Original paper

AN OVERVIEW OF ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF NEPAL

Khilendra Gurung
E-mail: khilendragurung@yahoo.com

Introduction:
Nepal harbors rich flora due to the presence of wide range of geographical and climatic
conditions. The floral diversity comprises about 6500 species of flowering plants and 28
species of gymnosperms (Chaudhary, 1998 and Press et al., 2000). Nature has endowed it
with over 700 species of medicinal plants (DPR, 1976) and over 200 species of aromatic
plants (Adhikary, 1989). The presence of ecological zones ranging from tropical to alpine
has created the potentiality for the cultivation of a wide variety of exotic species of
essential oil bearing aromatic plants in Nepal (Rawal and Pradhan, 1996).
Essential oils are chemical compounds with an odoriferous nature which are highly
volatile, insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent. They are obtained from herbs,
flowers, woods, leaves and seeds including spices, by steam distillation or solvent
extraction. 'Essential' refers to the presence of an essence or odor and the term 'oil' is used
due to the retention of oil spot when they are placed on a transparent paper. The families
Pinaceae and Cupressaceae among the gymnosperms; Apiaceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae,
Lauraceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae (dicots) and Poaceae, Araceae, Zingiberaceae and
Amarylidaceae (monocots) among angiosperms, account for a large number of aromatic
plants bearing essential oils of commercial importance.
The utilization of essential oil is very extensive and covers a wide range of human
activity. Some of the important uses are as; ingredients in the manufacture of soaps,
cosmetics, perfumery, health care herbal products, confectionary, aerated water, syrups,
disinfectants, insecticides, fungicides, paper writing pads, greeting cards etc.

Present status:
The world's total production of essential oil is estimated at about 1,00,000 to1,10,000
tons (Farooqi and Sreeramu, 2001). But, Nepal shares a negligible percentage of essential
oil in terms of production despite its rich aromatic floral diversity. Most of the essential
oil produced is exported, while few amounts are marketed within the country. This oil is
very expensive and earns good revenue in terms of foreign exchange. Most of the
essential oil bearing aromatic plants are distributed throughout the country. While few
plants are cultivated in farmlands, community forests and in marginal lands. Major
essential oil produced and these bearing plants of Nepal are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Essential oil bearing plants and their distribution in Nepal

SN Essential oils Botanical name / Parts used Active constituents Distribution in
Nepal
1 Abies oil Abies spectabilis / Needles and young Pinene, limonene WCE, alt, 2100-
twigs 3600m
2 Anthopogon oil Rhododendron anthopogon / Leaves α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene WCE, alt.3300-
and young twigs and δ-cadinene 5100m
3 Artemisia oil Artemisia vulgaris / Leaves and Thujone, cineol, pinene WCE, alt.1000-
flowering tops 2400m

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4 Basil oil (French) Ocimum basilicum / Flowering herbs Methyl chavicol (70-88%), WCE, alt, 300-
linalol 1500m (cultivated)
5 Calamus oil Acorus calamus / Rhizomes and roots Beta-asarone (up to 80%), WCE, alt, 300-
calamene, calamol 2700m
6 Camphor oil Cinnamomum camphora / Leaves Cineol with pinene C, alt, 1300-1500m
7 Cedar wood oil Cedrus deodara / Woods and saw dust Cedrol, cadinene W, alt, 2400-3700m
8 Chamomile oil Matricaria chamomilla / Flowers Chamazulene, azulene (1- CE, alt, 500-1500m
15%) (cultivated)
9 Cinnamon oil Cinnamomum tamala / Leaves and Eugenol (80-96%), WCE, alt, 450-
twigs cinnamaldehyde (3%) 2000m
10 Citronella oil Cymbopogon winterianus / Partially Citronellol (upto50%), WC, alt, 400-2000m
dried grass geranial (upto45%) (cultivated)
11 Clove oil Syzygium aromaticum / Buds and Eugenol (60-90%), eugenol WCE, alt, 300-
leaves acetate 1000m (cultivated)
12 Coriander oil Coriandrum sativum / Crushed ripe Linalol (55-75%), WCE, alt, 200-
seeds decylaldehyde 1500m (cultivated)
13 Corn mint oil Mentha arvensis / Flowering herbs Menthol (70-95%), menthone WCE, alt, 300-
(10-20%) 2000m (cultivated)
14 Cumin oil Cuminum cyminum / Ripe seeds Cuminaldehyde (upto60%), WCE, alt, upto800m
pinene, terpinene (cultivated)
15 Curcuma oil Curcuma zedoaria / Rhizomes Tumerone (60%), zingiberene CE, alt, 700-1500m
(cultivated)
16 Eucalyptus oil Eucalyptus camaldulensis / Leaves and Cineol (70-85%), pinene CE, alt, 400-1500m
young twigs (cultivated)
17 Garlic oil Allium sativum / Crushed bulbs Allicin WCE, alt, 1000-
2600m (cultivated)
18 Ginger oil Zingiber officinale / Rhizomes Gingerin, gingenol, WCE, alt, 150-
zingiberene 1200m (cultivated)
19 Hemlock oil Tsuga dumosa / Needles and twigs Pinene, limonene, bornyl WCE, alt, 1800-
acetate 3500m
20 Jasmine oil Jasminum officinale / Flowers Benzyl acetate, linalol, cis- CE, alt, 800-1800m
jasmone (cultivated)
21 Jatamansi oil Nardostachys grandiflora / Rhizomes Bornyl acetate, isobornyl WCE, alt, 3200-
and roots valerianate 5000m
22 Juniper oil Juniperus communis / Berries and Pinene, myrcene, sabinene WCE, alt, 3000-
needles 4100m
23 Lemon oil Citrus aurantifolia / Peel of fruits Limonene, pinene, camphene CE, alt, 600-1500m
(cultivated)
24 Lemongrass oil Cymbopogon flexuosus / Partially dried Citral (65-85%), myrcene (12- WCE, alt, 300-
leaves 25%) 1100m (cultivated)
25 Marigold oil Calendula officinalis / Flowers Calendulin CE, alt, 300-1500m
(cultivated)
26 Orange oil Citrus reticulata / Peel of fruits Limonene, myrcene, CE, alt, 600-1500m
camphene (cultivated)
27 Palmarosa oil Cymbopogon martini / Partially dried Geraniol, farnesol CE, alt, 900-2000m
grass (cultivated)
28 Peppermint oil Mentha piperita / Flowering herbs Menthol (29-48%), menthone WCE, alt, 1200-
(20-31%) 2700m (cultivated)
29 Pine oil Pinus roxburghii / Needles and twigs Alpha pinene (50%), beta WCE, alt, 600-
pinene (25-35%), carene (20- 1800m
60%)
30 Rose oil Rosa spp. / Fresh petals Citronellol (20-35%), nerol WCE, alt, 1200-
(30-40%), geraniol 3000m (cultivated)
31 Sage oil Salvia officinalis / Dried leaves Thujone (upto42%), cineol, WCE, alt, 500-
borneol 1500m (cultivated)
32 Sandalwood oil Santalum album / Heartwoods Santalols (90%), santene, W, alt, 200-900m
teresantol
33 Sugandhakokila Cinnamomum glaucescens / Berries Methyl cinnamate, cineol WE, alt, 2000-2500m
oil
34 Tagetes oil Tagetes minuta / Fresh flowers Tagetones, ocimene, myrcene WCE, alt, 900-
2000m (cultivated)

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35 Thyme oil Thymus linnearis / Leaves and Thymol and carvacrol (up to W, alt, 2500-3800m
flowering tops 60%), cymene
36 Valerian oil Valeriana jatamansii / Rhizomes Bornyl acetate, isovalerate WCE, alt, 1500-
3300m
37 Vetiver oil Vetiveria zizanioides / Roots and leaves Vetiverol, vitivone, terpenes CE, alt, up to 300m
38 Wintergreen oil Gaultheria fragrantissima / Leaves and Methyl salicylate (upto98%), WCE, alt, 1200-
twigs gaultheriline 2600m
39 Zanthoxylum oil Zanthoxylum armatum / Dried fruits Linalol (55-75%), methyl WCE, alt, 1100-
cinnamate, cineol 2500m
Where, W: West; C: Central; E: East and alt: Altitude
Source: Lawless (1995); Press et al., 2000

Extraction method of essential oil:

The basic methods of extraction of essential oil are distillation, enfleurage,
maceration, solvent extraction, expression and supercritical fluid extraction.
However, distillation has always been the most widely practiced methods of essential
oil extraction. Distillation basically is the separation of components of a mixture of
two or more liquids by virtue of differences in their vapor pressure.

Distillation process of essential oil:

If essential oil is immiscible, steam distillation is employed. In this process, the
distillate separates out as a layer of oil, distinct from a layer of water. But, if water
and various components of essential oil mixture are miscible, it becomes necessary to
use rectification and fractionation techniques.
In order to isolate essential oil by the first process, steam is subjected into aromatic
materials. Under the influence of steam, essential oil is freed from the glands of plant
tissue. Both water and essential oil vaporized, condensed by an adjacent condenser
and drained into a receptacle, where oil separates automatically above and below
water, depending upon its density. Steam is continuously charged until all the
essential oil is vaporized and the distillate formed in the condenser is essentially pure
water.
In the second process, involving rectification and fractionation, the mixture of
essential oil produced by the foregoing method is isolated and purified. The process
involves a gradual increase in the temperature of the mixture, where more volatile
compounds in the oil distil first and less volatile compounds later. Several distillation
processes may be necessary to attain the desired degree of purity in the distillate.

Storage of essential oil:

Most essential oil deteriorate through oxidation and polymerization upon prolonged
exposure to air and light. Therefore, producers should store essential oil in closed,
completely filled containers and perfumers. In particular, essential oil should be
stored in sealed bottles in dark and cool cellars. Without such precaution essences
become less intense, grow darker and more viscous, develop a bleaching effect and
eventually changes into a brown, odorless resin.

Mode of action of essential oil:

Essential oil have three distinct modes of action with regard to how they interrelate
with the human body; pharmacological, physiological and psychological. The
pharmacological effect is concerned with the chemical changes that take place when

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an essential oil enters the bloodstream and reacts with the hormones and enzymes etc.
The physiological mode with the way in which an essential oil affects the system of
the body, whether they are sedated or stimulated etc. The psychological effect takes
place when an essence is inhaled and an individual responds to its odor.

Methods of application of essential oil:

Essential oil can be used simply and effectively at home in a variety of ways, both for
their scent and for their cosmetic and medicinal qualities. They can be added to the
bath and used to make individual beauty preparations. They can also be employed in
the treatment of minor first aid cases and to help prevent and relieve many common
complaints as headaches, cold and coughs, period pains and aching muscles.

Constraints:
It is seen that the rate of growth of aromatic plants in relation to their economic
prospects is not satisfactory. It is due to the following constraints:
• Although diverse climate and soil exist in the country, the possibilities of raising
large-scale plantations of aromatic plants on scientific lines has not been explored.
• Interspaces in the perennial plantations, vast stretches of forests and barren, waste
and marginal lands are lying fallow, when they can be gainfully used to raise
aromatic raw materials.
• Difficulties of processing in remote areas and transportation of the essential oil
bearing plants to the nearest processing sites.
• Complex and restrictive process to obtain permits for collection, trade and export of
aromatic plants and essential oils.
• Royalties for the aromatic plant products produced on private land and local taxes
imposed by Village Development Committee and District Development Committee.

Future prospects:
The demand for essential oil is increasing day by day with the advancement of
education and prosperity in the country. Fragrance plays a vital role in securing
consumer's acceptability in almost every product used. The following are the reasons
for the scope of essential oil bearing plants:
• Essential oil is now a basic raw material for consumer products meant for mass
consumption.
• The interest in aromatics for their therapeutic value is increasing due to the
worldwide scare of the side effects of synthetics, also the revival of interest in herbs.
• Essential oil has the potential of being very safe insecticide. It has been found very
effective and safe for the production of food grains.
• The cultivation and processing of aromatic plants is labor intensive and hence
generates employment locally.
• The by products of aromatic plants can be used as a mulching material, fuel, cattle
feed or ploughed back to soil to improve fertility.
• Private entrepreneurs can register the enterprises based on aromatic plants to
process, sell and export of the products.

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Conclusion and Recommendations:
Nepal being rich in biodiversity has ample scope for sustainable and rational
utilization of its natural resources as essential oil bearing aromatic plants. Its
favorable climatic zones should be utilized for commercial cultivation of exotic as
well as proven indigenous plants.
The following are recommendations for the proper management of aromatic plants:
• It is very necessary to develop agro technology for the domestication of naturally
occurring aromatic plants, basically those species exploited heavily.
• The collectors need to be trained regarding pre and post harvest technique to
minimize wastage and losses.
• It is an opportune time to make organized efforts in the introduction of several new
aromatic species of industrial utility and encourage their co-operative production and
utilization in fast growing native industry as well as for expert.
• Product diversification and manufacture of finished formulations as health care
herbal products and cosmetics should be encouraged.

References:
• Adhikary, S R.1989. Development of Essential Oils in Nepal. In: Proceedings of
the National Workshop on Chemical Investigation and Processing of Aromatic
Plants, Sept. (11-18), 1989, Kathmandu.
• Chaudhary, R P.1998. Biodiversity in Nepal: Status and Conservation. S. Devi
Saharanpur (UP), India and Tec Press Book, Bangkok, Thailand.
• DPR.1976. Medicinal Plants of Nepal. Department of Plant Resources, HMG/N,
Kathmandu.
• Farooqi, A A and B S Sreeramu. 2001. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops. Universities Press (India) Limited, India.
• Lawless, J.1995. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Element Books
Limited, UK.
• Press, J R, K K Shrestha and D A Sutton. 2000. Annotated Checklist of the
Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural History Museum, London.
• Rawal, R B and J Pradhan. 1996. Essential Oil Bearing Plants and Their
Commercial Processing in Nepal. In: Green Energy, Scientific Magazine, 2 (1):
43-50.