SURVEY-I

SURVEY I
INDEX SURVEYING. CHAIN SURVEY. COMPASS SURVEY. PLANE TABLE SURVEY.

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SURVEY-I SURVEYING It is the art of determining the relative position of the object on above or beneath the surface of earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of distance, direction, and elevation. It is also the art of establishing the object by pre-determined angular or linear measurements. The application of surveying requires skill as well as knowledge of mathematics, physics and to some extent astronomy. The primary division of surveying (basic) The basic classification of surveying is 1) Geodetic Surveying. 2) Plane Surveying. GEODETIC SURVEY :It is also called as trigonometrical survey. It is the type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into account. The objective of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position of surface of the earth of a system of widely distant object which form control station to conduct survey. PLANE SURVEYING :In case of plane survey the curvature of the earth is not taken into account. Has survey extent over small area. The object of surveying is to prepare the plans and maps of the given area. Surveying is the first stage for the execution of any project. Accurate maps helps in accurate alignment of roads, railing, canals, tunnels, transmission lines etc., with the help of the plans the structures are constructed on the ground. CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY :A) Survey is classified on the basis of nature of the field are:1) Land survey. 2) Marine survey (navigation) also called hydrographic. 3) Astronomical survey.

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SURVEY-I B) Classification based on objective of surveys (purpose of survey). 1) Engineering survey. 2) Military survey. 3) Mine survey. 4) Geological survey. 5) Archeological survey. C) Classification based on the instrument use. 1) Chain survey. 2) Compass survey. 3) Plane Table survey. 4) Tacometric survey. 5) Theodolite survey. 6) Triangulation survey. 7) Photography survey. 8) Aerial survey. PRINCIPLE OF SURVEY : The fundamental principles of one which the various methods of survey are based on. 1) Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference. (methods of locating a point) In this the point is located by measurement with reference of other two points. Example:-1

To locate the point C with respect to the other two point A and B, the distance AC and BC can be measured and point C can be plotted by swinging the arcs to which AB has been plotted. Example:-2

A perpendicular RS can be dropped on the reference line PQ, the length PS and QS are measured. The point R can be plotted by using set square or cross staff.

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SURVEY-I Example:3

The distance BC and the angle ABC () can be measured at the point C is located. (or) fixed wire protractor or by means of trigonometrically or by using campus or theodolite. 2) Working from whole to part. In this case whether is survey is plane or geodetic is to work from whole to part. It is very essential to establish first a system of controlled point (main survey station) and to fix them with higher precision. For horizontal control the point on established by triangulation or traversing. To do this triangulation the area should surveyed is divided into larger triangous which are measured with great accuracy. CHARACTER OF SURVEY - I The work of survey can be divided in to three destined parts. 1) Field work. 2) Office work. 3) Handling and adjustment of Instruments. Field work:It consist of measurement of distance and angle keeping a record of which the work has to be done. Example:1) Establishing station point and Bench mark at the point of reference. 2) Measuring distance along with the angle between the survey line. 3) To find the elevation of the object with respect to ground surface. Office work:1) Drafting. 2) Computing and designing. 3) Estimation.

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SURVEY-I Handling and adjustment of Instruments:The survey practice required experience in handling the equipment, adjusting used in field and office work.

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SURVEY-I ACCURACY AND ERRORS In dealing with the measurement it is important to distinguish between accuracy and precession. 1 2 Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained. Precession is the degree of perfection used in the instruments, the methods and the observation.

SOURCE OF ERRORS :The error arises from the following three sources. 1 2 3 Instrumental error. Personal error. Natural error.

Instrumental error:This type of errors may arises due to faulty adjustment of instrument or imperfections of instruments with which the measurement in been taken. Ex:A Chain or tape may be long or too short or angle measuring instrument may be out of adjustment.

Personal error:This error may arises due to lacking of perfection of human side in observing or Handling the instrument. Ex:While taking the reading or recording the measurements or handling the tape or faulty entering of reading may take place.

Natural error:This errors arises due to variation in natural phenomena such as temperature, Humidity, gravity, wind and magnetic declination. Ex:A twenty meter chain at 25 measures accurate length. But the same chain at 40 c temperature measures in correct length.

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SURVEY-I KINDS OF ERRORS :1. 2. 3. 1. Mistakes. Cumulative errors (systematic errors) Accidental errors (conceptual errors) Mistakes : This errors are arises from carelessness in handling line instruments in experiences or lacking of experiences and poor adjustment of instruments. 2. Cumulative errors : This errors are arises due to same mistake again and again while conducting the survey it is also called as systematic errors. 3. Accidental errors : Arises with out any notice. It may be changing in atmospheric phenomena. It is also called as compensating errors.

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SURVEY-I LINEAR MEASUREMENTS (Measuring of distance) There are various methods of making linear measurements and these relative merits depending up on the level of accuracy. These are main 2 methods. 1. 2. 1. Direct measurement. In-Direct measurement. Direct measurement:The distance are actually measured on the ground by means of chains or tapes or other linear measuring instruments. 2. In-Direct measurement:It is also called competitive measurements or obtained by calculations or in a Tachometry, telemetry, or triangulation. Instrument used in (DIRECT) measurement. The distance between objets are measured directly by using chain, speedometer, odometer, pedometer, pasometer etc., Speedometer :It is an instrument used to measure the distance approximately automatically it gives better result when it is used on smooth surface. Odometer:The distance approximately determined by using odometer it is a simple device and it is based on speedometer mechanism it is fixed to the wheel of vehicle, the number of revolutions of the wheel recorded by odometer. It can be multiplied by circumference of the wheel to get the distance. Passometer:It is an instrument like a watch carried in pocket or tied to one of the leg. The mechanism of this instrument is operated by the motion of the body or movement of the leg automatically registered. This can be multiplied by average length of the steps to get the distance. Pedometer:It is similar to passometer but smaller in size and it is directly registered that the distance traveled by the person when carrying it.

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SURVEY-I CHAINING :The most accurate and common methods of measuring the distance with chain or tape is called chaining. For ordinary work chain is used but where great accuracy is required a steel tape (steel band) is used to measure the distance. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING The various instruments are used to determine the length of a line (or) distance between the point by chaining are as follows:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 1) Chain or Tape. Arrows. Pegs. Ranging rods. Offset rods. Plumb bob. Cross Staff. CHAIN :- Chain are formed by straight link of galvanized mild steel wire of diameter 4mm bent into a ring at the ends and joined with each other by three small circular (or) oval rings. This rings offer flexibility of the chain. Usually the number of links in the chain is 100 to 150. The length of each link is the least count of the chain. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handle with swivel (pivot, ball bearing) joint so that the chain is turned easily without twisting. The length of each chain is measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of other handle. For each meter length a brass or metal tallies (flags) is provided. TYPE OF CHAINS:- (germs) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Metric Chain. Gunters Chain (or) Surveyors chain. Engineers Chain. Revenue Chain. Steel band or band chain.

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SURVEY-I METRIC CHAIN : Metric chain are generally available in a length of 5mtrs, 10mtrs, 20mtrs and 30mtrs. To enable the reading of fraction of chain without much difficulty . Tallies are fixed at every meter length for 5mtrs and 10mtrs length chain. In case of 20mtrs and 30mtrs chain the tallies are provided at 2mtrs or 5mtrs length and at every meter length a small brass ring are provided. The shape of the tallies for every 2 meters (or) 5 meters are different. The least count of this chain is 20cms measured from the center to the center ring at both the ends of the handle the total length of the chin are engraved at the end brass handle.

Figure: Metric Chain of 20mtrs length GUNTERS CHAIN : Gunters chain is 66 feet long and its consists of 100 links each link being 0.66 feet it is very convenient for measuring land survey and for measuring in distance in miles and furlongs. Note:10 Sq. chain 10 Gunter chain 1 Hectare 80 Gunter chain 2.5 acre = = = = = 1 acre. 1 furlong = 660 feet. 10,000 Sq.m 1 mile. 1 hectare.

ENGINEERS CHAIN : The length of engineers chain is 100 feet long and its consists of 100 links. Each link being 1 feet long. At every 10 links a brass tags are fastened. The distance measured in this chain are recorded in feet and its decimals. REVENUE CHAIN : Revenue chain is 33 feet long and it is divided into 16 links each links being 2 1/16 feet. This chain is usually used for measuring field (or) land in cadastral survey.

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SURVEY-I STEEL BAND (or) Band Chain : Steel band consists of a narrow strip of allied steel of uniform width 12 to 16mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6mm. The usual length of steel band is 20mtrs to 30mtrs. It is divided by brass studs (buttons) at every 20cms and numbered at every meter. The last and the first links are sub divided into cms and mile meter (mm) for convenient in handling and caring steel bands are mounted on special steel crosses. For accurate work steel bands should be always used in place of chain or tape. But care should be taken while handling steel band because it is easily broken and at the same time it is very difficult to repair in the spot itself. Usually steel band are used for testing and to check the accuracy of other chain because due to change in environmental condition steel band is not de-formed. Testing and adjusting chain

During continuous use, the length of a chain get altered, its length is shortened by mud logging (or) due to bending links on the other hand its length get elongated either due to stretching of the links and the joints and opening out of a small rings (or) due to ware and tear of chain. For accurate work it is necessary to check its length before commencing each day work and frequent intervals. Other wise the measurement will become variable. The chain is tested by comparing it with standard chain (or) with reference to steel band, some times it is very convenient to have a permanent test gauge established and the chain is tested by comparing with the test gauge at a regular intervals. The test gauge is installed (or) shown in the above figure with reference to steel band (or) band chain. The overall length of chain when measured at 8 kg (or) 80 Newton (N) {1kg = 10N} pull to check against the test gauge. Adjusting of chain when it is found to be long. 1) 2) 3) 4) Closing the joint or ring, when it open. Reshaping the elongated ring. Removing one (or) more smaller ring. Adjusting the links at the ends.

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SURVEY-I Adjusting the length of chain when it is found to be short. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Straightening the bending links. Replacing one (or) more smaller rings by bigger rings. Inserting additional circular rings. Adjusting the links at the ends. Flattening circular rings.

TAPES : Tapes are used for more accurate measurements and they are classified according to the materials of which types are made are as follows:1) Cloth tape. 2) Linen tape. 3) Metallic tape. 4) Metal wire tape. 5) Steel tape. 6) Inver tape. 1) Cloth or linen tape : This tape is usually used for measuring subsidiary measurements such as offset (or) perpendiculars. 2) Metallic tape : This tapes are available in a length of 5m, 10m, 20m, 30m and 50m. This tapes are made of varnished strip of water proof linen with brass, copper or steel wire. They do not stretch as easily as a cloth tape. Metallic tapes are light and flexible and they do not easily broken. 3) Steel tape : Steel tapes are available in a length of 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m etc., This tapes are good quality and accurate in graduation. It consists of light strip of metal of width 6mm to 10mm. It is provided with a brass ring (or) brass hook at the end. It is very delicate and is very light. Therefore it cannot withstand rough usage. 4) Invar tape : This tape are used for linear measurement for a very high accuracy such as measurement base line (main survey line). This tape is made of alloy of steel and nickel. It is very low co-efficient of linear expansion. This tapes are normally 6mm width and available in a length of 20m, 30m and 100m. This tape are also used to check (or) test the accuracy of chain.

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SURVEY-I ARROWS : Arrows are marking pins and are made up of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire of diameter 4mm. They are 400 mm 5mm in total length and point at one end for inserting in to the ground. The other end is bent into ring for easy handling. Some times a piece of white (or) red cloth (or) tape is tied to the ring so that they can be easily visible at a distance. The arrows are used to mark the end of each chain length. The arrow is inserted in the ground at the end of each chain, when the ground is hard a scratch (or) mark is made with the pointed end of the arrow. PEGS : Pegs are used to mark the position of stations. They are made up of hard timber. They are usually 25mm x 25mm square section and 150mm (15cm) length. They are driven in the ground with the help of wooden hammer and kept project above the ground surface of about 30mm 50mm. Some times iron pegs are also used instead of wooden pegs. RANGING ROD : Ranging rods are used for making the position of the station and for ranging the lines. They are made up of well seasoned straight timber. They are circular (or) octogonal in cross section of normal diameter of 30mm. A metallic shoe is provided at the lower end of length about 15 cm. The ranging rods are made up of two sizes. 1) 2mtrs length. 2) 3mtrs length. In order to make easy visible at a distance they are painted alternatively with black and white or red and white (or) red, white and black. For still easy visible for a considerable longer distance a red, white (or) yellow flag about 25cms square should be tightened at the top. OFFSET ROD : It is similar to the ranging rod the top is provided with notch or hook. The notch facilitate pulling the chain through edges in any obstruction on the ground. The other end of a offset rod is provided with metal shoe. This rods mainly used for measuring and alignment of offset lines.

PLUMB BOB : ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 13

SURVEY-I It is required when chaining along sloping ground to transfer the point to the ground. It is also used to make ranging pole vertically and to transfer point from line ranger to the ground. In addition to it, also used to transfer the center point in compass survey, plane table surveying and other surveying instrument. RANGING OUT SURVEY LINE : In measuring the length of a survey line (or) chain line. It is necessary that the chain should be laid on ground and stretched between the ends of stations. The length of a survey line is with in the length of a chain (or) tape (or) shorter then the length of a chain (or) tape, there will be no difficulty to range a line. If the length of a survey line exceed the length of a chain (or) tape and stations are invisible. In that case some intermediate points will have to be established in line with the two terminal point (end points) before chaining is starts is called ranging. RANGING : The process of fixing (or) establishing intermediate points for chaining in known as ranging. There are two methods of ranging : a) Direct Ranging. b) In-Direct Ranging. DIRECT RANGING :- (sight ranging). Direct ranging is done when the two ends of the survey lines are inter visible. In such cases ranging can be done by sighting or through some optical instruments such as line ranger * (or) theodolite.

Let A & B are the two end points of a survey line. The ranging rods is erected and the surveyor with the another ranging rod at A. The assistant with ranging rod establishes a point approximately in the line AB at a distance of about one chain length from A. The surveyor at `A then signals the assistant to move transversely to the chain line AB, till he is in the align with AB and fix the point P is exactly on survey line `AB. Similarly establish two more points Q R etc., on the line AB. * Ranging by line ranger : ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 14

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A line ranger consists of two plane mirror (or) two right angled optical prisms placed one above the other. To range a point P, the two ranging rods erected at A and B, the surveyor at P hold the line ranger very near to P by sight observation. The lower prism abc receives the ray from A and the upper prism dbc receives the rays from B which are reflected by the diagonal bd towards the observer. The images of the ranging rods at A and B which may not be in the same vertical line (or) may be in the same vertical line. If the images are not in a same vertical line the surveyor then moves with instrument transverse till the two images are in the same line. After getting the point P it is transferred to the survey line (ground surface) by using plumb bob. Similarly to establish other intermediate points. IN-DIRECT RANGING OR (RECIPROCAL RANGING) :It is also called as reciprocal ranging. When both the ends of a survey line are not inter visible either due to high intervention (inter wining) ground or due to long distance between them.

In this method the ranging is done indirectly by selecting two intermediate points M2 and N2 very near to chain line, in such a way that from M2 both N2 and B are visible and from N2 both M2 and A are visible. The two survey stations at M2 and N2 with ranging rods the person at M2, then direct the person N2 to move to the new point N1 in the line with M2B. The person at N1, then direct the person M2 to move to the new point M1 in the line with N1A.

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SURVEY-I The process is repeated till the point M and N are located in such a way that the person at M finds the person at N in line with MB and the person at N finds the persons at M in line with NA. After getting the point M and N, they are transferred to the ground by plumb bob. If any intermediate point is required it is established by direct ranging. CHAINING ON UNEVEN or SLOPING GROUND : The distance required for plotting purpose, the horizontal distance between the point is very essential. Therefore horizontal distance between the points are measured with the help of sloping distance reducing into horizontal distance. The are two methods of getting horizontal distance on sloping ground are:1) Direct Methods. 2) In-Direct Methods. Direct Methods : This method is also called as method of stepping. In this method, the horizontal distance is measured on the sloping ground by the process of stepping which consist of measuring the line in short horizontal length. The sum of the short horizontal length in each step is the total horizontal distance between the required points on the ground.

In-Direct Methods : When slope of the ground is long and gentle the distance may be measured more quickly and accurately along the slope of the ground by stepping method. The slope are measured by Clinometer or abiney level or the difference in elevation between the successive point is determined by a level (or) hand level. By showing the angle of slope of the ground and the slope distance the horizontal distance may be computed by several methods that is 1) Angle measured methods. 2) Difference in level method. 3) Hypotenus allowance method etc.,

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SURVEY-I 1) Angle measured methods :As shown in figure D1 is the measured inclined length between the point AC with sloping angle 1, there fore the horizontal distance L1 = D1 . Cos 1 ( Cos = adj / hyp) = L1 / D1. Similarly, the horizontal length L2 = D2 Cos 2. The total horizontal distance between point AB is L = L1 + L2. The angle of the slope 1 & 2 are measured with help of abiney level or Clinometer. 2) Difference in Level method : In place of measuring the sloping angle , the difference in the level between the point is measured with the help of a level measuring instrument and the horizontal distance is calculated as follows: D2 = L2 + H2 L2 = H2 - D2 L = D2 - H2 Where H is the difference in level between the point C and B is the vertical height required b/w AB. D is the sloping length between point AB. The horizontal distance between the points is L = D2 - H2 In this method a correction is applied in the field at every chain length and at every point, where the slope changes. The slope measured is generally expressed as the slope angle in radians. Therefore = 1/n radians, where n is the unit of horizontal distance. The distance B to B1 is called as hypotenusal allowance. The distance B to B1 ( 1 Chain x Sec 1) , where is the slope in radians.

3) Hypotenus allowance method :

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SURVEY-I ERROR IN LENGTH DUE TO IN-CORRECT CHAIN : It may be noted that the measurement taken with a chain which is too long, longer than the standard length / too shorter then the standard length can be corrected by calculations by using the formula given below. In-correct length of a chain or tape (L1) The length of line (l) = ------------------------------------------------ x Measured length of Correct length of a chain or tape (L) a line (l1). L1 l = ------ x l1 L 1 Where, L is the incorrect length of a chain used. L is the correct length of a chain / true length of a chain. l1 is the measured length of a line which is measured by the incorrect chain. l is the true length of a survey line or actual survey line. Note : 1) If the chain is too long, the measured length of survey line is short, that is its true length is short. The error is positive and correction is negative. If the chain is too short, the measured length of survey line is long, that is its true length is long. The error is negative and correction is positive.

2)

ERROR IN AREA DUE TO INCORRECT CHAIN : Measured area x In-correct length of chain Actual (or) True area = --------------------------------------------------Correct length of chain. A1 x L1 A = --------- in Smt L ERROR IN VOLUME DUE TO INCORRECT CHAIN : Measured volume x Incorrect length of chain Actual (or) True volume = ------------------------------------------------------Correct length of chain. V1 x L1 V = --------- in Cmt L CHAIN (or) TAPE CORRECTIONS : ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 18

SURVEY-I We know that, the difference in different source of error in linear measurement. In most of the error, proper correction can be applied. In ordinary chaining corrections are not necessary, but in important and precious work corrections must be applied. In most of the cases a tape is used for the precious work. The correction are called as tape corrections. They can also be applied to the measurements taken with a chain (or) steel band. The correction is positive, when the uncorrected length is increased. The correction is negative, when it is decreased to get the true length. Following are the correction applied to measure the length of a line to obtain the true length. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Correction for absolute length (or) standard length. Correction for slope. Correction for temperature. Correction for pull (or) tension. Correction for sag. Correction for absolute length (or) standard length : It is the usual practice to express the absolute length of tape (or) chain has its normal (or) designated length either positive correction (or) negative correction. The correction for measured length is given by the formula. LxC CA = --------- , d Where,CA Correction for absolute length. L Measured length of a chain. C Correction of a tape (or) chain. d Designated (or) standard length of chain or tape.

Correction for slope : The distance measured along the slope is always greater than the distance measured in horizontal, hence the correction is always negative. _____ C = L L2 h2 Where, L measured length of line. h elevation between the point.

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SURVEY-I Correction for temperature : It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape (or) chain is increased due to increase in temperature and consequently the measured distance is too short. Ct = L (Tm To) Where, - is co-efficient of linear expansion of chain material. L - is the measured length. Tm the mean temperature in the field during measurement. To is the standard temperature of tape. Correction for Pull (or) Tension : This correction is necessary when the chain (or) tape is pulled during measurement. (P Po) L Cp = -----------AE Where, P is pull applied during measurement. Po is the pull at which the chain is standardised L is the measured length. A is cross sectional area of a tape (or) chain. E is elastic modulus of the chain (or) tape materials.

Correction for Sag : When chain (or) tape is stretched between the two points it will be sagged in the form of a parabolic curve. The correction for sag is the difference in length between area under subtended chain. l ( w l) 2 Cs = -----------24 P2

Where, Cs is the correction for sag. l is the distance b/w the points. w is the weight of a tape (or) chain. P is the applied pull in Kgs. (or) in Newtons (N) or KN.

Note :- 1 Kg 10 N.

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SURVEY-I ERROR IN CHAINING The error that can occur during chain are classified as 1) Cumulative error. 2) Compensative error. Cumulative error : Cumulative error may be due to natural causes such as variation in temperature, defects is constructions and adjustment of the instruments (or) personal errors in vision or etc.,

Compensative error :Compensative error are those error which are occurring on either direction and hence tends to compensate that is they are likely to make the apparent result too large (or) too small. The error in chaining may cumulative (or) compensating error may arise for the following reasons. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Bad ranging. By using incorrect length of chain (or) tape. Due to bad alignment and straighting. Due to sag in chain. Due to non horizontality. Due to personal mistakes. Due to variation in temperature.

Error in chaining may occur due to following reasons : 1) 2) 3) 4) In correct holding of a chain. When the chain angle are set out with chain which is not uniformly adjusted. The fractional fact of a chain (or) tape may not be correct before the work starts. During chaining in slope (or) stepped ground the stepping operations may be incorrect such as dropping the vertical (or) dropping hammer (or) plumb bob. POSITIVE ERROR : Positive error making the measurement length more than the actual length. NEGATIVE ERROR : The measurement length is less than then actual length.

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SURVEY-I

CHAIN SURVEY
It is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurement are made in the field, non of the angular measurements are taken. Land Surveying Land surveying are conducted for the following purposes. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) To secure data for exact description of boundary of the piece of land. To determine the area. To secure the necessary data for procuring a plan. To re-establish the boundary of the land which has been previously surveyed. To divide the boundary of the land into no. of unit.

Methods of land surveying. 1) Triangulation and Transverse. 2) Survey station. Survey station is a permanent point on the chain line, it can be either at the beginning of the chain line (or) at the end. It is also known as main station. The subsidiary (or) tie stations are also selected on chain line (or) tie line. The survey stations marked on the ground by driving pegs. The survey station can be located by marking two (or) three reference permanent objects near the station. Survey stations command the total work in the field. Conditions to be fulfilled by survey line and survey stations : 1) Survey stations must be mutually / visible. 2) The survey line must be few as possible, so that the frame work can be plotted conveniently. 3) The survey line can run through a level ground as possible. 4) The main survey line should form well conditioned triangles. 5) Each triangle should be provided with at least one check line. 6) As far as possible the main survey line should not pass through obstacle. SURVEY LINE : The line pointing the main survey station is called main survey line. It is also called as base line (or) check line. This are the lines which are run in the field to check the accuracy of the work. The length of a check line measured in the field should agree with its, length on the plan.

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SURVEY-I They are used to complete the check on the field measurement as well as the accuracy of the plotting wok. The check line may be laid by joining the triangle to any point on the opposite side by joining any two points of the triangle. The check line is also called as proof line. TIE LINE : This are the lines which joins subsidiary (or) tie stations to the main line. The main object of running the tie line is to take the details of near by objects. It also serves purpose of the check line. The accuracy in the location of objects depends upon the accuracy of laying the tie line.

STEPS IN CHAIN SURVEYING The chain surveying can be done in the following steps :1) Reconnaissance. 2) Marking and fixing survey station. 3) Running the survey line. RECONNAISSANCE : It is the first principle of any type of surveying is to work from whole to part. It is the first survey conducted before starting the any work. The primary (or) the preliminary introduction of the area to be surveyed. (to known the topographical condition of the area) is called reconnaissance. During reconnaissance a reference sketch of the ground should be prepared and general arrangements of lines future of the ground are shown roughly. MARKING AND FIXING SURVEY STATION : The requirement of selection of survey station have been discussed. They should be marked to enable them to be easily discovered during the progress of work. Following are the some of the methods of marking survey stations. If the ground is soft, wooden pegs are driven and on top of the pegs the name of a station written. If the station point is on the hard ground (or) on the road, it is marked by using nail (or) spikes. The station to be used for very long time, a stone (or) any standard shape of the object may be embedded in the ground and fixed with cement concrete (or) mortar. On the top of the stone the names are marked, may be written in the depression (engraved).

RUNNING SUVEY LINE : ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 23

SURVEY-I After completing the primary works the chain survey may be stated from the base line and carried through out the line of the frame work as continuously as possible. The routine of running a survey line consists in chaining the line and locate it from the near by details (object). After this the chain is stretched in the true alignment and arrows are inserted. Enter the detail measurement in the field book. The process of chaining and off setting and entry of the measurement is repeated until the end of the last point. It is known as running survey line. GROUND FEATURES : 1) Off Sets : An offset is a lateral distance of an object (or) ground futures measured from the survey line. The point (or) object is located by measurement of a distance and the angle from the point on a survey line. When the angle of offset is 90 degree it is called perpendicular offset. (or) some time when the angle other then 90 degree is called oblique offset.

Some time the position of the object is located other than the offset is called ties. In which the distance of the object is measured from two separate points on the chain line. The offset should be taken when ever out line of the object changes. In case of straight wall and boundaries, the offset is taken at the end is sufficient. When ever the boundary is irregular a sufficient no. of offsets are taken at suitable internal and at the change in direction also.

In case of valley (or) river an offset should be taken on both sides.

In case of irregular curves with constant width an offset should be taken to centerline only and the width of the curve should also be measured.

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SURVEY-I FIELD BOOK : The book in which survey work is recorded by measurements and sketches is called field book. It is a long book of size 20cms x 12cms and opening length wise. There are two forms of field book. a. Single line field book. b. Double line field book. a. Single line field book : A single red line is drawn in the middle of each page. It represents the survey or chain line on this line we write the distance along the chain line or center line. The offset are written opposite to the right or left according as they are right or left of the survey line. Single line field book is convenient for large scale and much detailed works. b. Double line field book : It is similarly to the single line field book but instead of single red line three are two double blue lines with a spacing of 1.25 cms to 1.5 cms at the center of each page. In this column we enter the chain length. The space on either side of the columns is utilized for drawing sketches of the objects located from the chain line and for writing offset and any notes and positions from the chain line. The double line field book is used for common works and it is commonly used FIELD WORK : I. The equipments or Instruments used for field work are as follows: 1. Chain (metric chain usually 20 mtrs length) 2. Arrows (10 nos minimum). 3. Ranging rods (2 nos minimum). 4. Offset rods ( 2 nos minimum). 5. Instruments for set out right angle (cross staff or optical square). 6. Field book with pencil. 7. Plumb boob. 8. Pegs. 9. Wooden hammer. 10. Nail. 11. Paint or chaks. 12. Tape ( 10 or 20 mtrs length). II. STEPS IN CHAIN SURVEYING : Chain surveying can be done in following steps. 1. Reconnaissance. 2. Marking and fixing of survey station. 3. Running survey line. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 25

SURVEY-I III. INSTRUMENTS USED FOR SETTING OF 90 degree (right angle).

a. Cross staff : It is the simplest instrument used for setting of right angle it consists of a frame or box with two pairs of vertical splits and is mounted on a pole for fixing in the ground. The common type of cross staff used are: 1. wooden cross staff. 2. Open cross staff. 3. French cross staff. 4. Adjustable cross staff. 5. Optical square. 6. Prism square. 1. Wooden cross staff : It is a 100mm to 150mm square with 25mm thick wooden piece in that two pairs of vertical splits are cut by using axis for depth of about 10mm it is mounted on a wooden pole by using this we range only perpendicular offset to the chain line.

2. Open cross staff :

It is a simplest form of cross staff it consists of two parts that is head and leg. It is provided with two pairs of vertical slits and giving two lines of sight at right angle with each other. The cross top is setup at the paint on the survey line from where we draw right angle to the survey line. It is mounted on the survey line one pair of the slit along the survey line and other pair is automatically perpendicular to the survey line. It is a octagonal shape brass or MS box with slits on four sides on alternative vertical focus. There is vertical window with vertical fine wire on each of the 4 windows. These are used to set out right angle offsets and also set out 45 degree and 30 degree oblique offsets.

3. French cross staff :

4. Adjustable cross staff :

It consists of a two brass cylinders of about 8 cms in diameter and 10 cms height each placed one on the top of the other both are provided with sighting slit upper cylinder as a verner scale and can be rotated relative to the lower by a circular rack and pinion arrangement. The lower cylinder is marked in degrees and there sub divisions by using this it is possible to set out on offset of any angle.

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SURVEY-I 5. Optical square : Optical square is more accurate and convenient for setting out a line at right angle to another line when compare to other cross staffs. It consists of circular box with three splits at E, F & G as shown in fig. A ray from ranging rod Q passes through an silvered faces of mirror B and is observed directly through slit E and another ray from ranging rod P receives by the mirror A is reflect towards the mirror B and again it reflects towards the observer at the slit E the image of the object P and Q are visible at mirror B. If both the images are in same vertical line it shows the line PD & QD will be right angle to each other. 6. Prism Square : It is most suitable and modern instrument used for set out right angle it is designed based on the same principle of optical square and its operation is similar to the optical square. But it does not require any adjustment. It is unaffected by dust and humidity and it can be used in poor light.

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SURVEY-I OBSTRUCTIONS IN CHAIN SURVEY. Obstacles in chaining prevent a chain man (or) surveyor from measuring directly between the two points and give raise to setup a problem in which distance are found by indirect measurements. The obstructions such as building, hills, river, pound, thick forest, bushes etc., The obstructions in chaining are of three kinds : 1) The obstacles to ranging but not for chaining. 2) The obstacles to chaining but not for ranging. 3) Obstacles to both chaining and ranging. OBSTACLES TO RANGING BUT NOT FOR CHAINING. In this type of obstacles, the ends are not invisible and it is quite common in except flat surface. Example : A rising ground (elevated ground), Hill, Mountain. In this case there may be of two cases to be considered. 1) Both ends of the line may be visible from intermediate point on the line. 2) Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate point on the line. 1) The first type is solved by indirect ranging. (reciprocal ranging). 2) The second case is solved by the following procedure. This problem is arises, when a dense forest (or) bush come across the survey line.

A line AB is a true line (or) chain line (or) survey line and the point B is not visible due to obstruction. From A draw a random line at any convenient length but it is as far as possible very close to chain line. The point B should be chosen that it is visible from point B and draw a perpendicular offset from point B to B and measure its length. Similarly mark the point C,D and draw the perpendicular offset. By the property of similar triangles that is triangle ADD, ACC, and triangle ABB. DD CC BB

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SURVEY-I ----- = ----- = ------ so that we get the length of line AB. AD AC AB The length of a AB is equal to the length of A to B OBSTACLES TO CHAINING BUT NOT FOR RANGING. In this case the end of the survey line are inter-visible, but it is not possible to measure directly. Example: River, Pond, etc., In this case also there are two type of obstacles araises. 1) When it possible to chain across the obstacles ex. Pond (or) Hill. a)

Select two points A and B draw equal perpendicular offsets AA and BB they are equal to each other, the length AB is the actual length of AB, that is the width of pond. b) BC2 = AC2 + AB2 AB = BC2 AC2 Select a points A and B on either side of the obstacle, draw a perpendicular offset from A. Select a point C and from C range towards B. The length of AB is calculated by applying Pythagoras theorem. 2) When it is not possible to chain around the obstacle. Example. a) Flowing river. Method - 1

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SURVEY-I Select a point A and B on the opposite bank of the river C is the point on line AB towards A. At A and C draw the perpendicular lines range from B and mark the point D and E on the perpendicular line drawn from A and C respectively. Measure AC, AD, and CF. From D draw a line parallel to AC. We get the point F on CE as shown in figure. By property of similar triangle, triangle ABD and triangle FDE. AB DF ---- = ----AD FE DF Therefore AB = ----- x AD. FE Where, AB is the width of river. Method 2

Select two points AB on the opposite bank of a river as shown in figure. Draw a perpendicular offset from A that is AD bisect AD and get the point C. Draw another perpendicular offset DE it is parallel to the line AB. Mark a point E in the line with CB then extent. By the property of similar triangle ABC and triangle CDE. AB DE ---- = -----AC CD Method 3 therefore, DE AB = ------ x AC. CD

Select two points A and B on the opposite sides of the bank of the river from A draw a perpendicular offset AB from D draw other perpendicular offset DC on the extension line AB towards A. By the property of similar triangle Triangle ABD and triangle ADC.

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SURVEY-I AB AD ----- = -----AD AC AD2 therefore, AB = ----- Where, AB is the width of the river. AC

OBSTACLES TO BOTH CHAINING AND RANGING. In this case the problem consists in prolonging the line behind the obstacle and determines the distance across it. Ex: Building. Method 1

Select a point B on one side of the survey line PQ as shown in fig. From B erect a perpendicular BE mark another point A on the survey line so the BE = AB. Join AE and produce it to point G with the help of optical square set out line DG is drawn right angle to AG. The point D is on the other side of the survey line. The length of GD = GA. With D as a center and radius = AB draw an Arc it cuts the survey line C similarly with F as a center and BE as a radius drawn another Arc they are intersect at point C. Now the point EF is another side of the survey line. The length of the obstacle BC = EF. b)

Select a point B on one side of a survey line PQ. Select another point A on the same side with AB as radius and A as center drawn one arc, with same radius B as the center draw another arc, they are intersect at point E. From A draw a line past through E. Similarly, on the other side of a survey mark the point C and D. CD = AB, C and D as a center and AB as radius draw an Arc they are intersect at point F. From D through F draw a line in intersect the previous line drawn from A at A as shown in figure. Mark a point G on a line KA and mark a point H on a line KD. Such that KG = KH, Join GH . The equilateral triangle GHK the length of BC = AD (AB + CD) = AK (AB + CD) = KD (AB + CD)

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SURVEY-I COMPASS SURVEY When the area to be surveyed is comparatively small and is fairly flat, in such cases chain surveying is suitable. However when large area are involved chain surveying alone are not sufficient and convenient . In such cases it is very essential to use some sort of instruments which enable angle and direction of the survey line to be observed. Following are the instruments used for such measurements for direct measurement of direction are : 1) Prismatic compass. 2) Surveyors compass. Instruments for measurement of angle are 1) Sextant. 2) Theodolite. PRISMATIC COMPASS :

It is the most convenient and portable form of a magnetic compass. Which can be either used as hand instruments (or) can be fitted on the tripod. In this instrument the magnetic needle is attached to the circular ring compass can be made up of aluminium a non magnetic substance and it is graduated from 00 to 3600. 3600 (or) 00 reading is engraved on the south end of the ring. The reading increase in clockwise direction. When the needle is on the pivot it will orient itself in the magnetic meridian and therefore north and south end of the ring will be in this

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SURVEY-I direction. The line of sight is defined by the object vane and the eye slit both attached to the compass box. When an object is sighted the sight vane will rotate with respect to the North-South end of the ring through an angle which the line makes with the magnetic meridian. A triangular prism is fitted below the eye slit having suitable arrangement for focusing to suitable different eye sights. The prism has both vertical and horizontal faces so that a magnified image of the ring graduation is formed. The greatest advantage of prismatic compass is that both sighting the object as well as reading can be done simultaneously with out changing the position of the observer (eye). Adjustment of Prismatic compass : Following are the adjustment usually necessary in prismatic compass. 1) Station (or) Temporary adjustments. a. Centering. b. Leveling. c. Focusing the prism. 2) Permanent adjustments. a. Adjustment of level. b. Adjustment of site vane. c. Adjustment of needle. d. Adjustment of pivot point. Station (or) Temporary Adjustment. a) Centering : It is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over the station. The centering of the prismatic compass is by using plumb bob. If it is not available it may be adjusted by dropping pebble from the center of the bottom of the instrument. It is done by adjusting (or) manipulating the leg of the tripod. If the instrument is a hand instrument it must be held in the hand in such a way that the graduated disc is swinging (or) rotating freely and appears to be level. Generally a tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement with the help of disc the box can be leveled.

b) Levelling :

c) Focusing the prism: The prism attachment is slided up (or) down for focusing till the reading are seen clearly and to be sharp.

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SURVEY-I Permanent adjustment : Permanent adjustments are done only when the fundamental relation between the components (or) parts are disordered (or) disturbed. It consists of a) Adjustment of Level : The instrument is leveled by movement of the foot screw provided in the instrument.

b) Adjustment of Sight vane:To bring the sight vane in a vertical plane when the instrument is leveled. In the object vane vertical hair (or) thread slit in the sight vane are not seen parallel to the plumb line in such case replace the effected part. c) Adjustment of needle : The needle is adjusted for sensitivity, balancing, straightening vertically horizontally and re-magnetised (or) replaced.

d) Adjustment of pivot point : To bring the pivot point exactly to the center of the graduate circle. If it is not correct sharpened the pivot point (or) replace the pivot pin. SURVEYORS COMPASS :

In case of surveyors compass graduated ring is directly attached to the box. The needle is freely float over the pivot. The graduated ring is not oriented in magnetic meridian. The eye vane consist of simple metal with a fine slit. In surveyors compass prism is not provided. The object is to be sighted first and the reading is taken against the north end of the needle by looking vertically through the top of the glass. The line of sight in magnetic meridian the north and south end of the needle are over 00 N and 00 S. The graduation is in quadrantal bearing system having 00 at North and South and 900 at East and West.

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SURVEY-I COMPARITION BETWEEN PRISMATIC COMPASS AND SURVEYORS COMPASS. Sl.N o 1. 2. Items Magnetic needle Graduated ring Prismatic Compass The magnetic needle is broad needle type. The needle does not act as index. a) The graduated ring is attached to the needle, the needle does not rotate along with the line sight. b) The graduation is whole circle bearing system having 00 at south and 900 at west, 1800 at North and 2700 at East. c) The graduations are engraved inverted. In both the cases it is similar. a) The reading is taken with the help of the prism provided at the eye vane. b) The sighting and reading can be done simultaneously from one position of the observer. Tripod stand may (or) may not be required. Surveyors Compass The needle is a edge bar type and it is act as index. a) The graduated ring attached to the box. The ring rotates along with the line of sight. b) The graduation is in quadrantal bearing system (QPS) having 00 at N S, 900 at E and N. c) The graduations are engraved direct. Similar a) The reading is taken by directly seeing of top of the glass. b) The sighting and reading cannot be done simultaneously from one position of observer. Tripod stand is must.

3. 4.

Sighting vane Reading

5.

Tripod stand

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SURVEY-I Bearings and Angle of a Line Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the line makes with some reference direction (or) meridian. The angle is the relation between the two lines with each other. Bearing of a line Bearing of a line is its direction related to the given meridian. The meridian are : 1) True meridian. 2) Magnetic meridian. 3) Arbitrary meridian.

True meridian :

The point of intersection of the earth axis and the surface of the earth axis. The surface of the earth are known as North geographical pole and south geographical pole. The true meridian is the point in which the plane passes through that point.

Magnetic meridian : Magnetic meridian is the meridian passes through a point the direction shown by freely floating and balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. Arbitrary meridian : For small survey works the convenient direction may be taken as a meridian. It is usually the direction from a survey station to some well known permanent object. Bearings are : 1) True Bearing. 2) Magnetic Bearing. 3) Arbitrary Bearing. True bearing : Magnetic bearing : True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with true meridian through one of the extremities of the line.

The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the magnetic meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic compass is used to measure the magnetic bearing.

Arbitrary bearing : Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with any arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities. To measure the arbitrary bearing by using theodolite and sextant.

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SURVEY-I Designation of a bearing (or) system bearing. There are two system bearings that is 1. Whole circle bearing system (WCB) - It is also called azimuthal system. 2. Quadrantal bearing system (QB) It is also called as reduced bearing system. Whole circle bearing system :

In this system bearing of a line is always measured clock wise from the `N point of the reference meridian towards the line right round the circle. The angle thus measured is whole circle bearing. It may have any value between 00 to 3600.

Quadrantal bearing system :

In this system the bearing of a line is measured clock wise (or) anti clock wise from the North point (or) South point which ever is nearer to the line. Thus both North and South are used reference meridian. This bearings are observed by using surveyor compass.

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SURVEY-I

CONVERSION OF BEARINGS FROM ONE SYSTEM TO THE OTHER a) Whole circle bearing to reduced bearing (WCB to RCB).

W.C.B b/w

Rule for R.B

Quadrant

00 and 900 900 and 1800 1800 and 2700 2700 and 3600

R.B = W.C.B R.B = 1800 - W.C.B R.B = W.C.B - 1800 R.B = 3600 - W.C.B

NE SE SW NW

Conversion of W.C.B INTO R.B b) Reduced bearing to Whole circle bearing (RCB to WCB).

W.C.B b/w

Rule for W.C.B

Quadrant

00 and 900 900 and 1800 1800 and 2700 2700 and 3600 Conversion of R.B INTO W.C.B

W.C.B = R.B W.C.B = 1800 R.B W.C.B = 1800 + R.B W.C.B = 3600 - R.B

NE SE SW NW

Convert the following whole circle bearing into quadrantal bearing. WCB 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 320 20 165030 222015 335050 1850 780 285005 R.B N 32020 E = N32020E 0 0 S 180 - 165 30E = S14030E S 222015 180W = S 42015W 0 0 N 360 - 335 50W = N 24010W S 1850 - 1800 W = S 50 W N 780 E = N 780 E 0 0 N 360 - 285 05 W = N 74055W

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SURVEY-I Convert the following WCB to RB and RB to WCB WCB 1. 2. 3. 4. 1650 45 2100 30 3500 40 500 55 RB 1. 2. 3. 4. N 450 45E N 260 60W S 300 30 W S 400 40 E Same 3600 - 260 60 1800 + 300 30 1800 - 400 40 = = = = 1800 - 165045 2100 30 - 1800 = 3600 - 350040 500 55 RB = S 14015E 0 S 30 30W = N 90 20W = N 500 55 E WCB 450 45 3330 2100 30 1390 20

FORE BEARING AND BACK BEARING FORE BEARING Every line has two bearings one obtained at each end of the line. The bearing of the line is the direction of the progress of survey is called Fore bearing. (or) is also called as Forward bearing. It is represented by FB. While the bearing in opposite direction is known as Back bearing. It is also called as reverse bearing it is represented by RB. The bearing 2 is the back bearing of the line AB. The end of a line at which the bearing taken is indicated by the order in which the line named (end A, end B). As shown in the Figure the bearing from A to B is the forward bearing of a line AB and that from B to A is the back bearing of a line AB. BACK BEARING The bearing of a line BA is will be noted that the Fore bearing and back bearing of a line differ exactly by 1800 as shown in figure. In the WCB system the back bearing of a line is FB 1800

BB = FB 1800

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SURVEY-I In WCB system Use positive sign if the given fore bearing is less then 1800. Use negative sign if the given fore bearing is greater than 1800 If FB or BB > 1800, apply - 1800 to the given angle. FB or BB < 1800, apply + 180 to the given angle.

In RB (or) quadrantal bearing system the FB and RB are numerically equal but with opposite letter. Two back bearings of a line may therefore be obtained by substituting N for S (or) S for N and E for W (or) W for E. The Fore bearing of a line AB is N 400 40 E The Back bearing of line AB is S 400 40 W Similarly The Fore bearing of a line CD is S 300 30 W The Back bearing of line CD is N 300 30 E

Find the Back bearing of the following lines when the forward bearing is as given below : Line 1. 2. 3. 4. AB BC CD DE FB 380 14 1520 32 2150 42 3080 20 380 14 + 1800 1520 32 + 1800 2150 42 - 1800 350 42 3080 20 1800 1280 20 BB 2180 14 3320 32

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SURVEY-I Convert the following Back bearing into forward bearing. BB 1. Line AB 2. Line BC 3. Line CD 4. Line DE 3480 42 1070 12 2100 05 390 54 3480 42 1800 1070 12 + 1800 2100 05 - 1800 390 54 + 1800 300 05 2190 54 FB 1680 42 2870 12

Convert the given WCB into RB. WCB 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 420 15 3240 34 2850 7 1920 19 1790 56 830 47 420 15 3600 - 3240 34 3600 - 2850 7 1920 19 - 1800 1790 56 - 1800 830 47 RB N 420 15 E N 360 34 W N 750 7 W S 120 19 W S 10 56 E N 830 47 E

Convert the following RB into WCB. RB 1. 2. 3. 4. N 200 48 W S 820 34 E N 640 16 E S 100 58 W 3600 - 200 48 1800 - 820 34 640 16 1800 + 100 58 WCB 3400 48 980 34 640 16 1900 58

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SURVEY-I Calculation of angles from bearing.

is interior angle. is exterior angle. = (360- 2) + 1

Fig-1

Fig-2

When two lines meet at a point two angles are formed ie., interior () and exterior angle () the sum of these two angle is equal to 3600. The interior angle is usual the smaller one when compared to exterior angle. The following rule may be applied to find the interior angle between the lines whos bearing are given. 1) When the bearing of two lines measured from the point of intersection of the lines are given (by whole circle bearing system). 2) Subtract the smaller bearing from the greater bearing, the difference will give the interior angle if it is less than 1800. If the difference exceeds 1800 it will be the exterior angle. To obtain the interior angle by substracting the difference from 3600 as shown in the fig-2. ie., = (360- 2) + 1 If the bearing of AB and BC are 1 and 2 respectively, the difference between there bearing gives interior angle ABC ie., ABC = = 2 - 1. Similarly the exterior angle = = 360 - . As shown in fig-2 the interior angle =360 - The exterior angle, = 2 - 1.

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SURVEY-I Problems 1) Find the included angle between the line, when the bearing of a line are as follows. Line AB = 400 = 1 AC = 1200 = 2 AD = 2100 = 3 AE = 3200 = 4

The interior angle between the lines AB and AC BAC = = 2 - 1 = 1200 400 = 800 CAD = = 3 - 2 = 2 1 00 1200 = 900 DAE = = 4 - 3 = 32 00 2100 = 1100 EAB = = 3600 - 4 = 36 00 3200 + 1 = 3600 - 3200 + 40 = 800 Similarly exterior angle, BAC = 360 - = 3600 800 = 2800 CAD = 360 - = 3600 900 = 2700 DAE = 360 - = 3600 - 2100 = 2 50 0 EAB = 360 - = 3600 - 800 = 2800 2) When the bearing of a line is in RB system the interior angle is as follows. a) If the lines are in same meridian, the included angle between the lines is equal difference of two reduced bearing. = ( 2 - 1)

b)

If the lines are in different meridian as shown in the figure the interior angle between the line =180 - ( 2 - 1)

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SURVEY-I c) If the lines are in difference size, different meridian the included = 180 - ( 1 + 2) (difference of two reduced bearing)

d)

If the lines are in opposite sides the included angles is equal to the sum of two reduced bearing ie., = 1 + 2 .

3) Calculation of bearing from angle. The bearing of a line may be calculated by using the given formula. The bearing of a line = given bearing + included angle. The observed bearing are those which are directly observed by field observations. While those obtained by calculations are calculated bearings. They can be easily obtained from the observed bearing of any one line and the included angle measured clock wise between the various lines by applying the above formula. The given bearing of Line AB is The bearing of a Line AC = + BAC = + The bearing of a Line AD = bearing of a line AC = CAD = ( + ) + The bearing of a Line AE = bearing of a line AD + AAE = ( + + ) +

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SURVEY-I TRAVERSING SURVEY Traversing is one in which the frame work consists of a series of connected line. The length and direction of which are measured with a chain (or) a tape and with an angle measuring instrument. Traversing is classified into two types. 1) Open traversing. 2) Closed traversing. Open traversing

In open traversing it does not form a closed polygon (or) closed circuit as shown in the figure above. It consists of series of lines extending in the approximately same general directions and not return to the starting point. It does not start and end at the point whose position on the plain are known. This method is most suitable where the valley are a river, coastal line, long meridian roads, canals, railways etc., Closed traversing

In this case a complete circuit is made closed when it is returned to the starting point forming a closed polygon as shown in figure above.

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SURVEY-I Calculating of bearing in open traversing.

In case of open traversing and closed traversing the included angle between successive lines have been measured. The bearing of a line can be calculated as follows. 1, 2, 3 4 and 5 are the forward bearing of a line AB, BC,CD and DE respectively. Note:The forward bearing next line = bearing of a previous line and included angle. If the sum is greater than 1800 substract by 1800 If the sum is less than 1800 add by 1800 Back bearing = Fore bearing = Exterior angle= Interior angle = Fore bearing 180. Back bearing 180. Back bearing of the previous line Fore bearing of the next line. 3600 external angle.

As shown is figure , , , and are the angles measured clock wise from the previous station (Back station) and 1, 2, 3 , 4 and 5 are the fore bearings of the line. Bearing of line BC ( 2) = Bearing of AB ( 1+ ) 180. 2 = ( 1 + ) 180 2 = ( 1 + ) 180

ie., Bearing of line CD

( 3) = Bearing of BC (2 + ) 180. 3 = ( 2 +) 180 3 = ( 2 +) 180

ie., Bearing of line DE

( 4) = Bearing of CD ( 3 + ) 180. 4 = ( 3 +) 180 4 = ( 3 +) 180

ie., Bearing of line EF

( 5) = Bearing of DE ( 4 + ) 180. 5 = ( 4 + ) 180 5 = ( 4 + ) + 180

ie.,

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SURVEY-I 1) Calculate the bearing of the line when the included angle and bearing of the previous line are shown in the table and also draw the traversing using protractor. Line AB BC CD DE Bearing 300 250 1120 3200 Included angle ---1020 2100 260 Bearing of line 300 (30 + 102) = 132 + 180 = 3120 (25 + 210) = 253 180 = 550 (112 + 26) = 138 + 180 = 3180

2)

Following are the interior angle when measured with sextant in a closed traverse, the bearing of a line was measured 600 with prismatic compass. Calculate the bearings of all other line. 1 = 600 = 140 0 -10 B = 9 9 0 -8 C = 6 0 0 -20 D = 69 0-20

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SURVEY-I 2) Find the angle between the lines AB and BC if there respective bearing are a) 1460-12 and 680-24 b) 700 38 and 1260-18

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SURVEY-I LOCAL ATTRACTION : A local attraction is a term used to denote any influence which prevents the magnetic needle from pointing to the magnetic North in a given locality. A magnetic meridian at a place is established by magnetic needle which is uninfluenced by the other attraction forces. However some times the magnetic needle may be attracted and prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian. Some of the source of local attraction are :1. Magnetized rocks. 2. Magnetized ground. 3. Electrical cables. 4. Steel structures. 5. Railway lines. 6. Under ground metal pipes and cables. 7. Key and key chain. 8. Metal buttons. 9. Watch chains. Etc., may be lead on the ground very close to the instruments. Elimination of local attractions. If there is a local attraction at a site all the bearings measured at a place will be incorrect and the amount of error will be equal to all the bearing. There are two methods usually adopted for elimination of local attraction. Method - 1 In this method the bearing of all the lines are calculated when the difference is 1800 in its FORE and BACK bearing. It is understood that there is no influence of local attraction at that stations. If the difference is differ by 1800, the correction should be made from the mean value of bearing of that line. If the bearing is in quadratal bearing (RB) system the correction should be applied in proper direction. a) If the bearing is in 1st and 3rd quadrant positive correction are applied in clockwise direction. b) If the bearing is in 2nd and 4th quadrant negative correction are applied that is in anti clockwise direction.

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SURVEY-I Method 2 This is the general method, the bearing measured at a station may be incorrect due to local attraction. The included angle calculate from the bearing will be corrected, since the amount of error is the same for all the bearings measured at that station. Sources of Errors : The errors are classified into three types that is 1. Instrumental error. 2. Personal error. 3. Natural error. Instrumental error : Instrumental errors are arises due to faulty adjustment of the instruments. a. The needle not being properly straight. b. Pivot point being bent. c. Sluggish of needle. (magnetic power) d. Improper balancing weight. e. Plane of sight not being vertical. f. The line of sight not passes through the center of sight vane. Personal error : a. Improper centering. b. Inaccurate level of compass. c. Inaccurate bisection of the object. d. Carelessness in reading and recording. e. Improper handling of the instruments. Natural error : a. Variation in declination. b. Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces. c. Magnetic declination due to change in atmospheric condition. d. Irregular variation due to magnetic storm. MAGNETIC NEEDLE Magnetic needle is the most essential part of various types of compass. The common type of the magnetic needles are bar magnetic needle. It is also called edge bar needle used in surveyor compass. BROAD NEEDLE It is used in prismatic compass. The needle is balanced at the center of its length on a hard steel pivot so that it is swing freely on a horizontal plane. The center of a needle is fitted with a cap mounted in a light brass (or) alluminium cell.

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SURVEY-I DIP OF THE NEEDLE If the needle is perfectly balanced before magnetization it will not remain so after it is magnetized on account of the magnetic influence of the earth but it will be inclined down wards towards the pole. This inclination of the needle with horizontal is known as Dip of the needle. In the northern hemisphere, the north end of the needle is deflected down wards. The amount of dip is not constant it varies in different parts of the earth. In order to counteract the dip of the needle a sliding weight in the form of fine brass (or) silver coil is placed over higher end of the needle at suitable point so that the needle will be properly balanced. MAGNETIC DECLINATION Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between magnetic meridian and true meridian. It is also known as declination of the needle. If the magnetic meridian is to the right side of the true meridian the declination is said to be positive declination (or) eastern declination. Similarly if the magnetic meridian is to the left side of the true meridian the declination is said to be negative declination (or) western declination.

The declination at any particular location can be obtained by establishing the true meridian from astrological observation and then take readings from the compass needle towards true meridian. ISOGONIC LINE : It is the line drawn through the point of same declination at the given time. AGONIC LINE : (zero declination) (both magnetic meridian and true meridian are on the same line. It is the line connecting points at which the needle point to the true north that is the declination is zero.

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SURVEY-I Variation in magnetic declination : The compass needle does not remain constantly in the same direction so that the declination at any place is not constant. It is subjected to changes in the values of declination which are known as variation of declination. There are four types of variation in declination. 1) Diurnal variation. 2) Annual variation. 3) Secular variation. 4) Irregular variation. Diurnal variation : It is also called as daily variation. It is the systematic departure of the declination from its mean value during a period of 24 hrs. It generally varies with sun spot period. The daily variation depends upon the following factors.

a. The locality. b. Time. c. Season of the year. d. Amount of daily variation changes from year to year. Annual variation : The variation which as a yearly period is known as annual variation it will be found that there is a declination of needle of about one to two minutes from its mean value. It also varies from place to place. The magnetic needle swings like pendulum it swings one direction for a longer term of a year then gradually comes to rest (original position), then swing in opposite direction is called secular variations.

Secular variation :

Irregular variation : Irregular variations are due to magnetic storms, earth quakes and other solar influence. They may occur any time and cannot be predicted. The changes of this kind is more than a degree. Determination of true bearing All revenue survey maps are plotted with reference of true meridian. If a survey is made with a compass the reading observed are the magnetic bearings knowing magnetic declination at a place the true bearing may be calculated from the observed magnetic bearing by the following relation. 1) True bearing = Magnetic bearing declination. (use positive sign if the declination is towards east and use negative sign if the declination is towards west) The rule is applied only in case of whole circle bearing system. But in case of reduced circle bearing system it is always advice to draw the sketch and calculate the bearing.

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SURVEY-I 1. The true bearing of a line is 2250 38 and the magnetic declination is 120 14 W. Find the magnetic bearing of the line.

2.

The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S 320 E and the magnetic declination is 80 16 E. Find the True bearing.

3.

A line was drawn to a magnetic bearing of 2340 40 on an old map when the magnetic declination was 40 16 E. To what bearing should it be set now. If the present magnetic declination is 20 20 W.

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SURVEY-I 4. The following bearing were observed while traversing with a compass. At what stations do you suspect local attraction. Find the corrected bearing. Line AB BC CD DE F.B 440 40 960 20 300 - 40 3200-12 B.B 2250-20 2740-18 2120-20 1400-12

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SURVEY-I 5) Following are the fore bearing and back bearing were taken in traversing in a prismatic compass in a place where local attraction was suspected at what station do you suspect local attraction. Determine the correct bearing of the lines. Line AB BC CD DE EA F.B 1920-45 280-0 60-30 2280-30 3140-15 B.B 120-0 2080-45 1800-30 460-15 1360-30

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SURVEY-I 6) Following are the fore bearing and back bearing were taken in traversing in a prismatic compass in a place where local attraction was suspected at what station do you suspect local attraction. Determine the correct bearing of the lines. Line AB BA BC CB CD DC DE ED EA AE Observed bearing 740-0 2540-0 910-0 2710-0 1660-0 3430-0 1770-0 00-0 1890-0 90-0 Correction Corrected bearing.

Declination problem : 1) Following bearing were observed in running closed traverse at what station do you suspect local attraction. Determine the correct magnetic bearings. If declination was 100-0 towards WEST. Line AB BC CD DE F.B 380-30 1000-45 250-45 3250-15 B.B 2190-15 2780-30 2070-15 1450-15

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SURVEY-I 2) Following bearing were observed in running closed traverse at what station do you suspect local attraction. Determine the correct magnetic bearings. If declination was 5010 towards EAST. Line AB BC CD DE EA F.B 750-5 1150-20 1650-35 2240-50 3040-50 B.B 2540-20 2960-35 3450-35 440-5 1250-5

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SURVEY-I

PLANE TABLE SURVEY

Plane table is a graphical method of surveying in which the field observations and plotting (or) drawing (or) graphing proceeds simultaneously. Instruments used in plane table surveying : Following are the instruments used in plane table surveying are : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Tripod. Drawing board (plane table) Drawing paper. Alidade. Spirit level. Trough compass. U-Frame (or) plumbing fork with plumb bob. : It is the stand for mounting plane table about vertical axis and rotates on a horizontal plane. There are three different type of board are used they are Transverse table consists of a small drawing board mounted on a height tripod in such a way that the board can be rotated about vertical axis and can be clamped in any position. The table is leveled by adjusting tripod legs. It consists of a drawing board, the head consist of a ball and socket joint and a vertical spindle with two thumb screw on the underside. The ball and socket joint is operated by the upper thumb screw. When the upper screw is free the table may be tilted about the ball and socket for leveling. The clamp is then tightened to fix the board on the horizontal position. When the lower screw is loosened the table may be rotated about vertical axis on the horizontal plane and thus the table is oriented. c) Coast table : This is the superior quality of plane table used for very important work. The leveling of the plane table is then very accurately with the help of foot screws. The table can be turned about vertical axis in horizontal plane and can be fixed in any direction very accurately with the help of clamp and tangent screws. A superior quality of seasoned drawing paper with minimum effect of changes in the humidity of the atmosphere can be used. A plane table alidade is a straight edge with sighting devise.

1) Tripod

2) Drawing board : a) Transverse table :

b) Johnson table :

3) Drawing paper :

4) Alidade :

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SURVEY-I There are two types alidade. a) Plane alidade. b) Telescopic alidade. a) Plane alidade : It is the simple type of alidade used for the ordinary work. It is generally consists of metal (or) wooden rule with two vanes at the ends. The vanes are hinged to hold down on the rule when the alidade is not in use. One of the vane is provided with narrow slit and the other vane is opened carry a tread (or) hair. Both the vanes are provided a definite line of sight. The alidade can be rotated about the point representing the instrumentation on the drawing sheet so that the line of sight passes through the object to be sighted. The line is then drawn against the working edge of the alidade is called as Fiducial edges. This types of alidade is not very much suitable on hilly areas. In that cases telescopic alidade is used. The telescopic alidade is used when it is required to take inclined sight also the accuracy and range of sight are increased by its use. It consist of small telescopic with a level to find the graduated are mounted on horizontal axis. The horizontal axis rest on a `A Frame fitted with vernier scale. All the parts are finally supported on a heavy rule. One side of which is used as a working edge along which the line may be drawn. The inclination of the line of sight can be read on the vertical circle. The horizontal distance between the instrument and the point of sight can be computed by taking stadia readings on the staff kept at the point by using this the elevation of a object can be computed. So that the observed can very quickly and easily obtain the true horizontal distance from the plane table to a leveling staff placed at the point and the difference in elevation between them. A small spirit level may be used for leveling the plane table. The spirit level may be either tubular variety or of a circular type with a flat base, so that it can be laid on the table and is truly leveled when the bubble is central. The table is leveled by placing the spirit level on the board in two positions at right angle and getting the bubble central in both position. Trough compass is used in plane table for orienting the plane table to magnetic north. The longer side of the trough compass are parallel and flat so that the side can be used as ruler with a straight line drawn on the paper.

b) Telescopic alidade:

5) Spirit Level :

6) Trough compass :

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SURVEY-I 7) U-Frame (or) plumbing fork : U-frame is meant for centering the plane table over a point (or) station occupied by the plane table. When the plotted position of that points is already known on the sheet. It also meant for transferring the ground point to drawing sheet so that the plotted point and the ground station points are in same vertical line. The U-frame consists of a hair pin shape light metal frame having arm of equal length in which a plumb bob is suspended from the end of the lower arm. The pointed end is placed on the top of the table. The table being centered when the plumb bob hangs freely over the ground mark. Such that the pointed end of the upper end coincide with the equilateral point on the plane table. WORKING OPERATION OF PLANE TABLE The working operations of the plane table are 1) FIXING. 2) SETTING. a. Leveling the plane table. b. Centering. c. Orientation. 3) SIGHTING THE POINT. 1) 2) a. FIXING : SETTING : Leveling the table. For a small works leveling is done by estimation. For important works the spirit level is used. The spirit level is placed on board in two positions and right angle and getting the bubble centering both directions. If the work is more precious a Johnson table (or) coast survey table may be used. Centering. The plane table should be placed over the station on ground that the plotted position (or) point on the drawing sheet is coincide to the station point on the ground by using plumbing fork. Orientation. It is the process of putting the plane table into same fixed direction so that the line representing a certain direction. On the Plane is parallel to that the direction on the ground. Fix the plane table on the suitable tripod (stand).

b.

c.

There are two main methods of orientation the plane table that is ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Page 60

SURVEY-I 1) Orientation by means of trough compass. 2) Orientation by means of back sighting. Orientation by trough compass. The compass is placed in the plane table that the needle floats centrally and a line is drawn against the longer side of the box. If the plane table is shifted to another station where the table is oriented the compass is placed against the line drawn at the previous station and the table is oriented by turning if until the needle floats centrally. The table is then clamp in position. Plane table can be oriented by through compass under the following condition (or) circumstances. 1) When the speed is more important then the accuracy. 2) Where there is no second point available for orientation. 3) For approximate orientation prior to final adjustment. Orientation by means of back sighting. The orientation can be done preciously by sighting the points already plotted on the sheet. It is possible to set the table on the point already plotted on the sheet by way of method observation from previous station and when it is not possible to set the plane table on the exact point. 3) SIGHTING THE POINT : When once the plane table as been set the point to be located are sighted through the alidade. The alidade is kept pivoted about the plotted location of the instrumentation and is turned so that the line of sight passes (or) bisects the single at the point to be plotted. A line is drawn from the instrumentation along the working edge of the alidade. Similarly to other points also. The points are finally plotted on the corresponding rays either by way of intersection (or) by radiation. METHODS OF PLANE TABLING (or) SYSTEM OF PLANE TABLING : The methods of plane tabling are : 1) Radiation. 2) Intersection (or) Graphic triangulation. 3) Traversing. 4) Re-section.

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SURVEY-I RADIATION : In this system a ray is drawn from the instrumentation towards the object. The distance is measured between the instrument station system and that object and the object is located by plotting to some suitable scale. The distance so measured in this method. One single instrument can control the points to be detailed. This method has wider scope of the distance are obtained tacometrically with the help of telescophic alidade.

Following are the necessary steps to be followed to locate the points from on instrumentation (P). 1) Set the table at (P) and level it, transfer the point of sheet, then getting (P) representing station clamp the table. 2) Keep the alidade at the station point (P) and sight towards the object A. Draw the line along the working edge of alidade (fiducial edge). Similarly sight towards the other points B, C and D and draw the corresponding lines from station point (P). 3) Measure the distance from P to A, PB, PC and PD in the field and plot their distance to some suitable scale along the corresponding lines, then getting a,b,c and d etc.,

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SURVEY-I INTERSECTION (or) GRAPHIC TRIANGULATION : This method resorts (selected) when the distance between the point and the instrument station either too large (or) cannot be measured accurately due to some field condition. The location of the object is determined by sighting at the object from two stations and draw the lines. The intersection of this lines will give the position of an object. Therefore this method is very essential two have at least two station point to locate the position of the object. The distance between the two station point is measured and plotted on the drawing sheet to some suitable scale. The line joining the two station point is known as Baseline. Procedure : 1. Set the plane table above the station point `A, transfer the station point on to the drawing sheet and clamp the plane table. 2. With the help of trough compass mark the north direction on the sheet. 3. Keep the alidade at point `a sight towards another station point `B measure the distance `AB and drawn the line mark the point `b to the suitable scale now a, b is base line. 4. Keep the alidade above `a joint towards PQRS and drawn the rays. 5. Shift the plane table to station point `B and set and orient the plane table roughly by trough compass and finally by back sighting toward `A clamp the table. 6. Keep the alidade at `b sight towards the point PQRS draw the corresponding rays along the working edge of alidade to interest with the previous rays PQRS. The position of the points are thus marked by ways of intersection of the respective rays.

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SURVEY-I TRAVERSING : In this system at each successive station the table is set, a foresight is taken to the following stations and its location is plotted by measuring the distance between the two stations as in the intersection method (or) rational method. In case of traversing the observation are made to those point which will subsequently be used as instrumentation station. This method is widely used to lay down survey lines between instrumentation of a closed (or) open traversing.

Procedure : 1. 2. Set the plane table at station A and transfer the point A on to the sheet with the help of trough compass mark the North direction and level the table. Keep the alidade about the point `a and sight towards B draw the ray measure the distance between A and B and mark the point `b on the ray drawn from `a to suitable scale. Similarly draw the line towards D measure AD and mark the point `d on the ray to the same scale. Shift the table to `B and set, orient the table accurately by back sighting towards `A and clamp the table. Keep the alidade at `b sight towards `c and draw the ray. Measure the distance between `BC and mark the point `C on the ray to the same scale. Similarly table can be set at another station points and complete the traversing.

3. 4. 5.

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SURVEY-I RE-SECTION : Resection is a process of determining the plotted position of station occupied by the plane table by means of sights taken towards known points. In this method the orientation of the plane table is correct, it is not correct we have not getting the correct location of the station. The orientation of the table can be solved by 4 methods of orientation that is 1. Re-section after orientation by compass. 2. Re-section after orientation by back sighting. 3. Re-section after orientation by three point problem. 4. Re-section after orientation by two point problem. RE-SECTION AFTER ORIENTATION BY COMPASS :

1)

This method is suitable for small scale (or) rough mapping for which the relative large error due to orienting with the compass `C be the instrument station to be located on the plane (or) graph. Let `A and `B are visible station which have been plotted on the drawing sheet has `a and `b. Set the table at `c and orient it with compass. Level the table and clamp the table. Pivot the alidade at `b sight towards `B draw a ray and produce back similarly pivot the alidade `a and sight towards `A and draw a ray produce back. The intersection of this two lines will give the required position of the point `C.

2)

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SURVEY-I RE-SECTION AFTER ORIENTATION BY BACK SIGHTING :

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