartnup's Disease

Autosomal Recessive. Defect in GI uptake of neutral amino acids ------> malabsorption of tryptophan (niacin precursor) ------> niacin deficiency among other things. Autosomal Recessive. Defect in dynein arms -----> lost motility of cilia

Pellagra-like syndrome (diarrhea, dementia, dermatitis), lightsensitive skin rash, temporary cerebellar ataxia.

Kartagener's Syndrome

Recurrent sinopulmonary infections (due to impaired ciliary tract). Situs inversus, due to impaired ciliary motion during embryogenesis: lateral transposition of lungs, abdominal and thoracic viscera are on opposite sides of the body as normal. Possible dextrocardia, male sterility. Neurologic defects.

Pyruvate

Autosomal Recessive.

Dehydrogenase Deficiency

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase deficiency ------> buildup of lactate and pyruvate ------> lactic acidosis.

Treatment: Increase intake of ketogenic nutrients (leucine, lysine) ------> increase formation of Acetyl-CoA from other sources. Dry skin, melanomas, pre-malignant lesions, other cancers. Ophthalmic and neurologic abnormalities.

Xeroderma Pigmentosum

Autosomal Recessive. Defect in DNA repair, inability to repair thymine dimers resulting from UVlight exposure ------> excessive skin damage and skin cancer. A group of inherited diseases associated with hypercholestrolemia.

Familial Autosomal Hypercholesterolemia Dominant Disorders

Heterozygous: accelerated atherosclerosis. Homozygous: accelerated atherosclerosis, MI by age 35, xanthomas. Telangiectasias of skin and mucous membranes.

Hereditary Autosomal Hemorrhagic Dominant Telangiectasia (Osler- Disorders Weber-Rendu Syndrome) Hereditary Spherocytosis Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Autosomal Dominant.

Autosomal Dominant. Band-3 deficiency in RBC membrane ------> spherical shape to cells. Other RBC structural enzyme deficiencies can cause it, too.

Sequestration of spherocytes in spleen -----> hemolytic anemia.

Huntington's Disease

Autosomal Dominant

Autosomal Dominant, 100% Progressive dementia penetrance. with onset in adulthood,

Disorders

Genetic defect on Chrom 4 -----> atrophy of caudate nuclei, putamen, frontal cortex. Autosomal Dominant. Fibrillin deficiency ------> faulty scaffolding in connective tissue (elastin has no anchor). Autosomal Dominant. NF1 gene defect (no GTPase protein) ------> dysregulation of Ras tumorsuppressor protein.

choreiform movements, athetosis.

Marfan's Syndrome

Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Arachnodactyly, dissecting aortic aneurysms, ectopia lentis (subluxation of lens), mitral valve prolapse. Multiple neurofibromas (Caf au Lait spots) which may become malignant, Lisch nodules (pigmented hamartomas of the iris). Increased risk for tumors: pheochromocytoma, Wilms tumor, Rhabdomyosarcoma, leukemias.

Neurofibromatosis (Von Recklinghausen Disease)

Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Tuberous Sclerosis

Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Autosomal Dominant.

Tubers (glial nodules), seizures, mental retardation. Associated with adenoma sebaceum (facial lesion), myocardial rhabdomyomas, renal angiomyolipomas. (1) Hemangioblastomas of cerebellum, medulla, or retina, (2) adenomas, (3) cysts in visceral organs. High risk for renal cell carcinoma.

Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome

Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Autosomal Dominant, short arm of chromosome 3. Same genetic region is associated with incidence of renal cell carcinoma.

Congenital Fructose Intolerance

Carbohydrate Metabolism Defect

Autosomal Recessive. Aldolase B deficiency -----> buildup of Fructose-1Phosphate in tissues ------> inhibit glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Autosomal Recessive. Inability to convert galactose to glucose ------> accumulation of galactose in many tissues. (1) Classic form: Galactose1-phosphate Uridyltransferase deficiency. (2) Rarer form: Galactokinase deficiency.

Severe hypoglycemia. Treatment: Remove fructose from diet.

Galactosemia

Carbohydrate Metabolism Defect

Failure to thrive, infantile cataracts, mental retardation. Progressive hepatic failure, cirrhosis, death. Galactokinasedeficiency: infantile cataracts are prominent. Treatment: in either case, remove galactose from diet.

Angelman Syndrome

Chromosomal Deletion of part of short arm Mental retardation, of chromosome 15, maternal ataxic gait, seizures. copy. An example of Inappropriate laughter. genomic imprinting. Chromosomal 5p-, deletion of the long arm of chromosome 5. "Cry of the cat." Severe mental retardation, microcephaly, cat-like cry. Low birth-weight, round-face, hypertelorism (wide-set eyes), low-set ears, epicanthal folds. Most common cause of mental retardation. Will see epicanthal folds, simian crease, brushfield spots in eyes. Associated

Cri du Chat Syndrome

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Chromosomal Trisomy 21, with risk increasing with maternal age. Familial form (no ageassociated risk) is translocation t(21,x) in a

minority of cases.

syndromes: congenital heart disease, leukemia, premature Alzheimer's disease (same morphological changes). Mental retardation, micrognathia, rockerbottom feet, congenital heart disease, flexion deformities of fingers. Death by 1 year old. Mental retardation, microphthalmia, cleft lip and palate, polydactyly, rocker-bottom feet, congenital heart disease. Similar to and more severe than Edward's Syndrome. Death by 1 year old. Mental retardation, short stature, hypotonia, obesity and huge appetite after infancy. Small hands and feet, hypogonadism. Second most common cause of mental retardation next to Down Syndrome. Macroorchidism (enlarged testes) in males.

Edward's Syndrome (Trisomy 18)

Chromosomal Trisomy 18

Patau's Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

Chromosomal Trisomy 13

Prader-Willi Syndrome

Chromosomal Deletion of part of short arm of chromosome 15, paternal copy. An example of genomic imprinting.

Fragile-X Syndrome

Chromosomal Progressively longer tandem repeats on the long arm of Sex the X-chromosome. The chromosome longer the number of repeats, the worse the syndrome. Tandem repeats tend to accumulate through generations.

Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)

Chromosomal Non-disjunction of the sex chromosome during Sex Anaphase I of meiosis -----chromosome > Trisomy (47,XXY)

Hypogonadism, tall stature, gynecomastia. Mild mental retardation. Usually not diagnosed until after puberty. One Barr body seen on buccal smear. Streak gonads, primary amenorrhea, webbed neck, short stature, coarctation of Aorta, infantile genitalia. No mental retardation. No Barr bodies visible on buccal smear. Usually phenotypically normal. May see menstrual abnormalities or mild mental retardation in some cases. Laxity of joints, hyperextensibility of skin, poor wound healing, aneurysms.

Turner's Syndrome (XO)

Chromosomal Non-disjunction of the sex chromosome during Sex Anaphase I of meiosis -----chromosome > Monosomy (45,X)

XXX Syndrome

Chromosomal Trisomy (47,XXX) and other multiple XSex chromosome abnormalities. chromosome

Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

Connective Tissue disease

Various defects in collagen synthesis.

Type-I: Autosomal dominant, mildest form. Type-IV: autosomal dominant. Defect in reticular collagen (type-III) Type-VI: autosomalrecessive. Type-VII: Defect in collagen type I Type-IX: X-linked recessive

Type-I: Diaphragmatic hernia. Common, normal lifeexpectancy. Type-IV: Ecchymoses, arterial rupture. Dangerous due to rupture aneurysms. Type-VI: Retinal

detachment, corneal rupture Osteogenesis Imperfecta Connective tissue disease Defects in Collagen Type I formation. Multiple fractures after birth, blue sclerae, thin skin, progressive deafness in some types (due to abnormal middle ear ossicles). Type-I is most common; Type-II is most severe; Type-IV is mildest form. Cori's Disease (Glycogen Storage Disease Type III) Glycogen Storage Disease Autosomal Recessive. Debranching enzyme deficiency (can only break down linear chains of glycogen, not at branch points) ------> accumulate glycogen in liver, heart, skeletal muscle. Autosomal Recessive. muscle phosphorylase deficiency (cannot utilize glycogen in skeletal muscle) ------> accumulation of glycogen in skeletal muscle. Autosomal Recessive. alpha-1,4-Glucosidase deficiency (cannot break down glycogen) ------> accumulate glycogen in liver, heart, skeletal muscle. Autosomal Recessive. Glucose-6-Phosphatase Stunted growth, hepatomegaly, hypoglycemia.

McArdle's Disease (Glycogen Storage Disease Type V)

Glycogen Storage Disease

Muscle cramps, muscle weakness, easy fatigability. Myoglobinuria with strenuous exercise.

Pompe's Disease (Glycogen Storage Disease Type II)

Glycogen Storage Disease

Cardiomegaly, hepatomegaly, and systemic findings, leading to early death.

Von Gierke's Disease (Glycogen Storage

Glycogen Storage

Severe fasting hypoglycemia,

Disease Type I)

Disease

deficiency (cannot break down glycogen) ------> accumulate glycogen in liver and kidney. X-Linked Recessive. Factor VIII deficiency

hepatomegaly from lots of glycogen in liver.

Hemophilia A (Factor VIII Deficiency)

Hemophilia

Hemorrhage, hematuria, hemarthroses. Prolonged PTT. Milder than Hemophilia A. Hemorrhage, hematuria, hemarthroses. Prolonged PTT. Hemorrhage, similar to hemophilia. Type-I: Most mild. Type-II: Intermediate. Type-III: most severe, with recessive inheritance (complete absence). Cerebellar ataxia, telangiectasia (enlarged capillaries of face and skin), B and T-Cell deficiencies, IgA deficiency. Recurrent pyogenic infections, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus.

Hemophilia B (Factor IX Deficiency)

Hemophilia

X-Linked Recessive. Factor IX deficiency.

Von Willebrand Disease

Hemophilia

Autosomal dominant and recessive varieties. Von Willebrand Factor deficiency ------> defect in initial formation of platelet plugs, and shorter half-life of Factor VIII in blood.

Ataxia-Telangiectasia

Immune deficiency Combined Deficiency

Autosomal Recessive. Unknown. Numerous chromosomal breaks and elevated AFP is found. Symptomatic by age 2 years. Defect in polymerization of microtubules in neutrophils ------> failure in neutrophil migration and phagocytosis. Also results in failure in lysosomal function in neutrophils.

Chdiak-Higashi Syndrome

Immune deficiency Phagocyte Deficiency

Chronic Granulomatous Disease

Immune deficiency Phagocyte Deficiency

X-Linked (usually) NADPH Oxidase deficiency ------> no formation of peroxides and superoxides ------> no oxidative burst in phagocytes.

Failure of phagocytes leads to susceptibility to infections, especially Staph Aureus and Aspergillus spp. B and T cells usually remain normal. Selective recurrent Candida infections. Treat with anti-fungal drugs. High histamine levels, eosinophilia. Recurrent cold (non-inflammatory) Staphylococcal abscesses (resulting from high histamine), eczema.

Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis

Immune deficiency T-Cell Deficiency

T-Cell deficiency specific to Candida.

Job's Syndrome

Immune deficiency Phagocyte Deficiency

A failure to produce gamma-Interferon by THelper cells, leading to an increase in TH2 cells (no negative feedback) ------> excessively high levels of IgE. IgA deficiency may be due to a failure of heavy-chain gene switching.

Selective IgA Deficiency

Immune deficiency B-Cell Deficiency

The most common congenital immune deficiency. There also exists selective IgM and IgG deficiencies, but they are less common. Severe deficiency in both humoral and cellular immunity, due to impaired DNA synthesis. Bone marrow transplant may be helpful in treatment. T-Cell deficiency from no thymus.

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)

Immune deficiency Combined Deficiency

Autosomal Recessive. Adenosine Deaminase deficiency ------> accumulation of dATP -----> inhibit ribonucleotide reductase ------> decrease in DNA precursors Failure of development of the 3rd and 4th Pharyngeal

Thymic Aplasia (DiGeorge

Immune

Syndrome)

deficiency T-Cell Deficiency

Pouches ------> agenesis of the thymus and parathyroid glands. Inability to mount initial IgM response to the capsular polysaccharides of pyogenic bacteria.

Hypocalcemic tetany from primary parathyroid deficiency. In infancy, recurrent pyogenic infections, eczema, thrombocytopenia, excessive bleeding. IgG levels remain normal. Recurrent pyogenic infections after 6 months (when maternal antibodies wear off). Can treat with polyspecific gamma globulin preparations. Angiokeratomas (skin lesions) over lower trunk, fever, severe burning pain in extremities, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular involvement.

Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome

Immune deficiency Combined Deficiency

X-Linked Immune Agammaglobulinemia deficiency (Bruton's Disease) B-Cell Deficiency

X-Linked. Mutation in gene coding for tyrosine kinase causes failure of Pre-B cells to differentiate into B-Cells.

Fabry's Disease

Lysosomal Storage Disease

X-Linked Recessive. alphaGalactosidase A deficiency -----> buildup of ceramide trihexoside in body tissues.

Gaucher's Disease

Lysosomal Storage Disease

Autosomal Recessive. Glucocerebrosidase deficiency ------> accumulation of glucocerebrosides (gangliosides, sphingolipids) in lysosomes throughout the body.

Type-I: Adult form. 80% of cases, retain partial activity. Hepatosplenome galy, erosion of femoral head, mild anemia. Normal lifespan with treatment. Type-II: Infantile form. Severe

CNS involvement. Death before age 1. Type-III: Juvenile form. Onset in early childhood, involving both CNS and viscera, but less severe than Type II.

Niemann-Pick Lipidosis

Lysosomal Storage Disease

Autosomal Recessive. Sphingomyelinase deficiency ------> accumulation of sphingomyelin in phagocytes.

Sphingomyelincontaining foamy histiocytes in reticuloendo-thelial system and spleen. Hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, fever, sometimes CNS deterioration. Death by age 3. Similar to but less severe than Hurler Syndrome. Hepatosplenomegaly, micrognathia, retinal degeneration, joint stiffness, mild retardation, cardiac lesions. Gargoyle-like facies, progressive mental deterioration, stubby fingers, death by age 10. Similar to Hunter's Syndrome.

Hunter's Syndrome

Lysosomal Storage Disease

X-Linked Recessive. Liduronosulfate sulfatase deficiency ------> buildup of mucopolysaccharides (heparan sulfate and dermatan sulfate)

Hurler's Syndrome

Lysosomal Storage Disease

Autosomal Recessive. alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency ------> accumulation of mucopolysaccharides (heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate) in heart, brain, liver,

other organs. Tay-Sachs Disease Lysosomal Storage Disease Autosomal Recessive. Hexosaminidase A deficiency ------> accumulation of GM2 ganglioside in neurons. Autosomal Recessive. Tyrosinase deficiency -----> inability to synthesize melanin from tyrosine. Can result from a lack of migration of neural crest cells. Autosomal Recessive. Homogentisic Oxidase deficiency (inability to metabolize Phe and Tyr) -----> buildup and urinary excretion of homogentisic acid. CNS degeneration, retardation, cherry redspot of macula, blindness (amaurosis). Death before age 4. Depigmentation, pink eyes, increased risk of skin cancer.

Albinism

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

Alkaptonuria

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

Urine turns dark and black on standing, ochronosis (dark pigmentation of fibrous and cartilage tissues), ochronotic arthritis, cardiac valve involvement. Disease is generally benign. Mental retardation, ectopia lentis, sparse blond hair, genu valgum, failure to thrive, thromboembolic episodes, fatty changes of liver. Treatment: Cysteine supplementation, give excess pyridoxine to compensate for lost pyridoxine affinity.

Homocystinuria

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

Autosomal Recessive. Cystathionine synthase defect (either deficiency, or lost affinity for pyridoxine, Vit. B6) ------> buildup of homocystine and deficiency of cysteine.

Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

X-Linked Recessive. Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) deficiency ------> no salvage pathway for purine re-synthesis ------> buildup of purine metabolites Autosomal Recessive. Deficiency of branched chain keto-acid decarboxylase ------> no degradation of branchedchain amino acids ------> buildup of isoleucine, valine, leucine. Autosomal Recessive. Phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency (cannot break down Phe nor make Tyr) -----> buildup of phenylalanine, phenyl ketones (phenylacetate, phenyl lactate, phenylpyruvate) in body tissues and CNS.

Hyperuricemia (gout), mental retardation, selfmutilation (autistic behavior), choreoathetosis, spasticity.

Maple Syrup Urine Disease

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

Severe CNS defects, mental retardation, death. Person smells like maple syrup or burnt sugar. Treatment: remove the amino acids from diet.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Nitrogen Metabolism Defect

Symptoms result from accumulation of phenylalanine itself. Mental deterioration, hypopigmentation (blond hair and blue eyes), mousy body odor (from phenylacetic acid in urine and sweat). Treatment: remove phenylalanine from diet.

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency

RBC Disease

X-Linked Recessive. Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency ------> no hexose monophosphate shunt ------> deficiency in NADPH -----> inability to maintain glutathione in reduced form,

Susceptibility to oxidative damage to RBC's, leading to hemolytic anemia. Can be elicited by drugs (primaquine, sulfonamides, aspirin), fava beans (favism). More prevalent in

in RBC's Glycolytic enzyme deficiencies RBC Disease Autosomal Recessive. Defect in hexokinase, glucose-phosphate isomerase, aldolase, triosephosphate isomerase, phosphate-glycerate kinase, or enolase. Any enzyme in glycolysis pathway. Autosomal Recessive.

blacks. Hemolytic anemia results from any defect in the glycolysis pathway, as RBC's depend on glycolysis for energy.

Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease (ARPKD)

Renal

Numerous, diffuse bilateral cysts formed in the collecting ducts. Associated with hepatic fibrosis. Elevated renin and aldosterone, hypokalemic alkalosis. No hypertension. (1) Cystine deposition throughout body, cystinuria. (2) Defective tubular resorption leads to amino-aciduria, polyuria, glycosuria, chronic acidosis; Hypophosphatemia and Vitamin-D-resistant Rickets. Similar to Fanconi Syndrome Type I, but without the cystinosis. Adult onset osteomalacia, amino-

Bartter's Syndrome

Renal

Juxtaglomerular Cell Hyperplasia, leading to primary hyper-reninemia.

Fanconi's Syndrome Type I (Child-onset cystinosis)

Renal

Autosomal Recessive. Deficient resorption in proximal tubules.

Fanconi's Syndrome II (Adult-onset)

Renal

Autosomal Recessive. Defective resorption in proximal tubules.

aciduria, polyuria, glycosuria. Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) Renal Autosomal Dominant Disorders Autosomal Dominant. Numerous, disparate, heterogenous renal cysts occurring bilaterally. Onset in adult life. Associated with liver cysts.