8

MAKING INFERENCES

fter studying the previous chapters, it is obvious that many reading materials often leave much unsaid. Facing such passages, your background knowledge and linguistic competence are sometimes inadequate to help you determine what the authors mean through what they suggest. You need the skill to read between the lines, or to make judgment and to draw conclusions about what is merely implied. This is what is called making inferences. Similar to other critical reading skills, making inference is very important in both reading and listening. Thus, it is also very helpful when you are listening to a lecture. By making correct inferences, you will get a clearer organization and better understanding of your materials. Consequently, you will find it easier to remember this material. You can make inferences about what you read or listen to by looking for three kinds of information. First, look at the terms of qualification that you find in a sentence. Second, look at the word choice or the connotation of words used by the author or speaker. Finally, look at the kinds of details used in the material. The following parts are designed to give you brief but concise explanations and practices on the use of these three kinds of information to make inferences. A. Using Terms of Qualification A single word or phrase can markedly alter the message of a sentence. Term of qualification can give a strong endorsement to a statement, or they can add doubt to an author or speakers remark. In most cases the writer or speaker will not directly tell you the certainty or uncertainty of a statement. Rather, the degree of certainty will be suggested in terms of qualification. Look at the following words and phrases. Used in passages or sentences, they express much certainty. So, it is important for you to lock them in your mind. Any time you find them in a reading material, they signal that the statement carries certainty or much support from the author. See, for example, how the use of absolutely adds conviction to the statement: John Kennedy was absolutely the wisest presidential choice in the sixties, an era of youth and hope. The writer evidently has strong and positive feelings for Kennedy. Instead of expressing these feelings for Kennedy directly, the author uses absolutely to confirm these positive feelings. When you find such strong terms of qualification, underline them and write an appropriate note in the margin.

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List 1: Words and Phrases That Express No Doubt all none never always certainly definitely surely clearly conclusively unequivocally precisely plainly assuredly undoubtedly absolutely constantly undeniably without a doubt there is no doubt without reservation without hesitation it is a proven fact it is undeniable without question

Now consider some terms that express a small degree of doubt. Such words and phrases should make you pause in your reading or listening to ask what the exceptions to the statements are. In many cases the author will not discuss the exceptions. By not recognizing the terms of qualification in a sentence, you would wrongly conclude that the statement was law, having no exceptions. For instance, consider how usually plants a question in your mind in the following statement: If a ring forms in the subjects urine, you can usually assume that the subject is pregnant. If the exceptions are not discussed, it would be wise to you to underline this term of qualification and write in the margin something like: When do these rings not suggest pregnancy? List 2: Words and Phrases That Express A Small Degree of Doubt most mostly usually consistently seldom rarely slightly one can safely say there is little doubt with little reservation it is believed almost never almost always the consistent pattern

Then, consider the following list of terms of qualification that express some doubt. Such words and phrases should automatically make you question and look for the exceptions. Again, the exceptions are frequently not discussed in the material that you are reading or listening to. List 3: Words and Phrases That Express Some Doubt many frequently often may might perhaps ostensibly apparently somewhat likely seemingly it seems it appears one can infer one would assume the assumption is one would infer the inference is it is suggested that it is likely this might mean this could mean the results imply possibly probably (stronger than possibly) at times one can say with some reservation the hypothesis is the theory is it is theorized that it is possible that it is probable that (stronger than possible)
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Lets look at the influence of the use of it appears in the following sentence: It appears from the experiment that too much aspirin can lead to chronic stomach ailments. Because it appears is included in this sentence, you cannot say that aspirin automatically leads to stomach problems. Evidently the result of the experiment cannot provide a definite causeeffect relationship between aspirin and stomach problems. To take another example, consider the following statement: In most instances, when the supply of a product goes down, the demand goes up. Its easy to realize that the inclusion of in most instances weakens the statement. It makes us curious to know which instances violate this law of supply and demand. Again, you would need to ask in a marginal note what questions the experiment still leaves unanswered. Finally, there are a few words and phrases that suggest much doubt. When you see or hear these words, you should be very careful that you do not blindly accept the statement. List 4: Words and Phrases That Suggest Much Doubt
supposedly it is guessed that it is suspected that it is rumored that it is conjectured that

Consider, for example, how the presence of it is rumored that makes the following sentence questionable: It is rumored that Franklin Roosevelt knew beforehand that the Japanese were planning to bomb Pearl harbor to bring the United States into World War II. Because this statement is rumor, you can deduce that such a remark has no factual basis and should not be used as evidence in any serious discussion. Many irresponsible speakers and publications use rumor and conjecture as the basis for their arguments. They do this because they dont have facts to prove their opinions. Of course, you should never cite such speakers or publications as sources in a serious essay or speech.

EXERCISE 81 Below you will find ten statements, all of which contain terms of qualification. First, underline the term of qualification. Second, write a one-sentence comment explaining how the term alters the meaning of the statement. Comment on whether the term makes the statement stronger or whether it casts doubt on the statement. You may want to refer to the above discussion for the lists of terms of qualification.

may result in permanent personality disorder.

Example: Recent studies concerning the use of marijuana conclude that prolonged use Explanation: Because may is included in this sentence, you cannot say that prolonged

use of marijuana automatically leads to permanent personality disorder. Evidently, the result of the studies cannot provide a definite cause-effect relationship between the use of marijuana and permanent personality disorder.

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1.

It appears that watching too much television dulls a childs imagination. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ The latest cancer study states conclusively that cigarette smoking is a cause of lung cancer. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Attractive females are consistently used in television advertising. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ American culture generally is obsessed with youth and discounts the elderly. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Children who grow up in a very strict family are likely to have less initiative. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ In most instances, when the demand for a product goes down, the price also goes down. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Chairil Anwar is without reservation one of the best figures in Indonesian poetry. Explanation:_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________

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It is theorized that the universe is constantly expanding but will one day contract.

Explanation:_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ 9. One can safely say that to create a clean government will be the number one concern of President Soesilo Bambang Yudhoyono during his presidency.

Explanation:_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ 10 . A politician is frequently considered as the most controversial figure in a modern society.

Explanation:_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ B. Considering Word Choice Many inferences are made through the kinds of words an author or speaker uses. In Chapter 3 it is explained that the suggested meanings, or connotations, of words will tell you whether the author or speaker has a positive negative attitude toward the topic at hand. The connotative power of words thus brings out the nuances of the speaker or writers thoughts, which may be more significant than the bare direct meanings. To illustrate, lets take the following sentence: Herbert Hoover remained blindly passive to the economic depression of his country. Do you see that blindly is a loaded word? It suggests that President Hoover could not see the problems facing his country. A blind person is also handicapped. Perhaps this suggestion of being handicapped is another connotation the author wants you associate with Hoover. Finally, someone who is accused of being blind is also considered stubborn or inflexible. Most likely, these negative descriptions are also part of the authors attitudes toward Hoover. Now look at the use of no-nonsense to see how it gives a positive connotation to the following statement about Harry Truman: This was just one of many of Harry Trumans nononsense replies. Do you see that no-nonsense suggests common sense, straightforwardness, and conciseness? Though the author of this statement nowhere gives his direct appreciation of Truman, the approval is suggested in the connotations of no-

nonsense.

Careful interpretation of the language used also enables one to learn much about the speaker or writer. The speaker or writer may claim he is an impartial observer, but his words will often betray sympathies and commitments, which he himself may or may not be conscious of. A man who refers to a staunch Buddhist as a man of faith or a pious believer in the blessings of Buddha is obviously not in any way against him. The phrase a superstitious bigot, however, would reveal antipathy. Indeed, taking note of the connotative effects of words is thus one method of reading between the lines to discover not only the likes and dislikes of the speaker or writer but also his point of view, intentions and characters.
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EXERCISE 82 : Below you will find ten statements, each of which has an underlined word. Your task is to discuss in a sentence the connotation of the word (its positive or negative suggestions) and how the word changes the meaning of the sentence. You may want to consult a dictionary or thesaurus to determine the shades of meaning of the word in question.

Example: Abraham Lincoln struggled tirelessly to abolish slavery in the United States. Explanation: Tirelessly is used to put Lincoln in a positive light; it suggests constancy, diligence, and vast amounts of energy.
1. Japanese automakers have shrewdly managed to take over some of the American automobile market.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 2. The soviet Union had mercilessly committed the famous poet to an asylum outside of Moscow.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 3. Roger Williams had much foresight in not allowing his state of Rhode Island in the 1600s to monetarily support any religious group; this decision helped shaped Americas belief in the separation of church and state.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 4. The filibuster is a childlike attempt by a senator to talk continuously in order to prevent the passage of a bill.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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5.

Martin Luther King had a steadfast belief in the power of nonviolence.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 6. Imperialism is the desire of a powerful country to extend its power and wealth by subjugating less powerful countries.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 7. The states of the Union timidly stood by as the Supreme Court gave much of the states power to the federal government.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 8. Albert Einstein had the singular ability to see the world from the eyes of a scientist as well as from the perspective of a poet.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 9. In 1940 the Nazis wrenched control of over half of France from the French and created an occupied state.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 10 . Woodrow Wilsons noble venturethe League of Nationsnever received much support in the United States.

Explanation:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ C. Considering Details of Support In longer passages of written material or in longer sections of lecture material, you can infer much about the author or speaker throughout the kind details or examples that are presented. If the details follow a logical train of thought, you can infer that the author or
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speaker is organized and has clearly thought out an argument. But, if the examples are confused, you can deduce that the author is not presenting a logical argument. You can often infer much about the quality of a presentation by the sources that are cited. If respected publications or experts are used, you are more likely to value the argument that is presented. If the author or speaker is vague about the sources, or if the sources are not well known, you would be justified in questioning the argument or thesis. Again, the author or speaker will probably not evaluate the material that is presented. It is up to you to infer an evaluation or a bias from the pattern of details. Consider the following paragraph on Vietnam. How do the details of support suggest or imply the competence of its author? Vietnam was a frustrating and senseless struggle. Many political leaders warned President Johnson and President Nixon that this war could never be won. Someone once said that guerilla fighters couldnt be subdued by sophisticated military weapons. Many thousands of American soldiers died senselessly at the hands of Vietnamese guerillas hiding in the bushes and jungles of their country. Even if you agree with the premise of this passage, the evidence presented is consistently vague. The political leaders who warned the presidents are not named. The premise about guerilla warfare not being won through military might is also not given an author. Finally, no specific number of American soldiers killed in Vietnam is mentioned. From the vagueness of the details, you can infer that the writer of this passage, though logical, is not prepared. Study this second passage, on William Shakespeare, and make an inference about the author (not Shakespeare!) from the details used. William Shakespeare has been critically appreciated for three centuries, and in each country he has been appreciated for different reasons. In the eighteenth century Samuel Johnson, a famous critic, praised Shakespeare for developing believable characters who mirrors the actions of real life. In the nineteenth century, another famous critic, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was particularly impressed with Shakespeares Hamlet, especially with the amazing and complex intellectual hero. Finally, in the beginning of the twentieth century, Andrew Bradley, one of the most well known critics of Shakespeare, was most impressed with the structure of Shakespeares tragedies. Do you see that the author of this paragraph has done careful research? Specific critics are named, and their significant comments are mentioned. You will tend to listen more carefully to this argument, because you have inferred that it is both logical and well documented. EXERCISE 83: Infer whether each of these ten paragraphs deserves consideration by determining whether it is supported with consistent, concise, and reliable details/ examples, or not. Choose A or B!

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1. A federal study on single person completed recently. The results showed that poor adult males were more likely to be single than wealthy adult males. The results for females were the opposite. Wealthy women were much more likely to be single than poor women. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 2. Information from a sample of 57,400 American households surveyed by the U.S. Census Bureau in March of 1990 indicates that the traditional American familya family consisting of two parents and children under the age of 18is on the decline. The traditional family made up only 40% of U.S. households in 1970, 31% in 1980, and 26 % in 1990. The more than 70 percent of households falling outside of the category traditional family includes households consisting of never-married parents and children, divorced parents and children, couples without children, parents and children over 18 years of age, people living alone, and unrelated adults living in the same household. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable.

3. David Harp and James Hogan, chemistry professors at McGill University, Montreal, Canada, believe that routine use of random seating and multiple version exams will eliminate cheating. According to them, universities have a moral obligation to prevent classroom from cheating because it causes ethical and intellectual damage. Harp said, Cheating punishes good students who work hard. To help put an end to cheating in the classroom, they developed two computer programs. Using these programs, in one study they analyzed test results of 1,000 students from two entry-level science classes. They found that about 50 of them probably had cheated. The study revealed that at least a 5 % level of cheating takes place on multiple choice exams. This was confirmed by analysis of test papers from other disciplines and from outside McGill University. Harp explained, The basis for the detection of cheating is the mental fingerprints students leave when they copy from one another. These fingerprints or patterns can easily be detected by statistical methods, which is the basis for their computer programs. The computer programs compare and consider the probability of pairs of students getting the same answers. Answer sheets of all pair of students are checked, and those with a predefined number of differences in their papers are flagged. In all cases, the programs look at the number of wrong answers students have in common, as well as the number they answered in the same way. If the ratio of one to the other exceeded a certain value, the pair of students were targeted as suspects. In every case they looked at, those students sat in close proximity to one another in the exam room.
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A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 4. Ruth McRoy conducted a study to write a paper assigned by his sociology professor in University of Texas. In the study she compared two groups of black middle-class teenagers. The teenagers in one group had been adopted by black families, while those in the other group had been adopted by white families. In the results she found no difference in the self-esteem of the members of the two groups; she did, however, note differences in the teenagers perception on their racial identity. One area in which this difference was evident was in dating and marriage. Those teenagers who had been brought up in black families tended to date and want to marry other blacks. The group raised by white parents had a tendency to minimize racial difference as an important factor in choosing a mate. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 5. According to the 1975 Statistical Abstract of the United States (Table 604), membership in American unions increased steadily from 19401970. In 1940 only 8.7 million workers were union members; by 1970 the number had more than doubled, to 19.4 million. The percentage of the working force belonging to unions was a different story. In 1940 15.5 percent of the total labor force belonged to unions; in 1970 the percentage of union members had increased only a few percentage points, to 22.6 percent. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 6. The term cultural genocide has been used to refer to situations in which whites are given custody of minority children. Members of both black and Native American communities have feared that transracial adoption threatens their cultural survival. This fear was a major factor in bringing about the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act, which was enacted to ensure the survival of the Native American culture. Before this legal measure was passed, studies conducted in the late 1960s and early 1970s found that between 25% and 35% of American Indian children were placed in institutions or in adoptive or foster care. (As reported in Time, May 2, 1988, p.64) and most were placed with nonIndian families. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 7. According to the Fisheries yearbook (1978), the catch of fish worldwide has increased between 1950 and 1970; then it leveled off between 1971 and 1976. Between 1950 and
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1970 the amount of fish caught in the world more than tripled from 21 billion kilograms to 70 billion kilograms. In 1971 the increase in the catch of fish stopped. Between 1971 and 1976 the catch of fish leveled off and fluctuated between 65 billion kilograms and 70 billion kilograms. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 8. It is now widely accepted that Christopher Columbus was not the first person to discover America. According to one group of scientists, the Vikings were definitely the first people from Europe or from the Mediterranean to cross the Atlantic to America. But according to another group of scientists, people from the Old World definitely reached parts of America before the Viking journeys of the eleventh century. In their opinion, the Phoenicians and the ancient Egyptians had the skills which were necessary for long journeys of exploration. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable. 9. A survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau on 57,400 American households in March of 1990 reveals some interesting trends in American family life. One finding was that while the rate of divorce and childbirth out of wedlock (involving couples not married) continued to increase, both of these phenomena increased at a slower pace during the 1980s than during the previous decade. But the number of unmarried couples living together appears to be increasing rapidly, with the number in the 1990 survey showing an 80 percent increase over the number in 1980. The second finding was that the long-term general trend toward smaller families was shown to continue. The size of the average American household kept on dropping, from 3.67 people in 1940, to 3.14 in 1970, to 2.76 in 1980, to low of 2.63 in 1990. A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are reliable. B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not reliable.

EXERCISE 84: In the following passage on aging you will be asked to make various inferences based on details, word choice, and terms of qualification. Read the passage carefully. Then choose the correct answer on the questions that follow.

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The Elderly Crisis Leon Bouvier in his Population Profile estimated that in 1976 there were 23 million elderly Americansthat is, those aged 65 or over. The number of elderly Americans is large and their problems are grave. The elderly face three major difficulties: financial insecurity, emotional isolation, and feelings of uselessness. In The sociology of Aging, Robert Atchley estimated that 60 percent of all the elderly were in the poverty category. Atchley defined the poverty level as the lower fifth of the income scale in the United States. He noted further that for 80 percent of elderly Americans, Social Security is the only means of support. This fact is alarming, because having to live solely on social security benefits would place most elderly Americans below the poverty level. A second trauma that elderly Americans must face is their isolation from the rest of society, either in rest home or in retirement communities. A consistent pattern in American society involves placing the elderly in rest home when they are physically or emotionally ill or in retirement community when they are no longer a part of the work force. These communities consist exclusively of early residents. Unlike the elderly in many European and Third World countries, the American elderly are frequently not allowed to stay within the households of their children and grandchildren. By being segregated into communities of elderly, the old frequently has little contact with children and adults. The result is that the elderly in the United States are generally waiting to die. A third related issue is the elderlys sense of uselessness, a belief that after retirement they do not have meaningful work left to do. Most elderly workers are forced to retire even though they are still physically and mentally healthy. Retirement is usually a period of boredom for the elderly, whose financial plight almost always restricts their travel. Also children of the elderly usually resent their parents interfering in the rearing of their children. Here a second opportunity for usefulness, the tending of children, is consistently denied to the elderly. In response to this problem of uselessness the elderly have organized such group as RSVP (Retired Service Volunteer Program) and SCORE (Service Corps of Retired Executives). The condition of the elderly in the United States has reached disgraceful proportions. The wisdom and experience of the elderly are resources that are left untapped. Rather than allowing the elderly to help raise and teach their grandchildren or the grandchildren of others, Americans have chosen to isolate their elderly, often in ghettos of economic and emotional poverty.

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1.

The reference to Leon Bouvier in paragraph 1: A. adds credibility to the paragraph. B. is a specific detail. C. is too general a detail. D. both (A) and (B) In paragraph 2 the reference to Robert Achley: A. do not logically support the topic sentence. B. present conflict information. C. adds credibility to the paragraph. D. both (A) and (B) The word trauma in the topic sentence of paragraph 3 suggests: A. severe pain B. mental health. C. shock. D. both (b) and (c) The details regarding RSVP and SCORE in paragraph 4: A. do not allow logically from the statements of the paragraph. B. are specific organization that the elderly can join. C. contradict the statement that the young ignore the elderly. D. all of these. The strongest, most suggestive term used in the first sentence of paragraph 5 is: A. condition B. elderly C. the United States D. disgraceful The last sentence in paragraph 5 refers to ghettos of economic and emotional poverty. Ghettos connotes: A. the suburbs B. segregation C. hope D. history The last sentence in paragraph 2 uses a term of qualification. It is: a. solely b. most c. below d. poverty

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8.

The second sentence in paragraph 3 uses a term of qualification. It is: A. a consistent pattern B. no C. longer D. retirement communities In paragraph 4 all the terms of qualification that are used suggest that: A. There is no doubt about the statements made. B. There is little doubt about the statements made. C. There is little doubt about the statements made. D. None of these is correct. There are no terms of qualification in this paragraph. The word crisis in the title, The Elderly Crisis, suggests that for the author the problems the elderly face are: A. minor B. moderate C. critical D. misunderstood

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10.

EXERCISE 85: The following is a passage based on fact with many inferences that are probably true. As you read, note the inferences and the facts, and answer the questions that follow. The Sinagua [1] Nine hundred years ago, in what is now north central Arizona, a volcano erupted and spewed fine cinders and ash over an area of about 800 square miles. The porous cinder layer formed a moisture-retaining agent that transformed the marginal farmland into a country of rich farmland. [2] Wood of this new oasis spread among the Indians of the Southwest, setting off a prehistoric land rush that brought together the Pueblo dry farmer from the east and north, the Hohokam irrigation farmer from the south, and probably Mongollon groups from the south and east and Cohonino groups from the west. Focal points of the immigrants were the stretches of land lying some 15 miles northeast and southeast of the volcano, bordering territory already occupied by the Sinagua Indians. [3] Nudged out of their now-crowded corners by the newcomers, some of the Sinagua moved to the south of the volcano to a canyon that offered building sites and a means of livelihood. Here they made their homes. [4] Remains of the Sinaguas home, built in the early 1100s, are now preserved in Walnut Canyon National monument; the cone of the benevolent volcano, in Sunset Crater National Monument; and part of the focal points of the immigrants in Wupatki national Monument. 1. (T / F) The first paragraph is mainly fact rather than inference.

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2. (T / F) 3. (T / F) 4. (T / F) 5. (T / F) 6. (T / F)

The first sentence of paragraph 2 is an inference. The information in the last sentence of paragraph 2 is based on inference. Paragraph 3 is mostly an inference. The last paragraph is mostly inference. Chances are that some day t this information will prove to be an error.

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