forging

contents::::::::
Introduction for forging.

History of forging.

Types of forging processes

Comparison of forgings from castings.

 How are forging dies produced.

Uses and failures of forging and it's dies.

INTRODUCTION:
Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The process is normally performed hot by preheating the metal to a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the forging process is entirely different from the casting process, as metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured. Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press. Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals

take during plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented. Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as machining do not expose voids, because there aren't any. Also coating operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good surface, which needs very little preparation. Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often used in the design of aircraft frame members. A Forged metal can result in the following Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal.

Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal. Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed impression dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

History:::::
Origins of the Forging Process:
The art of forging dates to at least 4000BC and probably earlier. Metals such as bronze and wrought iron were forged by early man to produce hand toots and weapons of war. Forging of wrought iron and crucible steel continued until near the end of the 19th century for similar purposes and it is unfortunate that weapons of war are still produced by the forging process using more contemporary metals.

Forging Through the 19th Century:

The forge smiths of the 19th century were particularly skilled at hand and open die forging of wrought iron. As wrought iron was only produced in heats of 50 kilograms, the smiths became skill full in hammer welding and many large shaft forgings weighing 10 tonnes and more were gradually built up by a process of forging and hammer welding. The invention of the Bessemer steel making process in 1856 was a major breakthrough for the ferrous forging industry. The forgers now had a plentiful supply of low cost steel for production of volume quantities of forgings. It has been accepted that the first cavity steel forgings using a closed die process commenced in

the United States in 1862 for production of components for the Colt revolver.

Steel Making Developments That Aided the Forging Industry:

The further development of the Bessemer process with the invention of the basic steel making technique meant that cheaper supplies of iron ore containing high phosphorus and sulphur levels could be smelted to produce good quality steel. The simultaneous development of the open hearth steel making process toward the end of the 19th century meant that the forging industry now had a reliable, low cost, high volume raw material.

Invention of the Forging Press:

With the introduction of motor vehicles and in particular Henry Fords T Model a considerable demand for forgings developed in the early years of the 20th century. Up until 1930, when National Machinery Company of the USA introduced the first forging press (Maxipress), all forgings were produced on hammers. The advantage of the forging press was exemplified by higher production rates and a lesser degree of skill in producing forgings as compared to hammer forging. The introduction of the forging press did not obsolete the forging hammer but rather challenged the manufacturers to improve their product and of course, there are many forgings which are best made on hammers.

Modern Computer Controlled Forging Machines:

Today we have computer controlled hammers and presses capable of making a wide range of components in a variety of materials for many applications including aerospace, automobile, mining and agriculture, to mention a few.

Types of forging processes:::

There are basically three methods (or processes) to make a forged part. 1. Impression Die Forging 2. Cold Forging 3. Open Die Forging

4. Seamless Rolled Ring Forging

Impression Die Forging:

Impression die forging pounds or presses metal between two dies (called tooling) that contain a precut profile of the desired part. Parts from a few ounces to 60,000 lbs. can be made using this process. Some of the smaller parts are actually forged cold. Impression Die Forging Process Operations: In the simplest example of impression die forging, two dies are brought together and the work piece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides touch the side walls of the die. Then, a small amount of material begins to flow outside the die impression forming flash that is gradually thinned. The flash cools rapidly and presents increased resistance to deformation and helps build up pressure increased resistance to deformation and helps build up pressure inside the bulk of the work piece that aids material flow into unfilled impressions.

Upsetting : Fundamentally, impression die forgings produced on horizontal forging machines (upsetters) are similar to those produced by hammers or presses. Each is the result of forcing metal into cavities in dies which separate at parting lines.

The impression in the ram-operated "heading tool" is the equivalent of a hammer or press top die. The "grip dies" contain the impressions corresponding to the hammer or press bottom die. Grip dies consist of a stationary die and a moving die which, when closed, act to grip the stock and hold it in position for forging. After each work stroke of the machine, these dies permit the transfer of stock from one cavity to another in the multiple-impression dies.

Cold Forging:
Most

forging is done as hot work, at temperatures up to 2300 degrees F, however, a variation of impression die forging is cold forging. Cold forging encompasses many processes -- bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusions and more, to yield a diverse range of part shapes. The temperature of metals being cold forged may range from room temperature to several hundred degrees.
.

Cold Forging Process Operations:

1. Forward extrusion reduces slug diameter and increases its length to produce parts such as stepped shafts and cylinders.

2. In backward extrusion, the steel flows back and around the descending punch to form cup-shaped pieces.

3. Upsetting, or heading, a common technique for making fasteners, gathers steel in the head and other sections along the length of the part.

Open Die Forging:

Open die forging is performed between flat dies with no precut profiles is the dies. Movement of the work piece is the key to this method. Larger parts over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in length can be hammered or pressed into shape this way.

SHAFTS

1. Starting stock, held by manipulator.

2. Open-die forging.

3. Progressive forging.

4. Lathe turning to near net-shape.

DISCS

1. Starting stock.

2. Preliminary upsetting.

3. Progressive upsetting/ forging to disc dimensions.

4. Pierced for saddle/mandrel ring hollow "sleeve type"

preform.

SADDLE/MANDREL RINGS

1. Preform 2. Metal mounted on displacementsaddle/mandrel. reduce preform wall thickness to increase diameter.

3. Progressive 4. Matching to reduction of wall near net shape. thickness to produce ring dimensions.

HOLLOW "SLEEVE TYPE" FORGING

1. Punched or trepanned disc on tapered draw bar.

2. Progressive reduction of outside diameter (inside diameter remains constant) increases overall length of sleeve.

Seamless Rolled Ring Forging:

Seamless rolled ring forging is typically performed by punching a hole in a thick, round piece of metal (creating a donut shape), and then rolling and squeezing (or in some cases, pounding) the donut into a thin ring. Ring diameters can be anywhere from a few inches to 30 feet. Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Process Operations:

1. The ring rolling process typically begins with upsetting of the starting stock on flat dies at its plastic deformation temperature - in the case of grade 1020 steel, approximately 2200 degrees Fahrenheit.

2. Piercing involves forcing a punch into the hot upset stock causing metal to be displaced radially, as shown by the illustration.

3. A subsequent operation, shearing, serves to remove the small punchout ...

4. ...producing a completed hole through the stock, which is now ready for the ring rolling operation itself. At this point the stock is called a preform.

5. The doughnut-shaped perform is slipped over the ID roll shown here from an "above" view.

6. A side view of the ring mill and perform work piece, which squeezes it against the OD roll which imparts rotary action...

7. ...resulting in a thinning of the section and correspondence increase in the diameter of the ring. Once off the ring mill, the ring is then ready for secondary operations such as close tolerance sizing, parting, heat treatment and test/inspection

Comparison of forging from castings:::

 Forgings are stronger. Casting cannot obtain the strengthening effects of hot and cold working. Forging surpasses casting in predictable strength properties - producing superior strength that is assured, part to part. Forging refines defects from cast ingots or continuous cast bar. A casting has neither grain flow nor directional strength and the process cannot prevent formation of certain metallurgical defects. Pre-working forge stock produces a grain flow oriented in directions requiring maximum strength. Dendritic structures, alloy segregation's and like imperfections are refined in forging. Forgings are more reliable, less costly. Casting defects occur in a variety of forms. Because hot working refines grain pattern and imparts high strength, ductility and resistance properties, forged products are more reliable. And they are manufactured without the added costs for tighter process controls and inspection that are required for casting. Forgings offer better response to heat treatment. Castings require close control of melting and cooling processes because alloy segregation may occur. This results in non-uniform heat treatment response that can affect straightness of finished parts. Forgings respond more predictably to heat treatment and offer better dimensional stability. Forgings' flexible, cost-effective production adapts to demand. Some castings, such as special performance castings, require expensive materials and process controls, and longer lead times. Open-die and ring rolling are examples of forging processes that adapt to various production run lengths and enable shortened lead times.

how are forging dies produced:::

Fabricating forging dies:

The steps of fabrication of forging dies are described ... The die block is produced by casting or rolling/forging and finally mechanically working. The cavity is fabricated by machining, cold hobbing, eroding, electrochemical milling, etc..

The die inserts (and die holder) are heat-treated to improve strength. After polishing, the cavity has a surface roughness of 3 m.

Since aluminium has a lower flow stress than steel, the contours of the die cavity are reproduced Types of Forging Dies The following types of forging dies are encountered in die forging: - Single-cavity die - Multiple-cavity die: a number of identical cavities in one die

- Multiple-stage die: more than one forming step for the work piece in a die

The Elements of Forging Dies:

While designing forging dies, the following aspects must be taken into consideration: Design to meet the stresses Forging dies are mostly subjected to repeated stress. The fatigue strength depends on the surface, cracks, residual stress and top-layer hardness. Design for dimensions Shrinkage of the formed part is taken into account. Particular attention must be given to the fact that both die (steel) and work piece (aluminium) have different coefficients of thermal expansion and that the die geometry has various sources of errors. Design for machining Machining tolerances are to be considered. Design for optimal material flow

The tool stress can be reduced by avoiding sharp edges, abrupt transitions, long narrow fins (ribs) etc. more exactly on aluminium forgings.

Uses of forging and it's dies:

The forging process can create parts that are stronger than those manufactured by any other metalworking process. This is why forgings are almost always used where reliability and human safety are critical. But you'll rarely see forgings, as they are normally component parts contained inside assembled items such a airplanes, automobiles, tractors, ships, oil drilling equipment, engines, missiles and all kinds of capital equipment - to name a few. Components can be forged into an infinite variety of shapes which would be difficult to produce by conventional machining or fabrication techniques. The result is a product with a superior surface finish, lack of porosity and enhanced strength since it does not suffer from internal stresses and it's grain structure has been improved. The result is a cost effective product fit for most applications. Tooling is relatively cheap and setting times short, this allows for economic production down to as little as a couple of hundred piece parts per order. As well as forging in brass we also work in aluminium, copper, aluminium bronze, etc. Machining: After forging, many customers find it economical for the subsequent machining operations to be carried out by the supplier of the brass stampings. The photograph gives a few examples of the vast range of items which we machine after they have been forged. This is in fact due to the very efficient re-cycling of machining waste. This also includes work in aluminium, copper, etc. By virtue of the fact that we are sub contractors, our products have to comply with many British and foreign standards, a few of which are,

BS5433 Underground stop valves for water BS3288 Electrical fittings BS 746 Gas Meter Unions And Adapters BS2767 Valves and unions for hot water

services

radiators

BS1010 Draw off taps and stop valves BS5154 Globe, check and gate valves

Electrical Components: Our range of products include:

Parts for lighting fittings Immersion and kettle element heads and Distribution line fittings including pole Cable Sockets Components for generators, transformers Parts for telephone, radio, radar and scientific Components for industrial use such as

other domestic appliance components.

mounted fuse holders, line taps, etc.

and switchgear

equipment

railway traction engines, welding sets and traffic control equipment Gas Fittings:

Our range includes parts for the gas supply

industry such as unions, connectors, meter couplers, etc.

We manufacture a multitude of parts for the

domestic gas appliance industry such as elbows, tees, gas cocks and manifolds.

In addition we supply decorative and other

fittings for use on domestic gas fires and cookers. Hydraulic / Pneumatic Applications: We manufacture many parts for hydraulic/ pneumatic applications, these being used in a variety of situations from mining equipment through industrial applications for use on aircraft. In particular we manufacture items which are subject to high pressure with CO2 and other bottled gases. In this case these items are fully tested well above the required specification.

Security: It is common place for lock and bolt parts to be made from brass components since these do not suffer from failure through corrosion attack in the event of adverse weather conditions. Such fittings are ideally made using the hot forging process. Many other applications are now to be found in the home security market which use hot brass forging in production. Decorative Hardware: It has always been traditional to use hot brass forgings in the manufacture of door handles, window stays and other types of architectural fittings. In recent years there has been a vast increase in the use of highly decorative components for other items of door furniture such as letter boxes, finger plates, door pulls, etc. Sport and Leisure: A popular use for aluminium components is found in the world of mountaineering in which it is commonplace to use such items as 'karabineer' hooks or parts for ice axes. Similarly hot brass forging are incorporated into the design of many popular types of golf club putters. Transport: Road, Rail, Ship, Aircraft: There are many applications for hot brass forgings in the transport industry. These range from parts for road vehicles such as elbows or tees in the fuel line, flanges for petrol tanks, radiator filler caps, etc. to discrete items such as battery terminals, light weight wheel nuts and hinges and fittings for heavy goods vehicles, supplied to component manufacturers. Hot brass, aluminium, aluminium bronze forgings are used extensively in the marine industry. Typically such items would include shackles and turnbuckles on yachts, parts for pumps, guard-wire terminals, etc. On aircraft there is a greater tendency to use items forged in aluminium. Assembly Work: As well as forging and machining we have a considerable capacity for work which requires sub-assembly before use. It is usual for the resulting assembly to consist predominantly of hot brass forged and machined components. However, we are obviously willing to discuss any other type of assembly work. The problems of resourcing the parts, and as necessary holding them against scheduled call-off devolve onto TW Stamping Limited.

Automotive and Truck In automotive and truck applications, forged components are commonly found at points of shock and stress. Cars and trucks may contain more than 250 forgings, most of which are produced from carbon or alloy steel. Forged engine and power train components include connecting rods, crankshafts, transmission shafts and gears, differential gears, drive shafts, clutch hubs, and universal joint yokes and crosses. Forged camshafts, pinions, gears, and rocker arms offer ease of selective hardening as well as strength. Wheel spindles, kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms, steering arms, and linkages for passenger cars, buses, and trucks typify applications requiring extra strength and toughness. Aerospace High strength-to-weight ratio and structural reliability improve performance, range, and payload capabilities of aircraft. That's why ferrous and nonferrous forgings are used in helicopters, piston-engine planes, commercial jets, and supersonic military aircraft. Many aircraft are "designed around" forgings, and contain more than 450 structural forgings as well as hundreds of forged engine parts. Forged parts include bulkheads, wing roots and spars, hinges, engine mounts, brackets, beams, shafts, bell cranks, landing-gear cylinders and struts, wheels, brake carriers and discs, and arresting hooks. In jet turbine engines, iron-based, nickel-base, and cobalt-base super alloys are forged into buckets, blades, couplings, discs, manifolds, rings, chambers, wheels, and shafts--all requiring uniformly high-yield tensile and creep rupture strengths, plus good ductility at temperatures ranging between 1,000 and 2,000F. Forgings of stainless steels, maraging steels, titanium, and aluminium find similar applications at lower temperatures. Forged missile components of titanium, columbium, super alloys, and refractory materials provide unduplicated mechanical and physical properties under severe service conditions. Aluminium structural beams for boosters, titanium motor cases, and nuclear-engine reactor shields and inflatable

satellite launch canisters of magnesium are used in the space shuttle program. Off-Highway and Agricultural Strength, toughness, machinability, and economy account for the use of ferrous forgings in off-highway and heavy construction equipment, and in mining machinery. In addition to engine and transmission parts, forgings are used for gears, sprockets, levers, shafts, spindles, ball joints, wheel hubs, rollers, yokes, axle beams, bearing holders, and links. Farm implements, in addition to engine and transmission components, utilize key forgings ranging from gears, shafts, levers, and spindles to tierod ends, spike harrow teeth, and cultivator shanks. Ordnance Forged components are found in virtually every implement of defense, from rifle triggers to nuclear submarine drive shafts. Heavy tanks contain more than 550 separate forgings; armored personnel carriers employ more than 250. The majority of 155-mm, 75-mm, and 3-in. shells as well as mortar projectiles contain at least two forged components. Valves and Fittings For valves and fittings, the mechanical properties of forgings and their freedom from porosity are especially suited to high-pressure applications. Corrosion and heat-resistant materials are used for flanges, valve bodies and stems, tees, elbows, reducers, saddles, and other fittings. Oilfield applications include rock cutter bits, drilling hardware, and high-pressure valves and fittings. Industrial, Hardware and Tools Stationary and shipboard internal combustion engines include forged crankshafts, connecting rods, rod caps, camshafts, rocker arms, valves, gears, shafts, levers, and linkages. Outboard motors, motorcycles, and power saws offer examples of the intensive use of forgings in smaller engines. Industrial equipment industries use forgings in materials handling systems, conveyors, chain-hoist assemblies, and lift trucks. "Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledges, wrenches, and garden implements, as well as wire-rope clips and sockets, hooks, turnbuckles, and eye bolts are common examples. Strength, resistance to impact and fatigue, and excellent appearance are reasons why forgings have been the standard of quality since the earliest of times. The same is true of surgical instruments. Special hardware for electrical transmission and distribution lines is subject to high stresses and corrosion. For strength and dependability, forgings are used for parts such as pedestal caps, suspension clamps, sockets, and brackets

Forging versus Casting

Forging Advantages When Using A Similar Alloy Stronger Preworking refines defects More reliable, lower cost over component life Better response to heat treatment Adaptable to demand Material savings, production economies Stronger Cost-effective design/inspection More consistent and better metallurgical properties Simplified production Broader size range of desired material grades Grain flow provides higher strength More economical use of material Yields lower scrap Requires fewer secondary operations

Welding/Fabricating

Machining

Powder metal

Stronger Higher integrity Requires fewer secondary operations Greater design flexibility Less costly materials

Composites/Plastics

Less costly materials Greater productivity Established documentation Broader service-temperature range More reliable service performance

Forging Spans the Metallurgical Spectrum Metal Aluminum Characteristic Readily forged Combines low density with good strength-toweight ratio Application Primarily for structural and engine applications in the aircraft and transportation industries where temperatures do not exceed 400F. Usually employed at service temperatures lower than 500F but certain alloys provide short-time service to 700F. Important for applications requiring corrosion resistance.

Magnesium

Offer the lowest density of any commercial metal

Copper,

Well-suited to forging Electrical and thermal conductivity

Brass, Bronze Low-Carbon Low material cost and Easily processed Good mechanical properties Low-Alloy Varied response to heat treatment gives Steels designers a choice of properties in the finished forging Microalloy/ HSLA Steels Low material cost Cost benefit derived from simplified thermomechanical treatment Equivalent mechanical properties to many carbon and low-alloy steels Permit forgings with more than 300,000 psi yield strength at room temperature Comprise the greatest volume of forgings produced for service applications up to 900F.

Various automotive and truck applications including crankshafts, connecting rods, yokes, pistons, suspension and steering components, spindles, hubs, and trunio

SpecialAlloy Steels Stainless Steel

Used in transportation, mining, industrial and agricultural equipment, as well as high-stress applications in missiles and aircraft. Used in pressure vessels, steam turbines, and many other applications in the chemical, food processing, petroleum, and hospital services industries. Used for highstress service at temperatures up to 1,250F and low-stress service to 1,800F and higher. Nickel-Base

Corrosion-resistant

Nickel-Base Superalloy Titanium

Creep-rupture strength Oxidation resistance

Service in the 1,200-1,800F range. Structural shapes, turbine components, and fittings and valves. Used primarily in the temperature services to 1,000F. Configurations nearly identical to steel parts are forgeable and 40% lighter in weight. Aircraft-engine components and structurals, ship components, and valves and fittings in transportation and chemical industries. High-temperature applications involving advanced chemical, electrical, and nuclear propulsion systems and flight vehicles.

High strength Low density Excellent corrosion resistance Alloys offer yield strengths in the 120,000 to 180,000 psi range at room temperatures

Refractory Metal

Include columbium, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten and their alloys Enhanced resistance to creep in high-thermal environments Light, hard, and brittle Increasingly used as an alloying material High melting point Special forging techniques have been

Beryllium

Used primarily in nuclear, structural, and heat-sink applications.

developed to process beryllium in sintered, ingot, or powdered form Zirconium Corrosion-resistant Produced in relatively limited quantities and used almost exclusively in nuclear applications.

Failure and Damaging of Forging Dies:

Damages occur on forging dies due to thermal and mechanical fatigue as well as due to wear and permanent deformation. The individual effects occur in combinations of: 1. Warm fatigue cracks can occur due to thermal stresses in the tool. The temperature gradients depend on the geometry and forming conditions. 2. Plastic deformation occurs as a result of local stresses exceeding the yield strength, as may be the case in protruding form elements. 3. Fatigue cracks are initiated due to repeated die stresses occurring over the forming operation cycle. Thus, notches and abrupt transitions in the die should be avoided as far as possible. 4. Wear occurs due to small particles which detach from the surface. The degree of wear depends on the tribological system between tool and workpiece.