HISTORY, COASTAL ECOLOGY INTRODUCTION: This entry attempts to describe some of the ecological principles which have been

developed over the last 100 years or so, and discusses how they are applied to coastal system today. This is depend on the history of investigation of the way in which coastal habitats and species interact with each other and respond to human intervention. As human population increases greatly in the whole world, it increase pressure on marine and coastal ecosystems. Studied was focused on the distribution of individual species populations, pattern and process in species and group of species, and the relationship with the physical environment. CASE STUDY: The ecological change studies was take place at salt marshes and sand dunes because of their seemingly regular patterns of succession and their dynamic nature. It is also because both places shows simple successional sequences. The caharacteristics were studied on the pattern of plant communities and the process through which these pattern develops. Thus, coastal vegetetation became recognized as a series of type progressing from early pioneer stages to more complex forms which could be related to the physical parameters affecting their development. DISCUSSION Plant zonation and succession Population of seaweeds was influenced by the tidal at coastal area, wave exposure and number of rocks at the shore. Early studies also found out that the function or role of plants to overcome hostile environment will determine the sequence of development of the plants or also known as succession. Succession process refer to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat or by some form of disturbance of an existing community. The growth habit of the plant, including root system, soil water, mineral nutrient were the subjects that had been studied to define the adaptations of individual species in overcoming environmental pressure. Succession mostly occured at salt marshes. Different species was observed due to the different tidal movement. Thus, it can be conclude that tidal

movement is the biggest influence on plant succession for coastal area with zero influence from human. Coastal networks This topic discused on important aspect that relate with each other to develop the habitat. The physical condition such as plants and animals provide powerful controls on population. It include the relationship involving predator-prey and intra and inter specific competition. Nutrient cycles and energy flow is also needed to support the relationship or presented as generalized food web. Based on my ecology knowledge, food energy is pass or flow from one organism to another in a food web with some energy being lost at each level. Organisms in a food chain are grouped into trophic levels. In tophic levels, there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey. CONCLUSION Exploring the ecological interactions of species and environment are the major objective of ecological studies. The most important thing, it must be a direct investigation without any intervention of human factors, whether they are concerned for vegetation succession or change in animal populations. A population of animals is a group of animals of the same kind, same species, have the same characteristics and living in the same habitat, for this study, at coastal areas. The studies on ecology help in identification, protection and management of areas of nature conservation importance. Thus, it can help to develop in sustaining coastal habitats. Eventhough the ecological study is without human interfere, but nowadays, many natural systems had been modified by human activity, for example, deforestation. Land improvement for agriculture also has destroyed large areas of transitional vegetation and increase the rate of pollution. Policies need to be developed to fulfill the politicians and the traditional conservationist responsibility and future ecological studies must include human use as a key component of the natural system. REFLECTION Overall, I can make a conclusion that the journal is mainly about the coastal system. A coastal system is typically characterized as the erosinal and depositional processes at a particular coastline. For this journal, I focused on plant succession and coastal network only as this is the only topic that relate with my ecology knowledge that i learnt in class. There are severeal factors that affect the population of plants (seaweeds), or also known as vegetation

population, which are tidal movement and altering of sea level. The coastal area also can relate with the food web, based on the animals that live at the area. The food web shows how food energy pass or flow from one trophic level to another. Other that that, it also include the nutrient cycle. All of those aspects interact with each other, corresponding to the definition of ecology.

THE ROLE OF PARASITES IN ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF MIGRATION AND MIGRATORY CONNECTIVITY INTRODUCTION Connectivity in ecology among populations and habitats is more important for a wide range of ecological processes. The connectivity in this journal is refer to the bird migratory based on the analysis on migratory connectivity and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Some bird species have populations with different breeding areas, different winter quarters and some differ with respect to both. The migratory connectivity studies is needed to connect breeding and wintering grounds of different species. It also to explore how migration and connectivity may lead to population divergence and speciation. DISCUSSION Animals are faithful to their breeding and wintering grounds Birds and other animals are highly faithful to their breeding sites. In addition, birds are highly faithful to their wintering sites, often returning year after year to the same location both during migration and in winter. I learnt about bird migratory and feel the experience on watching the real group of migratory birds during a fieldtrip to Taman Alam, Kuala Selangor. Thus, the wintering ground for that bird is at Taman Alam. Studies provide evidence of strong connectivity and hence for selection against dispersal. Why are animals faithful to their breeding and wintering grounds? Migratory birds have high levels of site fidelity or loyalty because they have the morphology that facilitates movement that support their journey for long distance, from one country to another. There are severeal reasons that maintain the site fidelity, including other important agents, other than parasitism. Parasites co-evolve with host immunity, and local adaptation or wintering grounds and breeding sites environment will affect the interactions between host(birds) and parasites. Migration and parasitism Spring arrival date of migratory birds to the breeding grounds is predicted by the abundance of chewing lice, feather mites and blood parasites in males. It shows that bird migratory is affected by parasitism and the ability to cope with parasites. Migratory connectivity also play

a role in determining individual parasite load, thereby affecting body condition and and hence migratory performance. What are the fitness benefits of migration? Migrant birds that moved away from environment with intense competition would be at a selective advantage, even when such migration was seasonal and only provide a fitness benefit during part of the annual cycle. I can make a conclusion that the lower population density and less favorable conditions for development of parasites at high latitudes may reduce the fitness costs of long distance migration. CONCLUSION Host parasite interactions and local adaptation in hostparasite interactions may provide a general explanation for the evolution of migratory connectivity. Recent studies of humans suggest that the main cause of mortality in migratory birds is infectious disease. It also believe that hostparasite interactions have played an equally important role in the evolution of life history and migration of other organisms including birds. The studies of connectivity and genetic population structure of blood parasites across migratory divides of hosts show weak effects. Parasites that are not vector-transmitted, and that also constitutes the majority of all parasites, show much greater evidence of co-adaptation, and studies of the role of parasites in the evolution of bird migration would benefit from a broadening of the taxonomic parasite perspective.

REFLECTION

Overall, this journal was discussed about the reasons why birds migrate and being faithful to their breeding and wintering grounds. The journal studied on the role of parasites in ecology and evolution of migration and migratory connectivity. The first idea that comes to my mind is what is the relationship between parasitism and migration? So, throughout, this journal, Ive got the ideas that the migration of the birds happen due to several important agents which are, parasites that relate with immune system of the male and female birds, fitness due to the intense competition force the birds to migrate, birds migrates based on habitats as they playing role in local adaptation and move based on latitudinal gradients (related with the diversity of parasites). Thus, after read the journal, I can make a conclusion that migration and connectivity lead to population divergence and speciation.

THE SHARED LANDSCAPE: WHAT DOES AESTHETICS HAVE TO DO WITH ECOLOGY?

INTRODUCTION Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection

on art, culture and nature. While, landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between urban development and ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. This journal discussed the relationship between aesthetics and ecology and the possibility of an ecological aesthetic that affects landscape planning, design and management.

DISCUSSION Aesthethisc influenced human or society by lead them to change or alter landscape in ways that may or may not be consistent with ecological function. In some other cases, those changes that made without recommendation from expert will damage important ecosystem and change the ecological system. Thus, this journal discussed and recommend the planning, design and management of landscapes that can fulfill both socials needs for aesthethics value and ecological principles.

Interactions between aesthethics and ecology in landscape perception

Every species seeks suitable habitat by responding to perceived cues in its environment. For Homo sapiens, the aesthetic pleasure derived from landscape experience is both a reflection of evolutionary history and a key driver of contemporary environmental behavior, including land use, development policies, and real estate markets. Aesthetic experience also can drive landscape change. Our desire to see, live in, and visit beautiful places and to avoid or want to improve places we perceive as ugly fundamentally affects landscape change. This desire is reflected in landscape policy and management, where aesthetics has been widely recognized as a non-commodity resource.

The disjuncture between aesthethics and ecology Landscape management practices that effectively conserve water quality, protect soils or provide other important ecosystem services may not be seen as aesthetically pleasing. Yet, importantly, for all landscape types, people tend to interpret their aesthetic experience of landscape as providing information about its ecological quality. This ecological aesthetic is motivated by the idea that ecological processes may not conform to the visual qualities associated with a pleasurable landscape appearance, and that this disjuncture can encourage ecologically damaging anthropogenic landscape change. Thus, this ecological aesthetic may be seen as a forward projection of the beneficial relationship between landscape preference and ecology theorized by some to have been established through natural selection over human evolutionary history.

CONCLUSION Landscape patterns that elicit aesthetic responses of immediate pleasure or displeasure are an important starting point for formulating actions to affect landscape change. While certainly not all aesthetic pleasure from landscapes is a response to ecologically beneficial landscape patterns, we do argue that future landscape patterns, human experiences, and actions can be devised to create landscapes of all types that are ecologically beneficial and simultaneously elicit aesthetic pleasure. Landscape planning, design, and management that address the aesthetics of future landscape patterns, then, can be powerful ways to protect and enhance ecological goals.

REFLECTION After reading through this journal, Ive got the principles that bring by the researchers to mix up both aesthethics value and ecological principles in one project, that is landscape. Thus, more ideas were generat on planning, designing and mangement to make this project come true.