EEA/ADS/06/001 Water

Small water bodies - Assessment of status and threats of standing small water bodies
Date: 22. December, 2009
Version: 1.1

ETC/Water task.milestone.submilestone: Task 8

Prepared by / compiled by: ETC/W Organisation: IWRS EEA Project manager: Niels Thyssen
Version History Version Date 1.0 1.1 01/07/2008 22/12/2009 Author Lidija Globevnik Tina Kirn Lidija Globevnik Tina Kirn Status and description First draft Final draft Distribution Niels Thyssen

Acknowledgement We would like to thank to all authors who contribute their articles for this briefing and to those who inform us on articles from other authors. Thanks to Andrew Hull for the book Pond & pond landscapes of Europe. Proceedings, International Conference of the Pond Life Project.

Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 4 2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SPATIAL EXTENT OF STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES WITH HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................. 5 2.1. Lakes in Europe ..................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.1. Glacial mountain lakes ................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.2. Glacial lowland lakes ...................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.3. Karst lakes...................................................................................................................................... 6 2.1.4. Lakes by countries.......................................................................................................................... 7 2.2. Ponds ................................................................................................................................................... 12 2.2.1. Temporary ponds and pools......................................................................................................... 16 2.2.2. Kettle holes................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.3. Farm ponds .................................................................................................................................. 18 2.2.4. Karstic ponds................................................................................................................................ 19 2.2.5. Fish ponds.................................................................................................................................... 21 2.3. Springs ................................................................................................................................................. 24 2.4. Mires, bogs and fens ............................................................................................................................ 25 3. IMPORTANCE OF STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES (ECOSYSTEM SERVICES).............................. 28 3.1. Ecological importance - biology, hydrology, water quality .................................................................... 28 3.1.1. Lakes............................................................................................................................................ 28 3.1.1.1. Glacial lakes ......................................................................................................................... 28 3.1.1.2. Karst lakes ............................................................................................................................ 28 3.1.1.3. Fluvial lakes (floodplains) ..................................................................................................... 32 3.1.1.4. Shallow lakes........................................................................................................................ 33 3.1.2. Ponds ........................................................................................................................................... 36 3.1.2.1. Mountain ponds .................................................................................................................... 41 3.1.2.2. Temporary ponds and pools ................................................................................................. 43 3.1.2.3. Mediterranean ponds............................................................................................................ 45 3.1.2.4. Kettle holes ........................................................................................................................... 47 3.1.2.5. Farm ponds........................................................................................................................... 47 3.1.2.6. Karstic ponds ........................................................................................................................ 53 3.1.2.7. Fish ponds ............................................................................................................................ 53 3.1.3. Gravel pits .................................................................................................................................... 56 3.1.4. Springs ......................................................................................................................................... 59 3.1.5. Mires, bogs and fens .................................................................................................................... 65 3.2. Economic and social importance.......................................................................................................... 68 4. THREATS TO STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES.................................................................................. 74 4.1. Different threats.................................................................................................................................... 74 4.2. Hydromorphological alteration.............................................................................................................. 78 4.3. Water withdrawal.................................................................................................................................. 81 4.4. Pollution and water quality ................................................................................................................... 82 4.5. Acidification .......................................................................................................................................... 94 4.6. Climate change .................................................................................................................................... 97 4.7. Introduction of invasive alien species................................................................................................. 100 4.8. Sedimentation .................................................................................................................................... 102 4.9. Lack of management.......................................................................................................................... 103 5. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 104

1. INTRODUCTION
Small water bodies are ecologically very important. They support specific and important hydrological, chemical and biological processes. Spatially small they are mainly neglected in national nature resources management acitivities. In 2007 a briefing paper on assessment of status and threats of small water rivers was produced with preliminary analysis of their spatial characteristics (by IWRS). In 2008 an extended technical paper with the results of detailed spatial analysis of small rivers and an assessment of status and threats of other small water bodies was produced. A proposal for work for the assessment in 2008 has been developed in Oct 2007. The proposal how to produce the extended technical paper on the extent of small water bodies in Europe is done by DHI separately. The objective of work in 2008 is to rise awareness of the ecological importance of small water bodies in Europe. The purpose of work in 2008 is to produce an overview of the spatial distribution of small water bodies in Europe and to describe their ecological importance in terms of their biology, hydrology and water quality, economic and social importance (ecosystem services) and their different threats. In 2009, an extract of this technical paper was produced. For the purpose of this report, the following categores are used: - tectonic lakes - volcanic lakes - glacial lakes - fluvial: oxbow lakes, floodplain lakes, river backwaters - karst lakes - coastal brackish lakes - saline lakes - limnocrenic and other springs - mires, bogs, fens, peatland, headwater wetlands, marches - river reservoirs (hydropower accumulations), water storages - gravel pit lakes - karstic ponds, ponds for cattle bredding, farm ponds - fish ponds In this report a small standing water body has a surface area smaller than 1 km2. The most important small water bodies in Europe are glacial lakes in Boreal region and mountains (e.g. Alps), springs and karstic ponds in karst regions, kettle holes in young moraine regions, farm ponds on agricultural land, fish ponds in Central Europe, temporary pools in the Mediterranean basin, and mires, bogs and fens in Northern, Western and Central Europe. Fluvial standing waters are important along all lowland rivers. On larger alluvial areas also gravel pit lakes are numerous. In this study their general characteristics, ecological importance in terms of their biology, hydrology and water quality, economic and social importance (ecosystem services) and their threats are presented.

2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SPATIAL EXTENT OF STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES WITH HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 2.1. Lakes in Europe
Approximately 500 000 still water bodies over 1 hectare exist in Europe (EEA, 1995). This compares with an estimated figure of 8.3 million lakes worldwide (Pourriot & Meybeck 1995). The majority of natural lakes in Europe occur in Norway, Sweden and Finland. In terms of numbers, over 134 000, 85 000 and 56 000 lakes over 1 hectare have been counted in Norway, Sweden and Finland respectively (Skjelkvle et al. 1997, EPA Sweden 1992, Wahlstrm et al. 1993). It has been estimated that over 9% of Finland and Sweden are covered by freshwater lakes. Significant numbers of natural lakes also exist in Iceland, Ireland and Scotland. Most of the largest European lakes are located in the Nordic countries and in the Alpine regions. Estimated numbers of still water bodies according to size

Sources of data: EEA (1996) and responses to EEA questionnaire for Dobris+3 report (1) Includes lagoons and reservoirs (2) Only natural lakes (3) Only reservoirs NI = no information (Leonard, Crouzet, 1999)

2.1.1. Glacial mountain lakes

Lakes of Alpine region The Pyrenees also have an abundance of torrents, cascades and lakes. There are over 1,500 lakes above 1,000 m. The Carpathians contain numerous small lakes (many of glacial origin) and a dense network of rivers and streams which are well nourished by the abundant rainfall. (Natura 2000 in the Alpine region, 2005)

2.1.2. Glacial lowland lakes

The Boreal region of the European Union includes most of Sweden and Finland, all of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and much of the Baltic Sea. With its endless expanse of coniferous forests, mires and lakes, the Boreal region forms part of a distinct band of vegetation which circles the entire northern hemisphere.

Besides forests wetlands are the most common landscape feature. Around 10,000 years ago the entire Boreal region was covered in ice. As the massive ice sheet retreated after the last ice age, it carved shallow depressions into the hard bedrock of granite and gneiss. This explains why there are such a large number of lakes, rivers and mires in the region today. Three quarters of Europes 600,000 natural lakes and some of its largest bogs are found here. In parts of the far north, peatlands make up 50% of the land surface. Habitat types blend seamlessly into one another, creating a characteristic mosaic landscape of forests and wetlands. Along the coast, bedrock archipelagos intermingle with low-lying brackish fens and meadows, providing ideal nesting grounds for hundreds of thousands of migratory birds. (Natura 2000 in the Boreal region, 2005)

There are hundreds of thousands of lakes in the region; at least 3/4 of the approximately 600 000 European 2 2 natural lakes larger than 0.01 km are located here. Most of them are small (less than 1 km ). (The Boreal biogeographical, 2007)

Below the plains, there exists a moraine belt containing thousands of lakes, fens and mires around the Pomeranian region in East Germany and Poland. This is one of the least populated areas of the Continental belt, due not only to the difficult terrain but also to its strategic location after the World Wars as a border region between East and West. (Natura 2000 in the Continental region, 2005)

2.1.3. Karst lakes

Turloughs are the priority habitat type in the EU Habitats Directive. They are temporary lakes principally filled by subterranean waters and particular to karstic limestone areas. Most flood in the autumn and then dry up between April and July. However, some may flood at any time of the year after heavy rainfall and dry out again in a few days; others, close to the sea, may be affected by the tide in summer. These lakes fill and empty at particular places. The soils are quite variable, including limestone bedrock, marls, peat, clay and humus, while aquatic conditions range from ultra oligotrophic to eutrophic. The vegetation mainly belongs to the alliance Lolio Potentillion anserinae Tx. 1947, but also to the Caricion davallianae Klika 1934. (Interpretation Manual of.., 2003) Ireland: turloughs Characteristics Turloughs are depressions in karst areas, seasonally inundated mostly by groundwater and supporting vegetation and/or soils characteristic of wetlands (Working Group on Groundwater, 2004). Flooding annually in autumn through springs and fissures in the underlying limestone and draining in the springtime, often through the same fissures or swallow-holes. There may also be sporadic rises at other times in response to high rainfall. Some turlough basins retain standing water in channels, pools or small lakes when flooding subsides. Although they harbour an aquatic fauna, they are not true lakes, since most drain in the summer, revealing fen or grassland vegetation which is frequently grazed by livestock. These karst wetland ecosystems have been described as temporal ecotones. Number, distribution Over 300 turloughs have been documented in Ireland. The greatest density of turloughs is in the western third of Ireland. The biggest turlough in Ireland is Rahasane in County Galway (ca. 260 ha). Turlough loss by drainage Roughly one third of turloughs over 10 hectares have been irreversibly damaged by drainage (Coxon, 1986). The impact of land drainage on groundwater resources is particularly acute in karst areas because of the unique characteristics of karstic aquifers. Arterial drainage, or drainage of river systems to dry out land within the catchment, of karst lowlands in Ireland since the mid-19th century has resulted in losses of recharge, lowering of water tables, drying up of turloughs, alteration of underground flow routes, and periodic groundwater contamination (Drew and Coxon, 1988). Though large-scale drainage has ceased, it resulted in the loss of at least 50% of flooded turlough area (Coxon, 1986; Goodwillie, 2001). (Sheehy Skeffington et al., 2006)

2.1.4. Lakes by countries

Countries/RBDs with small lakes (less than 50 ha) included in national WFD typology In some regions where there are many SWBs, the general approach will need to be adopted. It may be appropriate to aggregate water bodies into groups for certain purposes. The lower size limit of surface water bodies may be set lower than the ones prescribed in typology system A (lakes: the smallest size range: 0.5 - 1 2 km surface area), in certain cases, i.e. if Member states decide that certain smaller water bodies are significant and require separate identification. This is of special ecological relevance for lakes. Otherwise, small elements of surface water are included as part of a contiguous larger water body, where possible. (WFD CIS Guidance Document No. 2, 2003; Guidance Document No. 10, 2003).

Ireland The typology and risk assessment of Irish lakes for article 5 of WFD included all lakes greater than 0.5 km 2 (large lakes) and lakes less than 0.5 km (small lakes) if they were located in protected areas (e.g. in Special Areas of Conservation, or if they were used for water abstraction for drinking purposes). (The Characterisation and Analysis, 2005)
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Ireland: Western River Basin District (RBD) The basin area of the Western River Basin District (RBD) of Ireland is rich in lakes, the highest number of lakes in the country, with a total of 5,638 lakes of which 69 are greater than 50 hectares. Only one percent of lakes are greater than 50 hectares in size, these include the Great Western lakes the Corrib, Mask, Conn and Cuilin. Four percent are between 50 and 10 hectares, a further four percent between 10 and 5 hectares, fifteen percent between 5 and 1 hectare and seventy six percent are less than 1 hectare in size. The water body is the reporting unit required by the WFD and it is also the management unit for future management of waters. There are 5,638 lake water bodies but only a selection (381) are reported on. Although over 5,638 are located in the Western RBD area not all are required to be assessed under the WFD. The Water Framework Directive requires the status of the following lakes to be reported: - greater than 50 hectares in size, 3 - water abstraction lakes (with abstractions greater than 10 m per day), - lakes that are associated with Special Areas of Conservation (SAC). For SACs it is necessary to report on a representative number of lakes that reflect the status of waterbodies within the SAC. These are generally lakes of very small size (less than 1ha) There are a total of 69 lakes greater than 50 ha in the Western RBD. When water abstraction lakes and lakes associated with SACs are added this number increases to 381. (Western River Basin, 2005)

The UK The identification of minor elements of surface water, such as garden ponds and artificial drainage ditches, as separate water bodies would cause significant logistical difficulties, and stretch the resources available to improve more significant elements of surface water. A balance is needed, so that the management process is not overloaded and disabled by the creation of large numbers of very small management units. UK technical advisory group on the WFD suggest that small elements of surface water should be identified as separate surface water bodies in certain cases, i.e. if they are designated as protected areas, which will also assist to achieve the objectives for these areas: (a) a SPA or candidate SPA under the Bird Directive and a SAC or candidate SAC under the Habitat Directive; (b) drinking water protected area under Drinking Water Directive; (c) a nutrient-sensitive area under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive or the Nitrates Directive; (d) a bathing water under the Bathing Waters Directive; (e) an area for the protection of economically significant aquatic species under the Shellfish Waters Directive or the Freshwater Fish Waters Directive. (Guidance on the identification..., 2003)

Scotland Surface water bodies have been identified using natural features as well as known pressures and existing water quality information. As a result we have divided surface waters in the Scotland river basin district into 2,005 river, 309 loch, 40 transitional and 449 coastal water bodies. The Directive applies to inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and groundwaters, but for practical purposes, we used size thresholds from the Directives typology system to initially identify river and 2 2 loch water bodies. These thresholds are 0.5 km for the surface area of lochs and 10 km for river catchment area. Water bodies identified using these thresholds are referred to as baseline water bodies. Numbers presented throughout this report refer only to baseline water bodies. The length of baseline rivers is measured to their source mapped at 1:50,000 scale. SEPA has identified and assessed additional small waters where justified by environmental concerns and to meet the requirements of regulatory legislation such as for drinking water supplies. These small waters represent the range of issues encountered for many other small waters. A total of 580 small rivers and 200 small lochs have been identified for the Scotland river basin district. Better information is needed to characterise these and other small waters and this will be taken forward in future years. (Scotland River Basin District, 2005)

Northern Ireland Table below lists the small lake water body types generated. The water bodies have been identified for the following reasons: - Both environmental agencies in Ecoregion 17, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Environment and Heritage Service (EHS), have agreed that all lakes above 10 ha are significant units in ecological terms on the island of Ireland. - Small lakes identified or proposed by EHS Natural Heritage as supporting species or habitats of conservation interest (Special Protection Areas (SPA), Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) and Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSI)). Small water body types for lakes Type Type 1: <200 m, calcareous, non-peat, <10 ha Type 2: <200 m, calcareous, peat,<10 ha Type 3: <200 m, calcareous, non-peat, 10 50 ha Type 4: <200 m, calcareous, peat, 10 50 ha Type 7: <200 m, siliceous, non-peat, <10 ha Type 8: <200 m, siliceous, peat, <10 ha Type 9: <200 m, siliceous, non-peat, 10 50 ha Type 10: <200 m, siliceous, peat, 10 50 ha Type 13: >200 m, calcareous, non-peat, <10 ha Type 14: >200 m, calcareous, peat,<10 ha Type 15: >200 m, calcareous, non-peat, 10 50 ha Type 16: >200 m, calcareous, peat, 10 50 ha Type 20: >200 m, siliceous, peat, <10 ha Type 21: >200 m, siliceous, non-peat, 10 50 ha Type 22: >200 m, siliceous, peat, 10 50 ha Total (Small Water Bodies, 2005) Romania Lake surface area is differentiated in five size classes: < 0.5 km, 0.5-1 km, 1-10 km, 10-100 km and > 100 km. Number 65 33 61 2 12 14 42 4 18 37 6 2 14 3 2 315

(River basins management, 2004) Malta All the identified water bodies are small. This is particularly evident for inland surface water bodies (rivers, lakes and transitional waters) which are also very similar in type within their respective categories. Malta has considered a number of factors when designating and characterising these water bodies, including discreteness, status and ecological significance. These sites also form part of candidate Natura 2000 sites. Thus the need for protection of these Maltese inland water bodies justifies their designation under this Directive. Typology of surface waters Surface Water Category Lakes Number of types created by the typology 1 Number of water bodies occurring in each type in the water catchment district* 4 - calcareous, small (< 0.5 km )
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* The term water catchment district is the Maltese legislation equivalent to river basin district in the European Directive. (Water Framework Directive, 2005)

Denmark: SoE report In Denmark there are 120,000 registered lakes. By far the majority are ponds and small lakes, however, and only just over 2% are lakes larger than 1 ha. There are around 120,000 lakes exceeding 100 m , the majority of which are ponds and bogs, and only just over 2,500 exceed 1 ha in size. The important inland wetlands also include small ponds, bogs, raised bogs and periodically flooded meadows. The number of lakes has been decreasing for many years as a result of agricultural and urban development. This has mainly affected the small lakes, but the number of large lakes has also declined considerably. For example, the number of lakes in Aarhus county decreased from 2,735 around 1900 to 835 in 1980. In recent years the trend has reversed as small lakes are now encompassed by protection regulations too, and a number of lakes that had previously been drained have now been re-established. Moreover, the Counties are granting permission for the establishment of several hundred new lakes and ponds each year and concomitantly refusing most applications to eliminate lakes. (Bach et al., 2002)
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Denmark: Odense Pilot River Basin: Provisional Article 5 Report In Denmark, all lakes larger than 100 m are protected by the Protection of Nature Act and are individually identified. This protection is partly due to the fact that many small lakes were disappearing, and partly because the many small lakes are important natural elements in the very culturally influenced Danish landscape. For example, the small lakes and ponds together contain more species of macroinvertebrates such as worms, snails, mussels, crustaceans and insects than both the large lakes and watercourses (Fog & Wiberg-Larsen, 2 2002). As a consequence, in Odense Pilot River Basin, all lakes larger than 100 m have been identified as discrete water bodies. It is not practicable to investigate each of the more than 2 600 lakes, however. It is permissible to aggregate lakes in relation to monitoring, reporting and management. The lakes are grouped on the basis of lake type and catchment (assessed from GIS), and monitoring is carried out for a randomly selected subgroup of the lakes. This aggregation and selection has not yet been carried out. (Odense Pilot River Basin, 2003) There are 2 620 lakes larger than 100 m in Odense River Basin. Their combined area is 1.106 ha, corresponding to 1% of the whole basin. Many of the existing lakes in Odense River Basin have arisen as a result of human activity, e.g. peat mining, clay, marl or gravel quarrying, or as a result of dams etc. especially for operating mills. Millponds derived from damming watercourses are classified as heavily modified water bodies. Lakes created through human activity in a location where there has not previously been a water body are classified as artificial water bodies. This particularly applies to peat mine, gravel quarry and marl/clay quarry lakes, duck ponds, and, to a certain extent, also to village ponds and fire reservoirs. Of 66 investigated lakes in the basin, nearly half (45%) arose as a result of peat mining, and only 18 (27%) are natural. 18 lakes are characterized as natural, 44 as artificial water bodies (peat mine and marl, clay and gravel quarry lakes, village ponds, fire reservoirs, etc.) and 4 as heavily modified water bodies (dams and millponds). Of the larger lakes (>5 ha), however, nearly all are natural. Origin of 66 investigated lakes in Odense River Basin Origin No. of lakes % Natural 18 27 Peat mine 30 45 Marl/clay quarry 7 11 Gravel quarry 4 6 Village pond, etc. 3 5 Dam/millpond 4 6 Total 66 100 Unlike natural lakes, artificial and heavily modified lakes do not have to achieve good ecological status, but rather good ecological potential. Correspondingly, reference conditions do not have to be established for these lakes, but rather a maximum ecological potential.
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Over the years, many lakes have been exposed to various physical pressures in the form of water level regulation, reclamation etc. In some places, moreover, water abstraction has reduced water flow to the lakes. Conversely, new lakes have arisen through damming and excavation. A very large proportion of the typically small, shallow lakes have completely disappeared over the past 100 years or so as a result of drainage and lowering of the water level. For example, the number of lakes in the Lake Arreskov catchment area has decreased by 76% from 276 around the year 1890 to 65 in 1992. (Odense Pilot River Basin, 2003)

Estonia The lakes, which area is bigger than 0.5 km have been taken into account in the first place. Lakes, which are smaller than this, are identified as water bodies connected with the river, into which catchment area they belong (these can be small lakes from where or through which small rivers or streams flow, or even lakes with no outlet in the abovementioned catchment area). According to the definition, small lakes, which are 2 connected with a bigger lake than 0.5 km , form a single water body with the bigger lake. (Compliance with the Requirements, 2005)
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2.2. Ponds
Definitions of the term pond vary and there is no universal agreement of what a pond is. Surface area Ponds can vary in surface area from about one metre squared to a few hectares. For example the lower size limit of the cupular pools from the Island of Gavdos in Greece is less than one square metre. The upper size limit that differentiates ponds from lakes is two hectares in the UK and one hectare in Germany. The Ramsar definition of temporary pools includes waterbodies up to 10 hectares. The size of man-made fish ponds can be much higher: for example the biggest fish pond in Europe, in the Czech Republic, is 490 hectares in surface area. Depth Ponds can vary in depth from a few centimetres to many metres. Mediterranean temporary pools, for example, are defined as being a few centimetres in depth. Hell Kettles pond in Derbyshire (UK) is said to be bottomless! Water duration Some ponds hold water all year round, but many go through cycles of wetting and drying. Some highly ephemeral pools may only remain wet for a few weeks after rainfall. Origin Ponds can either be man-made or natural in origin. Natural processes have created ponds throughout geological time. Examples include topographical depressions created following glaciations, floodplain backwaters, or ponds created by tree falls or animals (e.g. wild boar). Unfortunately, natural ponds are not as common in the European landscape as they once were, mainly due to human activities such as agricultural intensification, river regulation and drainage. For the last few thousand years people have also artificially created ponds for industry, agriculture and to provide beauty in the landscape. Ponds are now increasingly being created for ecosystem services and leisure activities (e.g. on golf courses). Worldwide, ponds occur in all biogeographical regions, from desert to tundra pools in the Arctic Circle. Ponds are often found in clusters, forming a network of patches or pondscapes. These are particularly common on floodplains, but ponds can also occur naturally at high densities in other types of landscapes, such as some high altitude zones of the Alps. Examples of natural ponds which occur at high density include the kettleholes of northern Europe which run from Denmark, through northern Germany and Poland, to Belarus. Other pond landscapes are of human origin, such as those in the north west of England and north east Germany which were dug to extract lime-rich marl used to fertilise surrounding fields. (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

Pondscape The effective pond landscape (pondscape) includes the pond and its immediate catchment, but also the terrestrial matrix of land between ponds. As a result, land management activities some distance away from the waterbody may threaten individual ponds or complexes in both rural and urban locations (Boothby 1997). This has considerable importance when considering the dispersal of aquatic organisms (such as aquatic insects and amphibia) from their birth pond and the colonization of new or adjacent ponds. In the case of amphibians, the pondscape matrix also strongly influences foraging activity and the availability of suitable winter hibernation sites (Griffiths 1997). Origin of ponds Ponds have been created by a variety of natural processes such as glaciation, land subsidence, river action and tree falls, although in the contemporary landscape anthropogenic activities are widely acknowledged as the dominant force influencing their creation and elimination in temperate latitudes

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(Rackham 1986). Ponds are naturally more common in areas with impervious geologies, where surface waters easily collect in depressions. However, this pattern is not always clear, since large numbers of irrigation, livestock and dew-ponds have historically been created in areas underlain by highly porous rock (e.g. chalk and limestone) where natural surface waters are uncommon, to ensure reliable water sources for agriculture (Beebee 1997; Stanton 1995). Land use Ponds occur in almost all land-use types, including mountainous uplands, moorlands, woodlands, grasslands, coastal margins and in all agricultural settings. (Wood et al., 2003)

The UK: number, distribution and pond loss (historical changes) Ponds account for around 97 per cent of the total number of standing water bodies in the UK, but only 14 per cent of the total surface area (Bailey-Watts et al. 2000). The total number of ponds in the UK is not known, although Rackham (1986) estimated that around 800 000 ponds existed in England and Wales in 1880, based on detailed analysis of Ordnance Survey maps and applying a correction factor for ponds less than six metres in diameter that would have not been surveyed. A similar survey for the 1920s estimated that around 340 000 ponds existed, although there was considerable spatial variability across England and Wales. The lowest density of ponds occurred in upland areas and the highest in areas of ancient woodland and agricultural land in Norfolk, Suffolk and Cheshire. The Lowland Pond Survey 1996 estimated the number of lowland ponds in Great Britain to be around 228 900 (Williams et al. 1998). Pond loss The destruction of pond habitats has three components: straightforward loss of habitat, increased fragmentation of the remaining habitat and reduced habitat quality. Fragmentation can be defined as the remaining habitat of fixed total area that is located within increasingly smaller and more isolated discrete fragments (patches) (Hanski 1999). Habitat loss and fragmentation usually occur together and have undoubtedly led to greater pressure on a number of pond species due to a reduction in dispersal and colonization opportunities (Mller 2003; Godreau et al. 1999). Attempts to quantify pond loss are difficult, since the total number of ponds in the UK is unknown. It is widely acknowledged that natural succession, agricultural land drainage and developments for urban housing, industry or transport infrastructure have significantly reduced the number of ponds over the last 150 years (Boothby and Hull 1997). Regional estimates of loss vary widely from 90 per cent for parts of London (Langton 1985) to six per cent for urban ponds in Edinburgh (Jeffries and Mills 1990). However, direct comparison between studies is not always possible, since many only provide an estimate of pond number, or rates of pond loss, rather than definitive figures. Pond loss appears to have been greater in the last two decades than during any other period (Boothby et al. 1995). Data from the Lowland Pond Survey 1996 (Williams et al. 1998) indicate that most ponds lost between 1990 and 1996 were from arable land, while there was a net increase on pastoral land.

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Estimates of pond loss from different parts of the UK

(Wood et al., 2003)

The UK: Lowland pond survey The Lowland Pond Survey in England, Wales and Scotland was carried by Pond Conservation in 1998. The number of ponds in lowland Britain was estimated and the first national estimate of pond ecological quality was provided, in terms of the variety of plants and invertebrates living in them. Main findings - It was estimated there were 228,900 ponds in lowland areas. - Between 1990 and 1996 there was a high turnover of ponds, with an estimated 17,000 ponds lost but an estimated 15,000 new ponds made. - More than a third of the ponds were seasonal and were dry in the summer. Of the permanent ponds, 40 % were very shallow with an average water depth of less than 25 cm. (Lowland pond survey, 2008)

The UK: ponds (see the whole section of Pond Priority Habitat Proposal under ecological importance) Habitats at risk Ponds are vulnerable to loss and damage by a wide range of factors including nutrient enrichment and infilling. The 1996 Lowland Pond Survey (LPS96) shows that at least 50% of ponds in the wider countryside are highly degraded and that there is widespread evidence of enrichment and other diffuse pollution impacts. Temporary ponds are believed to be more degraded than permanent ponds. There is also growing concern that even ponds in semi-natural landscapes are at risk from air-borne pollution (e.g. acidification, nutrient-enriched rainfall) and climate change, to which shallow ponds are recognised as being particularly vulnerable. Pond numbers in the UK are probably at an historic low, with the loss of about 70% of the ponds existing in 1880. Much of the loss appears to have occurred in the second half of the 20th century as a result of agricultural change and urbanisation. In addition, LPS96 and Countryside Survey 2000 data show that, although pond numbers are now beginning to stabilise, there is an exceptionally high turnover of ponds, with 1% of the total resource both destroyed and created each year. There is currently no indication of the quality of ponds lost compared to those gained. However, LPS96 suggests that most new ponds are created (a) with stream inflows - a practice discouraged in many other European countries, since most inflows are polluted, and (b) as fishing lakes. Both trends are worrying. Recent evidence shows that many high value ponds are seriously at risk from the spread of alien invasive species of plants and animals. With increased emphasis on access to the countryside, this risk is likely to increase. (Nicolet et al., 2007) In the UK, there are about 400,000 ponds, which are defined as being between 0.0025 and 2 hectares in area. This represents 97 percent of the number of all discrete standing waterbodies. (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

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Ponds in Cheshire, North West England There are nearly 17,000 pond sites in Cheshire, and it is claimed that the county has one of the highest pond densities in north-west Europe (Hull et al. 1992). The county is predominantly agricultural, and much of it still comprises a medium to small scale field pattern bordered by hedgerows, with small copses and ponds (Hull and Boothby 1996). The majority of ponds are unprotected, in private ownership and on farmland over which there is very little control in respect of changes of use or intensification. Over 24 year period between 1969 and 1993, agriculture accounted for 2 out of every 3 ponds which were lost. However, a significant percentage is attributable to development activities of various kinds. Development activities come under the control of local planning authorities. Reasons for pond loss in Cheshire between 1969-1993 Pond sites lost Ponds lost to: No. % Transport infrastructure 205 3.0 Industry and commerce 764 11.2 Housing 794 11.7 Recreation 517 7.6 Agriculture 4489 66.0 Total lost ponds 6769 100.0 From Boothby and Hull (1997) (Marshall et al., 1999)

A census of ponds in Cheshire, North West England Of the 41 564 small water bodies (ponds) identified on Ordnance Survey maps of Cheshire in ca 1870, 61% had disappeared by the early 1990s. Pond loss has taken place across the county and is associated with a number of different replacement landuses; loss rates are highest in areas of urban development. Using aerial photography, only 45% of extant ponds show areas of open water, many being completely overshaded by trees or with substantial emergent vegetation. The effects of pond loss are now being felt in increasing fragmentation of the total resource; the density of wet -2 -2 ponds over the entire county has fallen from 17.8 km (ca 1870) to 3.25 km (1992/93), and the connectedness of the pond landscape has been similarly reduced. (Boothby, Hull, 1997)

A survey of pond loss in Essex, South-east England An extensive survey used only maps while a smaller, intensive survey combined maps with a field study. 2 In total, 283.43 km were surveyed, approximately 7% of the total area. Fifty-five per cent of the ponds present in 1870 had disappeared by 1960 with the greatest loss occurring between 1920 and 1960. Loss of ponds in agricultural locations contributed most to this because of their high initial number and their high rates of loss. Percentage losses of large and small ponds were greater than for medium-sized ponds. A field survey showed that a further 23% of a random sample of ponds shown on maps of 1960 could not be found in 1989. Overall loss rates for the period 1870-1989 are estimated to be 68.6% for the extensive area and 54.8% for the intensive area. (Heath, Whitehead, 1992)

Malta: ponds, pools, water tanks Malta with surface are of less than 300 km is mostly limestone, and before 1830s had much surface water: marshes, pools, ponds, rivers, springs, etc with species that are typical of (undamaged) limestone in southern Europe (e.g. Sicily, S. Italy, S. France). Because of sever land drainage and abstraction, the island is now very dry as nearly all Malta's surface water have been removed, yet, surprisingly, some ponds remain. There are summer ponds in rivers; spring pools, natural and constructed; freshwater rock pools; and constructed water tanks, etc.
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Ecosystems services Irrigation has been spreading fast, using water from river impoundments, partly-treated sewage effluent, springs and domestic supply, as well as groundwater. In Malta, most surface waters are used - and indeed created - for irrigation, since human impact became severe. Management is for irrigation water, flood hazards, and to look clean and tidy (dredging of rivers). Summer ponds in river and stream beds in the dry season (most with springs) are mostly dammed/ impounded. Impoundments have been dug since 1890s, usually with dams. The major ones were sited on springs, puddled with clay, and presumably often on previous pools. Only a few are now summer-wet and many are no longer even winter-wet. The vegetation is very poor and is even worse if the water is polluted as well. River pools are distinctive landscape of much value, often within steep river valleys. Spring pools are still fairly frequent. Many have been dried, and others have been altered, e.g. locked away behind doors. Of those left, some are small pools within caves. The remainder have mostly been dug out, and perhaps stoned. Vegetation ranges from nothing to diverse, with rare species. Freshwater rock pools occur on the hard Caralline limestone, usually in sheltered places, and now usually in remote ones. Pools persist water for at least several months. The water quality is good, deriving from springs or rain. The vegetation is still diverse. Water tanks (constructed reservoirs) are frequent, and filled by one or more spring water, borehole (aquifer) water and run-off. Most belong to individual farmers, though a few are larger for general supply. Some are merely temporary stores for (maybe polluted) run-off. They have little habitat value, but add to the diversity of the Maltese landscape and are important aesthetic landscape feature (pale limestone tanks, mostly on slopes). Disused quarries are increasing and some bear water much of the year. The habitat is harsh: though eventually it may ameliorate. (Haslam, 1999)

2.2.1. Temporary ponds and pools

Temporary pools as Ramsar wetland type Temporary pools are usually small (< 10 ha in area) and shallow wetlands which are characterized by an alternation of flooded and dry phases, and whose hydrology is largely autonomous. Temporary pools can occur in many different parts of the world, but are particularly well represented in karstic, arid, semi-arid, and mediterranean-type regions. (The Ramsar Convention., 2002)

Mediterranean temporary ponds as habitat type by Natura 2000 Mediterranean temporary ponds are very shallow temporary ponds (a few centimetres deep) which exist only in winter or late spring, with a flora mainly composed of Mediterranean therophytic and geophytic species belonging to the alliances Isoetion, Nanocyperion flavescentis, Preslion cervinae, Agrostion salmanticae, Heleochloion and Lythrion tribracteati. (Interpretation Manual of.., 2003) Temporary ponds are common throughout Europe, including Northern and Alpine regions, but they are a particularly important pond type on the mainland and islands of the Mediterranean basin. Indeed, temporary ponds are the commonest and most characteristic freshwaters in North Africa. (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

2.2.2. Kettle holes

In Germany, the young moraine region of Northeast Germany has the highest density of natural ponds, the so-called kettle-holes created by the last glaciations. The estimated number of kettle-holes between 0.01 and 2 1 hectare is about 167,000 in a 30,800 km area, compared to 4,901 lakes (> 1 hectare). (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

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Young moraine landscapes are characterised by regions with internal catchments. Glacially shaped kettle 2 holes are depressional small lentic waters or wetlands respectively (< 0.01 km ) within the sinks of these catchments. In Northeast Germany, kettle holes are high distributed (more than 150,000), mostly within arable land. (Kalettka et al., 2005a) Wet depressions are important habitats in the agricultural landscape. In NE Germany, many of these depressions are morainic kettle holes containing temporary or permanent water bodies. Such kettle holes were formed at the end of the last glaciation, about 12,000 year ago, by slowly melting blocks of buried dead ice. (Frielinghaus, 1998)

Germany: historical overview, threats (drainage, agriculture intensification) In the young-moraine landscapes of Northeast-Germany, wide-flat drainage and the intensification of agriculture have caused the degradation or destruction of numerous ponds. Currently in the study area of 2 Barnim (Northeast of Berlin, 3 km ) 40 ponds exist. The number decreased from 60 ponds 150 years ago, as identified on an old map (Urmetischblatt 1839). (Schneeweiss, Beckmann, 1999)

Poland: historical overview, threats (agriculture intensification, melioration) Historical analysis in occurrence of mid-field ponds situated in the area of younger plaistocene landscapes of Pomerania in Poland was analysed. The analysis was based on the comparison of topographical maps in 2 scale 1 25 000 from 1888 and 1980 covering the area of 9039 km . In addition, loss of the ponds was analysed in relation to respective mesoregions and the character of surface features, taking into consideration the water surface size and melioration works conducted in the drainage basin area. Mid-field ponds located in the areas which usage in compared periods has not changed were chosen. Characteristics of ponds The landscape of Northern Europe is created by various postglacial forms, amongst them interior terrain depressions filled with water, refereed as water ponds. They are located both north as well as south of the line determining the maximum range of the Baltic glaciation. They are the most characteristic for the areas of moraine plateaus - ground and end moraine in the range of the last Baltic icing, whereas they have disappeared on the older areas. The area of the ponds varies between 0.1 to 1.0 ha. Threats All of the water ponds and especially the midfield ponds undergo the process of land formation, which to the great extend was modified by human activities. Accelerated filling of depressions appeared already during intensive settling phases, as a result of introduction of listers skids and ploughs in early medieval age. After the Second World War on the area of Pomerania agriculture intensification and creation of large area farms was started. The shaping of the agrarian sphere was at that time directed to creation of very large crop rotation fields without any other agricultural land use. It lead to elimination of all obstacles, water ponds were amongst those obstacles. Melioration had as well influence on mid-field ponds and marshes disappearance. Particular intensification of melioration works in Pomerania took place in the twenties and thirties of the 20th century, when majority grasslands were meliorated. All of the above activities led to disappearance of the substantial number of ponds, which in turn entailed a series of negative phenomena within aquatic biocenosis, both in flora and fauna. Up till now in Poland midfield ponds were ranked as wastelands, but their more and more documented biocenotic and phytocenotic role caused that presently activities are being undertaken in order to preserve them. Results th Mid-field ponds at the end of the 19 century accounted for 59.4% of all small water bodies plotted on the maps. In comparison with the ponds located within the forested areas, meadows and in inhibited areas they were subject to land forming processes to much greater degree, therefore their share in a

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group of all small water bodies during the period of less than hundred years dropped to 39.4%. th th Average disappearance of mid-field ponds between the end of the 19 and second half of the 20 century on the whole area researched was estimated at 70.2%. To a lesser degree disappeared ponds located on the meadows (65.5%), in the forests (63.0%) and in inhibited areas (39.5%). The smallest ponds were primarily turned into farmlands this was due to their susceptibility for drying and possibility of ease for levelling the basin. During the time period of less than one hundred years 80.1% of the smallest ponds were taken over for farmlands, whereas over half of larger dried out ponds (0.5-1.0 ha) reminded as unused dry depressions. Dry depressions are abundant in the areas where melioration works were conducted in the past-war period. In the case of drying out of the mid-field ponds reminding from the late 19-hundreds it was observed that the water surface has diminished significantly in respect of larger basins. Amongst ponds 0.5-1.0 ha (state th as of 19 century) in over 80% cases decrease of the water surface was ascertained. Larger water bodies, even though during hundred years disappeared to the lesser degree, went through processes leading to complete disappearance. Disappearance of mid-field ponds (D) depending on water surface (A)

Larger degree of mid-field ponds disappearance was ascertained on the fields with land melioration conducted during post-war years (6.3% difference). The biggest difference between meliorated and non meliorated areas (22.0%) occurred in the area of Nowogard Plain, which as compared to the analysed Lake District area - has worst soils. Loss of mid-field ponds in this mesoregion on farmlands, which are not covered with melioration works, amounted to 49%, while in meliorated areas 71%. Diversification of mid-field ponds disappearance between meliorated and non meliorated areas in relation to surface features allows to assume that the greatest influence of the melioration works conducted took place on richly formed areas of the frontal moraine and a plateau with a large number of melt-out areas, and smaller effect on surface moraine and levels of Pyrzyce ice-dammed basin. (Piekowski, 2003)

2.2.3. Farm ponds

Italy: Loss of ponds in three different area of Tuscany The past and present uses of ponds in three different areas of Tuscany (the Chianti Hills; the Florence northwest lowland; the coastal lowland close to Orbetello lagoon) were studied, with particular reference to amphibian populations to show human-induced environmental changes with consequent endangering of wildlife. A widespread progressive pond loss is a phenomenon that since the end of the last century has touched many countries, especially the more developed. Threats In the recent past the main causes of loss of these habitats were drainage and changes in farming practice. Today the increased habitat fragmentation by roads and similar infrastructures can be considered the biggest problem.

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In the past in the Chianti Hills southwards of Florence, the water bodies most used by amphibians breeding were generally man-made like tanks, fountains, wash-pools, watering places, small ponds, etc., and were distributed everywhere, especially near each small group of farm houses. Most of the water bodies were neglected not only because of the changes in agriculture and cattle breeding but also because in the 50 and 60 farmers moved to the towns (urban migration). During the last two decades, some old farm houses were restored, generally to be used as summer houses. The results of these two processes has been to endanger the water bodies, because of lack of management, water collection, redesigning with artificial features, introduction of fish, and deliberate infilled. About 35 % of the old water bodies are now completely lost, and 40 % severely endangered. Piana Fiorentina is the only lowland near Florence. At the beginning of this century, large parts of the arable land were still swampy. The situation worsen progressively. Many of drainage channels made were constructed with concrete walls. Florence airport, factories, trade centres and houses were erected. Many new roads, motorways and railways now cross the area, forming ecological barriers for amphibians and other terrestrial species (Scoccianti and Cigna, 1996). Lowland close to Orbetello lagoon was until recent past time a wetland. Because of reclamation, a very large part of this area was used for agriculture and cattle breeding. In this last period many portions of this land still flooded during the year and there was great number of ponds for cattle breeding. Today this area is almost completely reclaimed. A motorway and new buildings along it have replaced the old coastal road. Cattle breeding has decreased and many ponds have been lost. The result is that 12.5 % of ponds are lost for deliberately infilling. About 50 % lack management to the degree that they are almost completely covered by vegetation; only 37.5 % are still present. Like in many other parts of Italy, at the end of 1960s and 1970s many new lakes for irrigation were constructed in the Chianti Hills and Lowland close to Orbetello lagoon. The new water bodies made for irrigation are not good for most amphibian species because of physical features, their incorrect management and, especially, the introduction of fish. (Scoccianti, 1999)

Farm ponds and dams of Andalusia, Southern Spain The Mediterranean climate of Andalusia and its traditional farming activities have determined the proliferation of farm water storages (dams or ponds). Agricultural intensification has increased in Spain for the last four decades. This has determined changes in territory, such as the increase of irrigated land and creation of farm water storages, which has increased exponentially. Water storages have a wide range of flooding due to natural or human causes, but their management is unknown because they belong to private properties and their use is not monitored. An inventory carried out by the regional environmental protection agency (CMA) has recorded more than 2 16,500 water storages with individual surface area > 700 m , of diverse types according to the high diversity of farming productive systems in the region. Dams in small streams and off-stream excavations dominate in extensive farming systems, and artificial substrate ponds made of concrete or made waterproof with polyethylene dominate in the more intensive systems. (Casas et al., 2008; Len et al., 2008)

2.2.4. Karstic ponds

Italy: Karstic ponds and pools in the Karst of Trieste Pond characteristics The ponds and pools located in the dry karstic plateau near Trieste (NE Italy - SW Slovenia) represented for centuries the only surface water resource for human activities (Polli & Alberti, 1969; Pagnini Alberti, 1972). The more natural surface water basins in the karstic landscape are ephemeral puddles and rock-pools on limestone banks (Ranzoli et al., 1979). Unfortunately, most of rock-pools have a diameter smaller than 1.5 m and retain water only during rainy seasons (autumn and spring). The other ponds and pools were artificially created by man who had to face with natural scarcity of surface waters in a karstic land.

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Karstic ponds have a surface area > 20 m , whereas pools have a surface area of between 2 and 20 m , filled 2 with water at least 4 months/year. The average surface of ponds in the Karst of Trieste is 211,7 m , whereas the average depth is 90 cm. Historical changes The Natural History Museum in Trieste has undertaken an ecological survey of the karst ponds since 1969 including creation of pond database and publication of a pond cadastre. In the Province of Trieste from 1969 to 1985, 122 ponds and rock-pools were registered in a cadastre (Polli & Alberti, 1969; Alberti et al., 1981; Polli & Polli, 1985), whereas in 1998, 33 ponds and 11 pools remained. The rate of pond loss in the last decades has been high; 66 % of ponds and 78 % of pools of the Karst near Trieste disappeared between 1979 and 1998. Threats The traditional economic activities connected with karstic water bodies stopped after World War II, and the consequent lack of management lead to a drastic infilling of the basins and to subsequent disappearance of many ponds. Some additional drinking troughs were constructed during the last 20 years in the game-reserves using concrete, but they are usually very small (less than 4 m diameter) (Polli & Polli, 1987, 1989). The main causes of pond loss are, in order of importance: a) the lack of management due to the construction of the new aqueducts and the decline of traditional agricultural and zootechnical activities, as well as of ice production, during the second half of this century, and a consequent natural ecological succession towards a terrestrial environment. b) human activity (construction of buildings, reclamation), c) use of ponds as dumps. (Bressi, Stoch, 1999)

A survey of ponds and their loss in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park, northwest Croatia A field research into the ponds in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park and aquestionnaire survey of 54 people living in 43 villages within the border of the Park was conducted in 2005. Nature park characteristics The umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park covers 333 km and is situated in the northwest of the Republic of Croatia and comprises a hilly area to the southwest of the Pannonian plain bordered by the rivers Sava, Krka and Kupa. Altogether, various kinds of karst landscape cover around 90% of the Parks territory, which is 2 approx. 300 km (BRKI et al., 2002.). Historical changes and threats As a part of pond inventarisation 164 present ponds were recorded. Through questionnaires at least 178 more ponds were identified that were here in the past. The loss trend has been quantified at 2.5 ponds per year or 0.74% per year. If 2.5 ponds are lost per year, in 65 years from now there will no be ponds in this area. Exceptions will be temporary ponds that came into existence from stream overflows and other natural ponds. If the average loss of 0.74% of ponds per year is considered, the situation is somewhat better, but still the trend of disappearance of ponds is very big. Some 60 years ago there were at least 342 ponds in this area or approximately 1 pond per square kilometre. More than a half of all ponds have been lost in the last 60 years. Of the 115 lost ponds, for which the respondents recall the time of disappearance, most of them were lost in the period between 11-30 years ago. This time period can be connected with the declines in the numbers of livestock. Over the last decades, and especially in the 1990s, animal husbandry has been seriously declining in the Park (UPANI, 1996). Abandonment of agricultural land is in evidence. All demographic indicators show that the remaining population is ageing (CRKVENI, 2002). Between 1991 and 2001, the population has decreased by 31%. Approximately 37% of the people living in the Park are more than 60 years old (CBS, 2001). Data from literature (UPANI, 1996; FRANKOVI et al., 2004; KIPSON, 2003; VRBEK & BUZJAK, 2002, 2003) show that due to emigration of the inhabitants and abandoment of the rural way of life, all of the habitats and species whose survival depends on regular maintenance will gradually disappear within the climate-zonal vegetation growth.
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In recent times, most of ponds are threatened as a consequence of lack of management as well as of some negative influences such as intensive agriculture, filling and introduction of alien species. The abandonment of the ponds led to natural processes of succession and they were gradually filledwith sediments and overgrown with neighbouring vegetation. The problem of overgrown ponds is connected with waste management in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park (ZLATAR, 2004). The main threat to the ponds is their being overgrown with plant life, caused by the decline in human and livestock population. Park inhabitants agreed with these as the main threats. Because the primary function (water supply for livestock) of the ponds has decreased, the main role in the protection will have to be taken over by the park authority in concert with the local inhabitants. (Janev Hutinec, Struna, 2007)

2.2.5. Fish ponds

Remark: fishponds can be very large, so not all fishponds are small water bodies. The Czech Republic: FAO Fishery Country Profile There are few natural lakes in the Czech Republic, mostly small waterbodies at high elevation, with little significance for fisheries. Aquaculture production in the Czech Republic is characterized by extensive and semi-intensive fish farming in ponds, and has a very long and reputable tradition. Nowadays, of the 52 000 ha available, 41 000 ha are used for fish production. Production averages around 450 kg/ha, with individual farms ranging between 200 and 800 kg/ha. The average yield from ponds depends on many factors such as management measures, altitude, etc. and ranges very broadly from 150 kg in highland extensive ponds to more than one tonne per ha in lowland regions. Annual fish production currently fluctuates between 19 000 to 20 000 tonnes. Common carp is the dominant fish produced (88 percent). Other cultured fish includes grass carp, silver carp, tench, whitefish and predators such as pike, zander, wels, catfish perch and salmonids such as trout. An overwhelming majority of carp production is based on natural food - zooplankton and zoobenthos. Recently, the use of manure has been restricted due to enormous eutrophication (algal blooms caused by high nutrient concentrations). Nowadays, organic manure is applied in very small amounts only and lime is mainly used to counter the negative effects. History The first information on fishponds in the Czech Republic appears in documents from the tenth-elenventh centuries. However, the annual yield in the early ponds was very low (10-20 kg per ha) and it was harvested once every 4-6 years. In the late fourteenth century there were already 75 000 ha of ponds with an estimated production of 2 250 tonnes. At the turn of the sixteenth seventeenth century, the area of ponds had reached up to 180 000 ha and the crop was over 5 000 tonnes. The level of pond farming technologies was comparatively high at that time. Subsequently, fishpond farming started to decline due to frequent wars and the rapid development of agriculture. As a result many ponds were drained, dried and converted into fields. In the early 1930s, the area of ponds was about 45 000 ha with a yield of 3 700 tonnes. This began to increase in recent years towards the level of approximately 17 000-20 000 tonnes today. Distribution The pond farming areas are located in all regions of the Czech Republic, except for northern Bohemia. Pond surface area ranges from 143 ha to the largest at 7 428 ha. There are 25 companies or owners producing predominantly carp. The largest Czech fishpond farming companies operate in the area of South Bohemia, where more than 70 percent of the total pond area is situated. Trout farming is usually carried out in flow-through concrete and earthen canals and ponds. The farms are located at higher altitudes. (The Czech Republic, 2005; The Czech Republic, 2008)

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The Czech Republic: Fish farming in fish ponds The research under FRAP - Development of a procedural framework for action plans to reconcile the conflict between large vertebrate conservation and the use of biological resources: fisheries and fish-eating vertebrates as a model case In the Czech Republic there is an old tradition going back to the 13th century to grow carp in shallow 2 (up to 2 m deep) ponds. Currently there are more than 50.000 ponds with a total area of about 520 km . Among the members of the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers (FEAP) the Czech Republic is the second largest carp producer in Europe (after Poland) with about 17,000 tonnes of carp production per year. Carp is farmed for human consumption within the country and abroad. In many families they serve as the traditional Christmas meal similar to turkey or geese in other countries and therefore they have also some cultural and emotional dimension for people. Ponds may vary considerably in size ranging from less than 0.1 ha to several 100 ha. Ponds established decades and centuries ago usually have very natural banks providing cover and dens for otters as well as habitat for other otter prey than commercial fish. Ponds are usually stocked in spring and harvested in autumn. During the winter some ponds (23 %) remain empty and both juvenile and one year old carp and carp not sold yet are kept in a few ponds for over wintering. Such ponds have to provide special conditions in respect of water quality and depth in order to guarantee the survival of carp in good condition for the next season, when they are redistributed in other ponds for growing. During the last three decades, many new ponds were built and old ones were reactivated. These ponds work in the same way as the old ones, just their appearance is more artificial due to a lack of old trees along the banks etc. They also provide suitable habitat for otters and this development has increased the carrying capacity of otters considerably. Ponds are usually scattered throughout the landscape according to prevailing natural water supplies such as streams and rivers. In many cases they are organised in cascades of ponds, which create clusters of water bodies. The productivity of these ponds varies between 300 and about 600 kg / 2 10.000 m . Differences in productivity also reflect the two contrasting carp farming areas of the country: the Lowlands along the River Lunize in the south of the country (Tebo Biosphere Reserve) and the Highlands found northeast of Tebo (Czech Moravian Highlands). In both areas otters are present and cause conflict, though with different accents. In the highlands carp farming is rather suboptimal due to climatic reasons and losses of fish stock are more common (Kranz 2000). This and geomorphological aspects are responsible that small sized ponds prevail there. One consequence of fish farming is a 20 to 100 folds increase of readily available fish biomass for otters compared to the landscape without fish farming. However, there is a pronounced seasonality in the availability of these fish. From spring to autumn they are available in all ponds (e. g. 120 ponds / 100 km2), but from the harvest in autumn to the stocking in spring fish are concentrated in a approximately 80% of the ponds and their access may be hindered by ice. Apart from the traditional carp farming other fish may be reared in these ponds, namely pike (Esox lucius), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) and tench (Tinca tinca). Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are produced in other ponds and other regions than the former due to their special demands for colder water and higher oxygen supply. These ponds are usually smaller and located in upstream rivers in the highlands and Border Mountains of the Czech Republic. (Polednkov et al., 2006) The Czech Republic and Germany: Fish farming in fishponds (see under ecological importance) Hungary: FAO Fishery Country Profile About 2 000 ha of small water areas such as ox-bow lakes, gravel pits and small reservoirs are under intensive, pond-like management, while 30 000 ha are utilized only for recreational purposes. Fish production represents only a minor part of the Hungarian economy, in terms of production value it corresponds to 2-2.5 percent of the gross value of animal production. However, Hungarian aquaculture possesses some special characteristics, for example, its world-wide reputation in carp breeding, the value of its R&D (Research and Development) and its special role in water management, nature conservation, waterrelated tourism and rural development. Total fish production from both aquaculture and capture fisheries was

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18 324 tonnes in 2002, the proportion from aquaculture being approximately 63 percent or 11 574 tonnes. The majority (93 percent) of aquaculture production derives from fish ponds, where both extensive and semiintensive technologies, based on the utilisation of natural food, are commonly applied. The total area covered by fish ponds in Hungary is approximately 28 000 ha with the major species farmed being common and Chinese carps, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) represents 74 percent of the total fish production in Hungary. The cultivated species contributing to the largest volume of production is the common carp, which occurs extensively in the natural waters and is the traditional species for cultivation. Pond based fish farms are still the main production units in the Hungarian aquaculture, however, the diversification of pond fish production has been observed recently as a consequence of the socio-economic changes in Central and Eastern Europe. Besides the conventional common carp dominated polyculture systems in fertilised ponds, various other integrated technologies have been developed and practised in Hungary, including fish-duck culture and sewage-fed pond culture. History The first fish farms in Hungary were established in the 1890s modelled on German and Bohemian practices and the first selected carp varieties were also obtained from these countries. The total area covered by fish ponds was about 9 200 ha in 1938. As a result of a new fish pond construction programme following the Second World War, the total fish pond area reached 22 000 ha by 1975. In the past, almost all ponds were managed either by state farms or agricultural cooperatives. Within these units, pond farming was closely integrated with cereal crop production which supplied the feed for fish. This situation completely changed in the early 1990s. In 1986, only 187 ha of pond area were managed by private owners; however, in 1995, the ownership structure of the pond area in operation was as follows: state-owned 30%, cooperative 17%, associations 6%, private ownership 47%. Distribution Fish production in earthen ponds is the traditional and most common form of aquaculture in Hungary. Fish farms have been built in those areas where soil quality is not suitable for economical agricultural production, paddy field type ponds on the Great Plain region and contour ponds on the Trans Danubian region are typical examples. The geographical, water and climatic conditions in Hungary are favourable for traditional pond fish husbandry and in some cases for intensive fish production. Ponds have been constructed mainly on marginal agricultural land and their individual sites are not suitable for up-to-date intensive management. In 1995, technical and financial problems partly caused by privatization meant that only 17 545 ha of ponds were in operation out of a total of 20 363 ha. (The Republic of Hungary, 1996; Hungary. National Aquaculture, 2008)

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2.3. Springs
Springs in general Groundwater-fed springs constitute a unique interface between surface and groundwater ecosystems (Webb et al. 1998) and are geographically and functionally relatively isolated from each other (Williams and Williams 1998). Karst springs, permanent or temporary, usually appear at the contact zone between fractured and less fractured limestone or dolomite rock, or in the valleys, where impermeable sediments or saturated zones appear (Gams 2003). (Mori, Brancelj, 2006)

The most often used typology includes three categories of spring types based on groundwater flow rate and topography of the groundwater source area: helocrene, rheocrene and limnocrene springs (e.g. Danks & Williams, 1991; Smith, 1991). In helocrenes, groundwater percolates through a layer of detritus or vegetation into a marshy holding area, whereas in rheocrenes emergent groundwater flows rapidly over a gravel or sand substrate. In limnocrenes a stenothermic ground water pool is formed at the point of discharge. Helocrenes often form diverse spring complexes, including all the spring habitat types described above (Lindegaard, 1995). Gerecke & Di Sabatino (1996) used the extended terms rheohelocrene and rheopsammocrene for such spring complexes, which form a mosaic of lentic and lotic habitats and groundwater seepage, with either organogenic or minerogenic material as the groundwater seeping substrate. (Ilmonen, Paasivirta, 2005).

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2.4. Mires, bogs and fens

Peatlands in Europe Peatlands are the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50% to 70% of the global wetlands. They cover over four million km or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. Peatland is an area with a naturally accumulated peat layer at the surface. Peat deposits, i.e. peatlands have more than 0.3 m peat and along with mires with thick peat layers they also include some forest types, drained mires, and peat extraction areas. The majority of peatlands in Europe are concentrated in the northern half of the continent. Russia and the Nordic countries alone provide more than 60 % of the European peatland resource, and Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania fall within the top 20 peat-rich nations (Bragg, Lindsay, 2003). Mires are one of the wetland types. It is an area of land that is constantly or periodically waterlogged and that supports vegetation that is characteristically peat-forming. In Latvia mires reach about 316 712 ha of the total land area, Estonia - 300 000 ha but Lithuania 352 000 ha (Bragg, Lindsay, 2003). Two hydro-morphological mire types are distinguished: - minerogenous (minerotrophic) mires (fens and transition mires) are supplied by underground water rich in nutrients and precipitation; - Ombrogenous (ombrotrophic) mires (raised bogs) rely entirely on rainfall for their water and nutrient supplies. (Pakalne, 2004)

Bogs, fens, mires of Bioreal region (see also under glacial lowland lakes) Over most of the Boreal region, wetlands such as mires, bogs and fens form characteristic landscape elements in mosaics with various forest types. In parts of northern Finland, mires cover almost 50 % of the surface area. Peat-rich mires are still abundant in Estonia and Latvia (Baltic Environment Forum, 2000), while Lithuania has lost around 70 % of such wetlands over 30 years. (The Boreal biogeographical, 2007)

The UK: Active raised bogs and degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration (habitat type Natura 2000) Countries known to hold significant concentrations of Active raised bogs include Finland, Sweden, the UK and Ireland. Raised bogs are widespread but unevenly distributed in the UK. There are notable concentrations in several areas, including the Central Belt in Scotland, the Solway region on the England/Scotland border, north-west England and Northern Ireland. Within GB, the Lowland Raised Bog Inventory (LRBI) lists 800 former and existing raised bogs, covering a total area of nearly 700,000 ha. However, all of these sites have been modified to some extent by human activity. Peatland in Northern Ireland has been classified and mapped using air photographs (Cruickshank & Tomlinson 1988). This identified 2,270 ha of intact lowland peatland and 20,042 ha of cut-over peatland. Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration are widely distributed in Europe, and are found in most EU Member States. Degraded raised bogs occur throughout the range of raised bogs in the UK. Degraded raised bogs are certainly more extensive than 7110 Active raised bogs. Representation of Degraded raised bogs within the UK SAC network is particularly high in England. This reflects the fact that a greater proportion of the English raised bog resource has been affected by human activities than in other parts of the UK. (SAC Interest Features, 2008)

Bogs of Atlantic region The heavy rainfall and low evaporation of the Atlantic region has also encouraged the formation of characteristic blanket bog and raised bog habitats. The UK and Ireland host some of the largest and most significant tracts of blanket bogs in Europe. This is however only a fraction of what originally existed. Up to 90% has already been lost through large-scale extraction, afforestation and drainage schemes. (Natura 2000 in the Atlantic region, 2005)

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UK: headwater peat wetlands Around 13% of the UK is peat wetland. Most (90%) of the UKs peat-land is found in Scotland. (Haigh, 2006)

The Netherlands: Marshes, bogs and swamps Characteristics Marshes, bogs and swamps are waterlogged to wet areas consisting of open water, terrestrialising vegetation, reedbeds, thickets and swamp woodland. The Netherlands has many such areas as it is on the delta formed by the Rijn and the Maas. Habitat fragmentation There are almost 1500 marshes, bogs and swamps in the Netherlands, but over 80% of them are smaller than 10 ha (upper figure) and a sizeable proportion of the total area of this habitat is in areas smaller than 100 ha (lower figure). The total area of marshes, bogs and swamps considered here is approximately 50% of the total area; open water, waterlogged grassland and similar have been excluded. In the small areas, species are much more at risk of disappearing, especially if the small marsh, bog or swamp is very isolated from other similar areas. Even the largest areas of this habitat (1000 to 5000 ha in size) are too small to be able to guarantee the long-term survival of all the characteristic species in them. However, the effects of habitat fragmentation can be countered by physically linking marshes, bogs and swamps.

Historical changes Marsh, bog and swamp is one of the few ecosystems that increased in area between 1950 and 1990 (by over 9%). In about 1990 the total area of marsh, bog and swamp was over 47 000 hectares, compared with over 43 000 hectares in about 1950. The increase is largely because of the creation of the Oostvaardersplassen in the newly reclaimed polder province of Flevoland and the closing off of tidal inlets (for example, Lauwersmeer), which resulted in saltmarsh becoming marsh. A further increase is anticipated because of habitat creation projects, particularly those around the river region. (Guidance Marshes, bogs and swamps, 2008)

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The Netherlands: Heathland, fens and raised bogs The area of wet heathland is much smaller than that of dry heathland. Schamine et al. (2001) assume that in 1930-1950 about 10% of the heathland was wet, compared with about 6% in 1990-2000. Wet heathland is very sensitive to the effects of water draw-down, which results in the invasion of purple moorgrass. Historical changes (raised bogs) There is much less raised bog than there used to be, primarily because of peat digging and drainage. In 1900 there was approximately 90 000 ha of raised bog, but by 1990 only 5200 ha remained. Most of the area that remains is degraded raised bog in which peat formation has ceased. Only 15 ha of living raised bog remains. The current low level of alkaline water and the heavy atmospheric deposition of nitrogen are hindering the growth of Dutch raised bogs. (Guidance Heathland and fens, 2008)

Bogs of Continental region (see also under glacial lowland lakes) Typical wetland habitats of Continental region include a large number of lakes and bogs as well as extensive freshwater marshes and fens. The Biebrza river valley, in north-eastern Poland, is one of the largest and least disturbed marshlands in Central Europe with large tracts of natural bogs extending over some 90,000 ha. Only the habitats on poorer soils, such as bogs, marshes and heaths escaped major transformation. These were managed extensively instead, if at all. Such is the case for the region around Pomorania or in the Massif Central in France. Both still harbour large areas of valuable bogs, marshes, forests and grasslands. (Natura 2000 in the Continental region, 2005)

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3. IMPORTANCE OF STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES (ECOSYSTEM SERVICES) 3.1. Ecological importance - biology, hydrology, water quality
3.1.1. Lakes 3.1.1.1. Glacial lakes
Many of the Boreal lakes are young, succeeding the glaciation period. Most of them are rather shallow, cold, clear, and oligotrophic with very low natural nutrient loads. Only the largest lakes and those in mountain areas have mean depths exceeding 20 m. Most boreal lakes are covered by ice for several months each year, develop sharp temperature profiles during summer, and have pronounced turnover of water in spring and autumn. Many of the small lakes associated with forests or mires are heavily influenced by peat deposits and have a dystrophic character with high humus content. Oligotrophic lakes are specifically mentioned as habitat types of priority for conservation in the EU habitats directive and by the Bern convention. In the Boreal region this applies in particular to lakes poor in dissolved inorganic carbon, so-called Lobelia lakes, which contain a suite of characteristic macrophyte species such as isotids (plants with basal rosettes growing on the bottom of shallow waters in clear, naturally oligotrophic lakes). The occurrence of isotids is used as a quality indicator. Sweden estimates still to have around 8 000 naturally oligotrophic lakes, but the occurrence of Lobelia is decreasing. With the extensive bogs and mires, lakes and forests present in many river catchments of the region, there is a huge natural water storage capacity, resulting in a generally slow water release. However, the river flow in the Boreal region has heavy floods in spring and early summer, due to snow melt, while the flow is lowest in winter during the ice-bound period. Biodiversity Species such as osprey (Pandion haliaetus), European beaver (Castor fiber) and European mink (Mustela lutreola), which used to be fairly widespread in Europe, now tend to have their major or only populations in association with lakes and rivers of the Boreal region, where they may encounter introduced populations of Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis) and American mink (Mustela vison). The ringed seals (Phoca hispida saimensis and Phoca hispida ladogensis) of lakes Saimaa and Ladoga represent endangered subspecies, which may be considered post-glacial relicts. Boreal waterbodies are important breeding habitats for numerous birds, several of high conservation value and sensitive to disturbances, such as divers (Gavia stellata, Gavia arctica) and water birds like whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus), bean goose (Anser fabalis) and smew (Mergus albellus). Boreal freshwater habitats are inhabited by substantial populations of economically important fish species of the families Salmonidae, Cyprinidae, and Percidae, as well as pike (Esox lucius) and burbot (Lota lota). There is a rich fauna of freshwater invertebrates, but few of these have been of substantial economic or conservation interest. The crayfish Astacus astacus and the mussel Margaritana margaritifera provide exceptions. Both of these species have been under traditional and partly modern exploitation with dangers of over-harvesting and are also under threat from changes in their habitat. Several invertebrate species have been used as indicators of environmental changes in freshwater, especially for acidification or eutrophication. (The Boreal biogeographical, 2007)

3.1.1.2. Karst lakes

Ireland: Turloughs: biodiversity Turloughs are grass- or sedge-dominated basins which sometimes have a marsh or occasionally a permanent pond in the centre. They are notable for the absence of trees or shrubs (Praeger, 1932) which are controlled not only by grazing but also by duration of flooding (Praeger, 1932; Goodwillie, 1992, 2003). They are priority habitats in the EU Habitats Directive supporting a variety of wet grassland and fen type vegetation with rare wetland species.

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Characteristic invertebrate species include some aquatic species-often benefiting from the absence of fish-, and many wetland terrestrial species, including carabid beetles that are rare on a European scale. Due to their shallow nature and the full vegetation cover of the basin, turloughs can host internationally significant numbers of visiting winter wildfowl, particularly whooper swans. Amphibians are also widespread in turloughs. The variety of plant and invertebrate communities between turloughs is primarily due to different hydrogeomorphological characteristics, but also depends on the range of grazing practices on turloughs. Since these often vary within a turlough basin, this helps maintain within-turlough biodiversity. Though it is clear that turloughs support a number of unusual plant and invertebrate communities, knowledge on their biodiversity is far from complete. (Sheehy Skeffington et al., 2006)

Ireland: Turloughs: groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystems by WFD Wetlands encompass a continuum of aquatic to terrestrial environments including groundwater dependent ecosystems. As turloughs occur mainly in Ireland and are listed as priority habitats in Annex I of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), many have been designated as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC). These ecosystems contain distinctive aquatic and terrestrial plant and animal communities adapted to fluctuating water levels. Whilst turloughs are important for both their aquatic and terrestrial ecologies, they were classified as groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystems (GWDTE) for the purpose of the WFD because their aquatic phase is not permanent. Due to their direct connection to groundwater they represent an extreme case of a GWDTE. (Kilroy, 2005)

Slovenia: Ecosystem services of intermittent lake Lake Cerknica belongs to the Ljubljanica river basin at the south of Slovenia. 80 % of the lake`s inflow consists of karts waters, and 15 % of surface water. At normal floods, the water level reaches between 547.5 and 550 m above sea level (a.s.l.). Usually twice a year (in spring and late autumn to early winter) the water 2 reaches its normal level at 550 m a.s.l., when lake covers about 20 km or 53 % of the Cerkniko polje floor. The lowest parts of the polje`s floor (548 m a.s.l.) are flooded several times a year. The lake of this 2 small extent covers only 0,67 km . For little more than 9 months per year the polje`s floor is flooded, crating a lake, reaching its normal level (550 m a.s.l.) for 4 to 5 months. Only for a few days to a few weeks, the water exceeds 550 m a.s.l., when the level is extremely high. For little more than 2 months the polje`s floor is dry. (Kranjc, 2002) Characteristics Lake Cerknica is located at the bottom of Cerkniko polje, which consists of limestone and dolomite. It is located in the transition area between the Dinaric and the Alpine regions. The lake is fed by springs and several tributaries. Among the most important tributaries are surface tributary of Cerkniica and four karst tributaries. One of them, Stren, meanders through the polje`s bottom covered by deposits. The lake is locus typicus for intermittent lakes and karst poljes (karst fields). Slow down of eutrophication because of disturbance of succession of the ecosystem due to water level fluctuations Eutrophication processes, which have been detected in many Slovenian lakes, are slowed down in the Lake Cerknica by accelerated mineralization. Acute but more-or-less regular, physical disturbances maintain the ecosystem in an early, relatively fertile state of development (Oduman 1971). These pulse disturbances (Bender et al. 1984) are water level fluctuations and exchanges of dry and wet periods. They support long-term stability of the ecosystem, a stage between youth and maturity. The intermittence and water level fluctuations are a driving force and limiting factor of the processes in the ecosystem. Water level fluctuations influence the sedimentation and erosion of alluvial sediments. The lake water also functions as a physical force that transfers and grinds organic material originating from the lake. These materials are accumulating on the edge of polje, forming a tick organic layer, which is rather thin in the central part (Gospodari & Habi 1974). The most important consequence of the intermittence is exchange of anaerobic and aerobic processes in the lake sediments. At the beginning of the dry periods, the decomposition of organic matter is accelerated by access to oxygen. Further drying decreases mineralization by killing microorganisms (Boulton & Brock 1999). During the wet period nutrients are released which, together with light and water provide a basis for germination and luxurious growth of photoautotrophs (Brock & Casanova 1997; Gaberik et al. 2000).

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Water level fluctuations and plant, animals Water level fluctuations create a variety of habitats, resulting in a rich species composition. During drainage, while some species disappear completely (submersed plants, planktonic species), terrestrial plants start to grow. The success of plants in the outstanding environment depends mainly on their ability to overcome water level fluctuations. Thus many species exhibit an amphibious character. In Lake Cerknica, the majority of shallower areas are colonized by reed (Phragmites australis) and some other wetland species. Reed stands contribute the most to the overall primary production of the ecosystem. Self-purification The densely vegetated lake functions as a sink for nutrients entering it (Joergensen 1990; Pieczynska 1990; Wetzel 1990, Gaberik & Urbanc-Beri 2002). Eight years of monitoring indicated a relatively high content of nutrients in the surface tributary of Cerkniica. The quantity of nutrients in the lake water is lower, however, because of high buffering capacity of the densely vegetated ecosystem. It is presumed that nutrients are quickly incorporated into the biomass of primary producers during floods. Dense and extended reed stands at the lake act as an efficient trap for the matter and energy. During dry periods, the permanent main stream Stren and the tributaries become the refuge for the remaining fish population and other organisms. At this time, the self-purification efficiency of the system is much lower. (Gaberik et al., 2003) Disturbance of succession of the ecosystem Lake Cerknica is neither a lake neither a typical wetland. The succession of the ecosystem is continuously distributed by the water level fluctuations, draughts and floods. These pulse disturbances present a physical factor, which is of vital importance for the lake, influencing the abiotic and biotic processes, i.e. mineral cycling and life histories, and productivity of organisms resulting in a variety of habitats and species. The turnover of matter and through-flow of energy in the lake is facilitated by the exchanging wet and dry periods, which can either promote or suppress the growth and development of vegetation and decomposition, depending on the season of the year. The released nutrients support the wet-period bloom of primary producers and increase the harvesting of solar radiation. Water level fluctuations and plant, animals On the one hand, the water level fluctuations present a driving force, while on the other hand they are limiting factor for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. The specific water regime in the area also influences the occurrence and diversity of biota and the contents of nutrients in the water. Drainage of the lake affects the development of organisms, mainly aquatic ones, such as fish, submerged aquatic macrophytes and different planktonic species. Natural protection against alien species The water level fluctuations as a permanent disturbance are also a natural protection against many alien plant species that have spread in Slovenia in the last decades. (Gaberik, Urbanc-Beri, 2002)

Slovenia: Intermittent lakes: biodiversity Depressions of 17 Pivka intermittent lakes are deepened into the terrace of the Upper Pivka basin along the Javorniki mountains in SW Slovenia. In the area of the Pivka lakes there is a large group of dry, half-dry and seasonally flooded meadows giving living space to many plant species and due to intensive agricultural exploitation and other anthropogenic impacts they are more and more endangered. The main reason for such diversity of flora and fauna in this region is extensive utilization of the meadows as well as the geographical location of the Pivka basin between the Mediterranean and Continental parts of Slovenia (Tome 2000). Vulnerability of small lakes

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The surface of some Pivka lakes is very small thus the animals, at least in one of their development stages, can occur anywhere. On principal, therefore it holds true that majority if not all of them disappear from the area of the lake, irrespective on which part of the lake the changes occur (Tome 2000). (Mulec et al., 2005) The lakes differ in their size, altitude and duration. The majority of lakes are smaller than 5 ha at mean water level, only tree lakes exceed area above 10 ha. Mostly they are active only for a short period of time at the highest waters. The second largest lake Petelinjsko jezero (ca 70 ha) has the longest duration of 2 approximately six months. The biggest is Palko jezero has the area of more than 1 km and is on average dry almost three quarters of a year. Some of the lakes are active only at extremely high waters. (Petri, Kogovek, 2005) Intermittent lakes represent ecologically diverse habitats, with distinct biodiversity, geomorphological and hydrological characteristics. Aquatic fauna of the Pivka lakes Due to their intermittent character some interesting crustaceans from the groups of fairy shrimps (Anostraca), water fleas (Cladocera) and copepods (Copepoda) are found there. More than 18 species of aquatic animals were found in the lakes, mostly insects and small crustaceans. Petelinjsko jezero is populated by the endemic species of karstic fairy shrimp Chirocephalus croaticus. The usual length of adults is 12-15 mm. Petelinjsko jezero is the only known location for C. croaticus in Slovenia and in the whole world. The population that was found in this intermittent lake is vital and appears each year (Brancelj & Gorjanc 1999). It is threatened by the destruction of natural habitats and by pollution, including fertilization of meadows. According to the latest data C. croaticus appears in large numbers also in pools of the most northern Pivka lake Jeredovce. Copepod species Diaptomus cyaneus and Diacyclops charon are relatively abundant in Europe, but two larger Pivka lakes Petelinjsko jezero and Veliko Drskovko jezero are the only two locations known in Slovenia for both species. All the species are threatened due to destruction of their natural habitats. (Pipan, 2005) Fauna of the land habitats of the Pivka lakes In terms of biodiversity the area of the Pivka intermittent lakes is one of the richest areas in Slovenia despite the fact that the area of the Pivka intermittent lakes is relatively small and that the knowledge of the fauna of the land habitats is still relatively scanty. The list of mammals includes 20 species. In the area of the lakes 127 bird species were identified, which is 34 % of all bird species identified in Slovenia. During migration we can expect to see the majority of species found in Slovenia here. Some nesting species reach their highest density in Slovenia. The area of the Pivka lakes is included in the ecological network Natura 2000 Special Conservation Area as the Snenik-Pivka SPA (Boi 2003). It has been designated in order to maintain the favourable condition of four bird species which nest here, the corn crake, nightjar, woodlark and barred warbler. Of 22 indigenous species of reptiles in Slovenia, 8 (36 %) were found at Pivka lakes, and of 21 indigenous species of amphibians, 9 were found (43 %). The majority of these species are on the Red List of Threatened Animals. The proteus or human fish (Proteus anguinus) has been confirmed in the Matijeva jama at the edge of Palko jezero. 106 species of butterflies have been identified in the area, which amounts to 57% of all species of butterflies living in Slovenia. Many of them are threatened and vulnerable species. To the present, 210 species of beetles have been identified, live here. It has been estimated (Drovenik 2000) that between 4000 and 6000 species of beetle live here. Threats The most threatened species are those connected with marshy grass lands and wet meadows. These are habitats of the level and occasionally flooded beds of the Pivka lakes. The threatened bird, reptile and butterfly species also include a large number of species connected with extensive dry grasslands and rocky outcrops. Due to the abandonment of farming in the area of the Pivka lakes we can observe the rapid overgrowth of wet meadows and dry karst grasslands, which leads to decreased biodiversity. (Polak, 2005)

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Slovenia: caves with underground lakes: biodiversity The cave Krina jama is situated in the SE of Cerknica polje. It is part of the Ramsar site Lake Cerknica and its environs including the intermittent lake Cerkniko jezero, the karst valley Rakov kocjan and the cave Krina jama. It is 8,273 meters long and up to 32 meters deep. The cave is best known for its 22 underground lakes divided by gours (barriers formed by calcium carbonate). Currently, there are two caves separated by siphon, the old cave, first described in 1832, and the new cave discovered in 1991. The water level in the cave varies and depends on the water quantity and the precipitation regime. Remnants of bones of cave-bears have been found in this cave. Krina jama is ranked the fourth in the world in terms of its richness of troglobionts. (Lake Cerknica and its environs, 2005)

3.1.1.3. Fluvial lakes (floodplains)

The Netherlands: vegetation of lakes in floodplain of Rhine (see shallow lakes: alternative stable states (Scheffer et al., 2006))

Czech Republic: fish stock in backwaters In 1997-1999 the temporal changes in the species composition of the fish stock in backwaters in the area of the lower reaches of the River Dyje were studied. The River Dyje characteristics The River Dyje is the largest right-bank tributary to the River Morava in the territory of the Czech 2 Republic. Its drainage area is 13 387 km , the annual mean water discharge at the mouth to the Morava is 1 43.4 m3 s . The drainage area of the River Dyje contains a total of 19 dam reservoirs accumulating a total of 3 3 541 million m , plus 2500 minor reservoirs and fishponds accumulating a total of 73 million m . The study area comprises the lower section of the River Dyje from its mouth into the River Morava, where it forms the state boundary between the Czech Republic and Austria. In 1975-1985 the River Dyje was modified in that section. Its stream was straightened by cutting-off its meanders. The previous section 23 km in length was thus shortened to 18 km in length. Levees were erected along the river. A fragment of the previous floodplain along the River Dyje is flooded during periods of increased water discharges in the River Dyje. Studied backwater characteristics Canalization of the lower reaches of the River Dyje included the isolation of its meanders. One of these meander lakes remained connected at its downstream end with the River Dyje at river kilometre (r. km) 4.44. It bears the character of a parapotamon (Roux et al., 1982; Amoros et al., 1987). The meander lake was 500 m long, with a width varying from 30 to 50 m, and a surface area of 1.2-2.0 ha depending on the water level in the river. A cut-off backwater being permanently separated from the active stream was selected as a comparative object. It bears the character of a plesiopotamon. The branch lies upstream of the River Dyje stream in the section between r. km 8.08 and 8.40. The branch is 670 m long and its width varies between 30 and 40 m. Both river branches under study lie within the active floodplain. Results 38 fish species were recorded in backwater. Cyprinid fishes were most common, especially Rutilus rutilus, Alburnus alburnus, Abramis brama, A. ballerus, Blicca bjoerkna, Carassius auratus. We also caught rare species such as Abramis sapa, Pelecus cultratus and Gymnocephalus schraetser, or species new to the Czech Republic, Sander volgense, Gymnocephalus baloni and Proterorhinus marmoratus. In addition to the cyprinid species mentioned above, we also found Esox lucius, Sander lucioperca, Perca fluviatilis and Gymnocephalus cernuus spawning in the backwater. There was also a permanent population of Cobitis elongatoides. The environmental conditions in the backwater, especially the water level and the oxygen regime, are favourable for fish throughout the year. The fish stock in the backwater was highly variable. Species diversity,

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size structure and abundance varied over the course of the year. It was markedly affected by the water discharge in the River Dyje. The effect of a permanent connection of backwater with the river was seen in the markedly greater species spectrum (38 species) than what was seen in the separated (cut-off) branch (15 species). Backwaters connected with the active stream represent open systems in which the fish community varies in the course of the year, depending upon the hydrological regime (Holk and Bastl, 1973; Holk, 1996). Backwaters of the parapotamon type can better satisfy the demands of their fish assemblages (for a spawning site, refuge, food resource, hibernation, etc.), as they are considerably less dependent on the hydrological regime in the river than backwaters of the plesiopotamon type. The connection of the latter with the river is conditioned by the flooding of their alluvium. And this is the very problem of the stream of the River Dyje, the flooding of whose floodplains is irregular because of the great volume of water accumulated in river valley reservoirs in its drainage area (Lusk, 1995). Thus, the floodplain of that river was not flooded for a full 13 years in the 1981-2000 period. The results obtained document the importance of river backwaters for the fish communities inhabiting the river channel. (Lusk et al., 2001)

3.1.1.4. Shallow lakes

Case studies: the Netherlands, Denmark: shallow lakes and ponds: alternative stable states Many studies have demonstrated that shallow lakes at intermediate nutrient levels tend toward either of two contrasting, alternative stable states (Scheffer et al. 1993): vegetated with clear water or devoid of submerged plants and turbid. The vegetated state has a higher diversity in many animal groups, which is largely explained through the key roles of fish and aquatic plants (Jeppesen et al. 1997, Scheffer 1998).

Emerging picture of the major pathways through which isolation and size of a water body affect abundance and diversity of different groups of aquatic organisms. By multiplying signs along paths through the diagram, it can be seen that isolation and small size have a positive effect on all groups except fish. Fish communities tend to be poor or even absent in small isolated lakes. However, submerged vegetation is often more abundant in such waterbodies. As a consequence of low fish biomass and high vegetation abundance, the richness of aquatic birds, plants, amphibians and invertebrates is often relatively high in small, shallow, isolated lakes. Fish are rare in small, isolated lakes, probably as a result of a higher likelihood of fish kills combined with their low colonizing ability. Because of the absence of fish, small lakes are more likely to be in a vegetation-dominated state. The absence of competition and predation from fish and the increase in food and habitat structure associated with an abundant macrophyte vegetation explain why diversity of birds, invertebrates and amphibians may be remarkably high despite small lake size. Several studies have shown that fishless lakes support higher diversity of zooplankton, macro-invertebrates and water birds than do comparable lakes with fish (Hunter et al. 1986, Havas and Rosseland 1995). Finally,

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amphibians are very sensitive to fish predation and amphibian species richness tends to be higher in fishless habitats (Hecnar and McLoskey 1997). Two recent studies, confirm the strong effect of lake size of fish, but also show that macrophyte abundance tends to be higher in smaller lakes. A study of 215 shallow lakes situated in the Dutch floodplain of the lower River Rhine (Van Geest et al. 2003) revealed particularly clear relationships between lake size and the presence of vegetation. All of these lakes are inundated about once a year by the eutrophic river, so nutrient loading varies relatively little among the lakes. As predicted by the theory of alternative stable states, most of these lakes were either nearly devoid of vegetation or in a contrasting state with a rich plant community. Notably, the likelihood of the richly vegetated state was higher in smaller lakes (other factors such as depth being equal, Van Geest et al. 2003). These small vegetated lakes also supported low densities of benthivorous bream (Abramis brama) (Grift 2001), the key fish species promoting the opposite poorly-vegetated, turbid state in shallow Dutch lakes (Scheffer 1998). Similarly, data from 796 Danish lakes and ponds (Sondergaard et al. 2005) varying in size from <1 ha to 4300 ha showed overall low fish biomass below 1 ha, shifting to an often much higher biomass above this threshold. Fish species richness was also low (typically 1-3 species) below 1 ha, and increased gradually with lake size. As in the Dutch lakes macrophyte coverage was often high below 10 ha, apparently peaking at 0.1-1 ha, while species richness increased with lake size. The higher macrophyte coverage in small Danish lakes occurred despite a generally higher phosphorus content in the lake water mediated by a generally higher share of agri-cultivated fields in the adjacent catchment (Sndergaard et al. 2005). Thus, the results from both the Dutch and Danish lakes suggest that small lakes are more likely to be fishless, which increases the likelihood of the clearwater state, even at moderately high nutrient concentrations. An important contribution of small lakes and ponds to biodiversity lies in their high diversity, leading to a high regional diversity. Several mechanisms contribute to this high diversity. First, small ponds often reflect specific localized micro-site conditions (e.g. sandy bottom, peat, rock) and variable hydroperiods (from ephemeral to permanent). Secondly, stochastic events, either associated with dispersal limitation (Jenkins and Buikema 1998) or with priority effects (Brnmark and Edenhamn 1994, Louette et al., unpubl.), may produce different communities in similar ponds. All these mechanisms are intrinsically related to habitat isolation. Connection of isolated habitat fragments may in some cases reduce, rather than enhance, landscape-level biodiversity, and implies that biodiversity at the regional level will be maximized if the local habitat patches vary widely in size and degree of connectivity. (Scheffer et al., 2006)

Hungary: phytoplankton assemblages in shallow lakes of different types Late summer phytoplankton associations were studied qualitatively and quantitatively in 80 Hungarian lakes altogether (mostly shallow salt lakes, reservoirs, oxbows, gravel pit lakes). In general As a consequence of small water volume and often unstable hydrological balance small lakes react quickly to human impacts like increased N and P loadings on the watershed, acidification or climatic changes even at small scales. Studied lakes characteristics The studied lakes are located in four different regions of Hungary. One oxbow and 5 small reservoirs were sampled in Eastern Hungary. Their surface areas range from 20 to 91 ha and their depths are in the range of 1 1.5-5.5 m. There are a number of continental salt lakes (conductivity range: 1600-32 000 S cm ) in the Kiskunsg National Park located between the rivers Duna and Tisza. Samples were taken from 7 lakes having surface areas from 35 to 456 ha and their depth is 0.5-1 m. In the Danube region of South Hungary 15 lakes, oxbows and deadarms were sampled. Surface range from 4 ha to 74 ha and their depth was 1.5-6 m. On the territority of the Duna-Drva National Park 39 oxbows (surface area: 1-100 ha; depth: 0.5-3 m) and 13 gravel pit lakes (surface area: 4400 ha; depth: 3-12 m) were sampled. According to chemical analyses, soluble reactive P concentrations were >10 g l and soluble inorganic N 1 was >100g l except the gravel pit lakes that were apparently seriously nutrient deficient. Conductivity
1

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ranged between 200 and 1500 S cm for most lakes except the salt lakes where values between 3000 and 1 25 000 S cm were registered. Results Equilibrium phases in phytoplankton assemblages are relatively rare. Equilibrium phase (additive dominance of the three most abundant species reached 80%) was detected in only 17 of the 80 lakes (21%). Most of them were under some kind (high salt content or very low level of nutrients) of stress factor. Among the lakes within or close to equilibrium stressed (salt lakes and nutrient poor gravel pit lakes) lakes were represented in a larger amount than their share among the lakes. In 26 of the 80 lakes additive dominance did not exceed 50% which indicates that phytoplankton of many systems are far from being competitively equilibrated. Water chemistry data of the 80 studied lakes were in the average range in most cases. Extremes were the high conductivity of salt lakes. It was also apparent that most (not all) gravel pit lakes were very poor in nutrients. Phytoplankton assemblages of these lakes were more often found in equilibrium than those of other lakes in the average range. Stressed ecosystems are quite likely to support equilibrated phytoplankton communities. Environmental stress forces phytoplankton communities towards equilibrium. No relationship between occurrence of equilibria and trophic state was found. Species number of nonequilibrated lakes was almost three times as high as those in equilibrium. Of the 31 recently described (Reynolds et al., 2002) phytoplankton assemblages most of those were recognized that are likely to occur in shallow lakes. (Padisk et al., 2003)

Denmark: biology and water quality Lakes play an important role in the Danish landscape and nature and are of great recreational value. Biology and water quality Danish lakes were much clearer just 60-80 years ago and had a considerably more diverse flora and fauna than today. For example, the bed of shallow lakes was covered with submerged Macrophytes. The majority of shallow-water calcareous lakes used to have extensive vegetation. As a result of eutrophication, however, these lakes have become rare in Denmark (less than 10 in the country as a whole). The Clearwater heath and dune lakes on nutrient-poor sandy soils with dense vegetation of rosulate plants (lobelia, shoreweed and quillwort) have also become rare (less than 20 in the country as a whole). It is estimated that 80% of the lakes had sufficiently clear water to house a variable submerged vegetation 100 years ago as compared with only 15% today. Both types of lake are rare and valuable - also at the European level. The same applies to the unregulated and unpolluted watercourses, which together with the lakes can serve as reference localities. The quality of the water in most of our lakes is poor. The water is often turbid, and plant and animal diversity is generally low. The submerged macrophytes have disappeared from many of the lakes, and large blooms of bluegreen algae can sometimes cover the surface like a film of paint. The fish population is often large and dominated by species such as roach and bream. There are only few birds because the food resource is poor. Improved water quality In order to improve lake environmental state, major investments have been made over the past 20-35 years to reduce nutrient loading - not least from urban wastewater. Lake environmental state has improved somewhat since the 1970s. Wastewater treatment has improved, and phosphorus loading of Danish lakes has therefore decreased considerably. The phosphorus concentration in the water running into the lakes has more than halved on average during the period 1989-2000. As a consequence, the phosphorus concentration in lake water has decreased during the same period. (Bach et al., 2002)

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3.1.2. Ponds
The role of ponds in providing ecosystem services If we want to protect and increase ponds and their biodiversity in Europe we need to use all the tools at our disposal. The role that ponds play in providing ecosystem services is one of these tools. New estimates of the global abundance of small waterbodies show that small waterbodies make up a high proportion of all standing waters. Together these ponds form networks that can play a major role in providing five major types of ecosystem service: flood prevention, water storage, nutrient and other pollutant mitigation, carbon sequestration and biodiversity protection. (Biggs et al., 2008)

The global abundance and size distribution of lakes, ponds, and impoundments: importance of small water bodies in global cycles A global model based on the Pareto distribution shows that the global extent of natural lakes is twice as large 2 as previously known (304 million lakes; 4.2 million km in area) and is dominated in area by millions of 2 water bodies smaller than 1 km . Similar analyses of impoundments based on inventories of large, 2 engineered dams show that impounded waters cover approximately 0.26 million km . However, construction of low-tech farm impoundments is estimated to be between 0.1% and 6% of farm area worldwide, 2 dependent upon precipitation, and represents >77,000 km globally, at present. Overall, about 4.6 million 2 km of the earths continental land surface (>3%) is covered by water. These analyses underscore the importance of explicitly considering lakes, ponds, and impoundments, especially small ones, in global analyses of rates and processes. Farm and agricultural ponds are a growing and globally uninventoried resource. They are constructed as sources of water for livestock, sources of irrigation water, fish culture ponds, recreational activities, sedimentation ponds, and water quality control structures. There is climatic regularity in the fraction of farm land that is converted to pond structures. Under dry conditions, farm ponds are rare, owing to the difficulty of collection and conservation of sufficient standing water. Up to about 1,600 mm of annual precipitation, farm ponds are an increasing fraction of the agricultural landscape. In moist climates such as Great Britain, farm ponds make up 34% of agricultural land. The predicted world area of farm ponds is more than six times the area predicted by extrapolation of the large 2 2 dams database and nearly double the total area covered by impoundments between 100 km and 1,000 km in area. For example, in Great Britain, such small impoundments are growing in importance at 0.7% annual rate of increase. Natural lakes and ponds are estimated to cover about 4.2 million km of the earths surface, whereas 2 2 impoundments cover 260,000 km , and farm ponds cover about 77,000 km . These data, taken together, indicate that lakes, ponds, and impoundments cover >3% of the earths surface. This is more than twice as much as indicated by previous inventories because small lakes have been undercensused. Ecosystem services On a global scale, rates of material processing (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, water, sediment, nutrients) by aquatic ecosystems are likely to be at least twice as important as had been previously supposed. Since the numerical and areal cover of small waterbodies is much greater than was previously assumed, processes that are most active in small lakes and ponds may assume global significance. On a local scale, previous analyses had indicated that small aquatic systems were spatially unimportant, yet small waterbodies dominate the global area covered by continental waters. Because studies of small aquatic systems have been underemphasized, future work should emphasize the global role and contribution of small waterbodies. (Downing et al., 2006)
2

Little things mean a lot: the emerging role of small lakes and ponds in the global carbon cycle Recent inventories based on modern geographical and mathematical approaches have shown that continental waters occupy nearly twice as much area as was previously believed. Further, these inventories have shown

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that small water bodies dominate the areal extent of continental waters, correcting a century-long misconception that large lakes are most important. The global importance of any ecosystem type in a process or cycle is the product of the areal extent and the intensity of the process in those ecosystems. Several analyses have shown the disproportionately great intensity of many processes in small, aquatic ecosystems, indicating that they play an unexpectedly major role in global cycles. Assessments of the global carbon cycle underscore the need for aquatic scientists to view their work on a global scale in order to respond to the Earths most pressing environmental problems. (Downing, 2008)

Sediment organic carbon burial in agriculturally eutrophic impoundments over the last century, USA Organic carbon (OC) burial was estimated over the past century in 40 impoundments in one of the most intensively agricultural regions of the world. The volume of sediment deposited per unit time varied as a function of lake and watershed size, but smaller impoundments had greater deposition and accumulation rates per unit area. Annual water storage losses varied from 0.1-20% and were negatively correlated with impoundment size. Estimated sediment OC content was greatest in lakes with low ratios of watershed to impoundment area. Sediment OC burial rates were higher than those assumed for fertile impoundments by previous studies and were much higher than those -2 -1 -2 -1 measured in natural lakes. OC burial ranged from a high of 17,000 g C m a to a low of 148 g C m a and was significantly greater in small impoundments than large ones. The OC buried in these lakes originates in both autochthonous and allochthonous production. These analyses suggest that OC sequestration in moderate to large impoundments may be double the rate assumed in previous analyses. Extrapolation suggests that they may bury 4 times as much carbon (C) as the worlds oceans. The worlds farm ponds alone may bury more OC than the oceans and 33% as much as the worlds rivers deliver to the sea. (Downing et al., 2008)

Carbon uptake by ponds, USA, the UK New research from the USA led by Professor John Downing from Iowa State University suggests that ponds can trap as much carbon as the ocean. The ponds and reservoirs were all in intensively farmed agricultural areas so were usually very nutrient-rich (due to fertilisers running off the land) with a lot of algal growth. It was found that the smaller, pond-sized, waterbodies accumulated sediment, and therefore carbon, most rapidly but in all waterbodies the rate at which carbon was taken up was surprisingly high, up to 500 times faster than lakes in more natural environments. Scaling-up, the high rate of carbon uptake measured here, combined with the large numbers of small waterbodies globally (more than 250 million worldwide), suggests that ponds could be burying as much carbon as the worlds oceans. Preliminary observations in a small number of new ponds in UK (a pond in Oxford, and six ponds and ditches at Loddington near Leicester) show that the rates of uptake are broadly consistent with the US data; from -2 -2 about 250 g C m per year in the pond near Oxford up to around 5000 g C m per year at Loddington. Ponds capture carbon in two main ways: a) algae and plants take carbon dioxide out of the air as they grow and the carbon is captured in the pond when the plants die b) water run-off will bring in carbon from the surrounding farmland soil. It may be that ponds as an important new natural way of trapping carbon will be the modern equivalent of the swamps that formed coal in the past. (Climate change and ponds, 2008)

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The UK: Lowland pond survey: wildlife value The Lowland Pond Survey in England, Wales and Scotland was carried out by Pond Conservation in 1998. The number of ponds in lowland Britain was estimated and the first national estimate of pond ecological quality was provided, in terms of the variety of plants and invertebrates living in them. Ponds are important for biodiversity - over half of all the British wetland plant species in ponds was found, including uncommon species. Despite finding lots of biodiversity, there was evidence that some of the ponds were degraded. Intensive land use near to the ponds can have an impact on the biodiversity in the pond. New ponds often had a high conservation value. New ponds often had a rich variety of wetland species and uncommon plants and were less likely to be affected by nutrient enrichment. (Lowland pond survey, 2008)

The UK: Pond Priority Habitat Proposal for a preliminary assessment of Important Areas for Ponds in Wales Ponds have recently been added to the list of UK BAP Priority Habitats. The Habitat Action Plan currently being developed will require each of the UK countries to identify ponds of conservation importance. The definition of an Important Area for Ponds (IAP) is: a geographical area particularly important because it has ponds that support species of conservation concern, rich assemblages, or unusual or distinctive pond types likely to support special freshwater plant and animal assemblages. Pond Priority Habitat Proposal Suggested habitat name: Ponds CORRESPONDING HABITATS BAP broad habitat: Standing open waters and canals Phase 1: G1 Standing water NVC: Various aquatic, swamp and fen communities; OV28-OV35; and others Annex I: Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (part); oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the Littorelletea uniflorae and/or of the Isoeto-Nanojuncetea (part); Hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic vegetation of Chara species (part); Natural dystrophic lakes and ponds (part); Mediterranean Temporary ponds; Natural eutrophic lakes (part) DESCRIPTION BAP Priority Habitat Ponds are defined as permanent and seasonal standing water bodies up to 2ha in extent which meet one or more of the following criteria. Habitats of high conservation importance. Ponds that meet criteria under Annex 1 of the Habitats Directive. Species of high conservation importance. Ponds supporting Red Data Book species, BAP species, species fully protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act Schedule 5 and 8, Habitats Directive Annex II species, a Nationally Scarce wetland plant species, or three Nationally Scarce aquatic invertebrate species. Exceptional assemblages of key biotic groups: Ponds supporting exceptional populations or numbers of key species. Based on (i) criteria specified in guidelines for the selection of biological SSSIs (currently amphibians and dragonflies only), and (ii) exceptionally rich sites for plants or invertebrates (i.e. supporting 30 wetland plant species or 50 aquatic macroinvertebrate species). Ponds of high ecological quality: Ponds classified in the top PSYM category (high) for ecological quality (i.e. having a PSYM score 75%). [PSYM (the Predictive SYstem for Multimetrics) is a method for assessing the biological quality of still waters in England and Wales. Plant species and / or invertebrate families are surveyed using a standard method. The PSYM model makes predictions for the site based on environmental data and using a minimally impaired pond dataset. Comparison of the prediction and observed data gives a % score for ponds quality.] Other important ponds: Individual ponds or groups of ponds with a limited geographic distribution recognised as important because of their age, rarity of type or landscape context e.g. pingos, duneslack

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ponds, machair ponds. Estimates based on the relatively small pond data sets currently available suggest that around 20% of the c.400,000 ponds outside curtilage in the UK might meet one or more of the above criteria. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT Widespread throughout the UK, but high-quality examples are now highly localised, especially in the lowlands. In certain areas high quality ponds form particularly significant elements of the landscape, e.g. Cheshire Plan marl pits, the New Forest ponds, pingos of East Anglia, mid-Wales mawn pools, the North East Wales pond landscape, the forest and moorland pools of Speyside, dune slack pools, the machair pools in the Western Isles of Scotland, and examples of Habitats Directive Annex I pond habitats across Northern Ireland. Identification of the proposed habitat: Priority Habitat Ponds can be readily identified by standard survey techniques such as those developed for NVC, Common Standards Monitoring, the National Pond Survey or for specific species groups. Ponds will need to be distinguished from other existing Priority Habitat types. The general principle to be applied is that where the standing water element is functionally a component of another Priority Habitat and that Priority Habitat definition takes account of the standing water element then it should be treated as part of that habitat.. For example small waterbodies within blanket bog should be considered as part of the blanket bog Priority Habitat, but ponds in heathland (which are not dealt with through the heathland HAP) should be considered under the pond Priority Habitat. Agreement has been reached with the lake HAP group that the pond Priority Habitat will cover to most water bodies up to 2ha while the lake Priority Habitat will cover most larger water bodies. As with other potentially overlapping priority habitat types a small proportion of cases will need to be individually assessed to decide how they are best dealt with. Inventory. An inventory of ponds, including many high quality sites, has been established as part of the National Pond Monitoring Network and work is in progress to add further known sites to this database. This is publicly accessible (for non-sensitive sites/species) at www.pondnetwork.org.uk. Currently about 500 high quality sites are listed on this database. Monitoring. The National Pond Monitoring Network (NPMN) will provide the main mechanism for monitoring Priority Habitat ponds. The NPMN was established in 2002 as a partnership of organisations involved in pond monitoring led by the Environment Agency and Pond Conservation. REASONS FOR RECOMMENDATION Habitats of international importance. Six Habitats Directive Annex I types are included within this habitat (either entirely or in part), these include upland lochans, ponds in blanket bogs, machair pools and Mediterranean temporary pools in the Lizard in Cornwall.. The importance of ponds as stepping stone habitats is recognised in Article 10 of the Habitats Directive. Current freshwater priority habitats, in particular, do not adequately meet UK obligations under the Directive because the majority currently cover only lakes. In addition, many high quality ponds will not be covered by SACs. UK guidelines for implementation of the Water Framework Directive indicate a UK responsibility for assessing and monitoring ponds under the Directive. In August 2006 English Nature submitted a proposal to Defra for River Basin Characterisation to identify a limited number of ponds of significance for EU or UK biodiversity. Habitats at risk Ponds are vulnerable to loss and damage by a wide range of factors including nutrient enrichment and infilling. The 1996 Lowland Pond Survey (LPS96) shows that at least 50% of ponds in the wider countryside are highly degraded and that there is widespread evidence of enrichment and other diffuse pollution impacts. Temporary ponds are believed to be more degraded than permanent ponds. There is also growing concern that even ponds in semi-natural landscapes are at risk from air-borne pollution (e.g. acidification, nutrientenriched rainfall) and climate change, to which shallow ponds are recognised as being particularly vulnerable. Pond numbers in the UK are probably at an historic low, with the loss of about 70% of the ponds existing in 1880. Much of the loss appears to have occurred in the second half of the 20th century as a result of agricultural change and urbanisation. In addition, LPS96 and Countryside Survey 2000 data show that, although pond numbers are now beginning to stabilise, there is an exceptionally high turnover of ponds, with 1% of the total resource both destroyed and created each year. There is currently no indication of the quality of ponds lost compared to those gained. However, LPS96 suggests that most new ponds are created (a) with stream inflows - a practice discouraged in many other European countries, since most inflows are polluted, and (b) as fishing lakes. Both trends are worrying. Recent evidence shows that many high value ponds are seriously at risk from the spread of alien invasive species of plants and animals. With increased emphasis on access to the countryside, this risk is likely to increase. Habitats important for key species At the landscape level, ponds typically support more invertebrate and plant species than other water body

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types (i.e. lakes, rivers, streams and ditches). The criteria and thresholds listed in the habitat description have been selected so that the Priority Habitat includes ponds that qualify as important for key taxon groups, particularly in terms of international obligation, threat / rarity, exceptional populations / richness, and ecological quality. Ponds support considerable numbers of key species. Species with statutory protection include at least 65 BAP priority species (e.g. water vole, tadpole shrimp, lesser silver water and spangled water beetles, starfruit, pennyroyal, three-lobed crowfoot), at least 28 animal and plant species listed under the W&C Act Schedules 5 & 8, and six Habitats Directive Annex II species including: great crested newt, white-clawed crayfish, otter (in larger ponds) and floating water-plantain. Ponds have additionally been shown to support at least 80 aquatic RDB species. The number of RDB species using the damp margins and drawdown zones of ponds (e.g. Diptera, ground beetles) has never been estimated but is likely to be considerable. There is increasing evidence that ponds are an important feeding resource for bats and also for farmland birds, including species for which there is a current Public Service Agreement, such as Tree Sparrow and Yellow Wagtail. NAME OF PROPOSER/ORGANISATION(S) Anita Weatherby, on behalf of Pond Conservation, Freshwater LCN, Environment Agency, Scottish Environment Protection Agency DATE Revised version received 6 December 2006 (Nicolet et al., 2007)
th

Norway: Comparative biodiversity of urban, woodland and ice-production ponds (effects of pollution on biodiversity) Ponds and land use Ponds are an important type of freshwater habitat in towns and near built-up areas. They comprise ponds in actual urban settings, woodland ponds and ponds and small lakes where ice used to be produced. The biodiversity of 26 of these ponds situated in Oslo and the neighbouring counties of Akershus and Buskerud was studied to investigate the effects of pollution on biodiversity. Pond characteristics All ponds are probably more than 100 years old. The urban ponds may be older than the others, since many were originally farm ponds, whereas most of the ice-production ponds are younger than 150 years. Small ponds near urban centres have often been filled in. The ponds are small and shallow, no more than 0.7-5.5 m deep. The ice-production ponds are somewhat larger and deeper than the others. The catchment basins of all these ponds have been often changed after the ponds were constructed (particularly in urban area), because ditches and channels now drain the run-off away from its natural course. The original vegetation largely survives in the vicinity of woodland and ice-production ponds, and their shore zones, whereas urban ponds mostly occupy highly landscaped parkland. The woodland ponds are situated somewhat higher up (220-440 m a.s.l.) than the others (no more than 160 m a.s.l. and mostly less than 100 m a.s.l.). They also had much more exchange of water. Water quality and differences among ponds The most important difference in water chemistry between the ponds was the content of particulate matter, phosphorus and calcium. Urban ponds had a somewhat higher content of calcium than the others and were generally loaded with plant nutrients (especially phosphorus). The content of particulate matter was also highest in these ponds. The organic carbon content was high in all three types of pond. In general, the ponds held low concentrations of heavy metals, but some stood out with comparatively high concentrations of zinc and copper (woodland ponds) or nickel and lead (a few urban and ice-production ponds). Biology and differences among ponds Each individual pond held few species of plants and animals, but together the ponds house a rich diversity of species. Some of these are typical pond forms that are seldom found in lakes. Some are little known and are probably rare in Norway. Aquatic plants (not including the littoral vegetation) were represented by a total of 25 species. The iceproduction ponds had the most species. Phytoplankton was the group numbering most species, all told 316 species or groups of species. The number of species in individual ponds varied between 23 and 79. On average, urban ponds had 10 fewer species than woodland and ice-production ponds, but they had a higher biomass.

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A total of 75 species of littoral and planktonic small crustaceans were found. The number of species varied between 15 and 37. On average, woodland and urban ponds had approximately the same number of species, whereas ice-production dams had nearly 10 more. Species typically found in localities with clear water and little nutrient were common in woodland ponds, whereas urban ponds had species that are more associated with nutrient-rich, turbid, lowland localities. Ponds with a large flow of water through them had a low density of crustaceans. The ice-production ponds had lower densities than the nutrient-rich urban ponds. 76 species of aquatic beetles were recorded. On average, woodland ponds had fewer species than urban and iceproduction ponds. Several rare species of invertebrates were also recorded. Ten species of fish were recorded. Generally, the fish had been released into the ponds, but a few species have local populations in nearby watercourses. Five species of amphibians were found. Half the 22 ponds in which amphibians were recorded lacked fish. (Aagaard, 2002)

3.1.2.1. Mountain ponds

The alternative stable state concept, Apennine mountain ponds, Italy During 1998, data on macrophyte cover, phytoplankton biomass, nutrients and water transparency were collected from 30 Apennine ponds and shallow lakes. The variability of nutrients, algal biomass and the extent of macrophyte cover during the growing season were analysed. In the paper, ponds and small lakes are collectively called ponds. Apennine mountain characteristics The Apennine mountain chain runs from northern to southern Italy with the highest altitudes (ca. 3000 m a.s.l.) in the central region (Central Apennines). The area is underlain by karst geology and is dominated by permeable limestones. As a result surface water drains very quickly underground. Small lakes and ponds thus develop only when impermeable material accumulates in superficial depressions. Studied ponds are situated at altitudes between 1014 and 2005m a.s.l. In this area, the potential upper limit of the timber line ranges from 1700 to 1900m a.s.l. Therefore, almost all the ponds investigated in this study can be considered subalpine lentic systems. However, because of the intense tree cutting undertaken in this area, catchments (in general smaller than 300 ha) are characterized by a large percentage of bare rocks, with vegetation dominated by meadow grasses and shrubs, even at lower altitudes. Pond characteristics The general morphological characteristics of the ponds are typical of other lentic water bodies of the central Apennines. Most of the ponds are less than 0.5 ha in area and less than 2 m deep. Moreover, almost all of them can be considered closed systems with their water coming mainly from local precipitation and snow melt. Other relevant characteristics include significant water level and water volume variations throughout the year and winter ice cover for a period ranging from 3 to 5 months. Alternative equilibria hypothesis/concept The alternative equilibria hypothesis (Scheffer et al., 1993) potentially provides a scientific framework for structuring management actions in shallow freshwater ecosystems. This hypothesis states that over a range of nutrient concentrations, shallow lakes can switch between two alternative equilibria (or stable states): clear and turbid (Scheffer et al., 1993). If alternative states exist, then for the same high level of nutrients, diverse levels of phytoplankton biomass would be expected according to macrophyte cover. These states are stabilized by feedback associated with either macrophytes or turbidity, leading to opposite outcomes (Scheffer, 1998). When feedbacks favour the development of submerged vegetation, lakes are stabilized in the clear state. Macrophytes are known to promote and stabilize clear-water conditions keeping phytoplankton biomass low by: (i) offering refuge to zooplankton species; (ii) competing with algae for resources; and (iii) releasing allopathic substances (Jeppesen et al., 1997a,b; Mjelde and Faafeng, 1997; Van den Berg et al., 1997; Scheffer, 1998; Bertolo et al., 1999; Burks et al., 2001; Strand and Weisner, 2001). On the other hand, when feedback favours resuspension of sediments and production of phytoplankton biomass, lakes are stabilized in the turbid state. Examples include sediment resuspension by waves (e.g. wind

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exposure), sediment disturbance by benthivorous fish and zooplankton predation by planktivorous fish (Scheffer, 1998; Angeler et al., 2003). Results Apennine ponds display high variability in nutrients, algal biomass and macrophyte cover. Patterns of soluble reactive phosphorus, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, chlorophyll a and water transparency of ponds and shallow lakes are consistent with the existence of alternative stable states. The data show that for the same range of nutrients, clear ponds exhibit high macrophyte cover and low phytoplankton biomass. In contrast, turbid ponds have low (or no) macrophyte cover and high phytoplankton biomass. The extent of macrophyte cover plays a key role in stabilizing one of the alternative stable states. (Ruggiero et al., 2005)

Six ponds, situated in the Italian Apennines were monitored from March to November 1997. Ponds were divided into vegetated and unvegetated group according to their summer macrophyte coverage. Temporal patterns of phytoplanktonic chlorophyll a and nutrient concentration in ponds with contrasting macrophyte coverage were studied. In shallow lakes, macrophytes have important effects on food webs, community structure and nutrient dynamics. For this reason they play a significant role in the restoration of degraded systems. Particularly when present with large coverage, they establish mechanisms favouring low phytoplankton biomass and a decrease of nutrient concentration in the water column. Even if these effects are documented from a number of systems, little evidence comes from shallow mountain lakes. Characteristics In the central Italian Apennines, a permanent freshwater resource is constituted by a large number of small lakes and permanent ponds. These waterbodies are usually lacking in inlets and outlets, their water coming from local precipitation. Their hydrology is characterized by large fluctuations in water level, greatly diminishing from early spring to late summer. Water surface is ice covered in winter but it can reach temperatures of around 30 C in summer. Catchments are characterized mainly by bare rocks, meadows and bushes. Six ponds were studied with an altitude range of 1164-1604 m (a.s.l.), an area range of 1350-11480 m and a maximum depth range of 0.95-2.30 m. Ecological importance In central Italy mountain lakes and ponds are characterized by limited dimensions. However, they represent valuable natural resources in the area and are protected by being within nature reserves and parks. Results Results indicate that clear water conditions can exist in Apenninic ponds despite their eutrophy. This is consistent with the hypothesis of alternative stable states in shallow lakes (Scheffer et al., 1993). Results on mountain ponds are consistent with those of similar lowland systems. Managing the presence of macrophytes can be an effective tool for the restoration of eutrophic shallow lakes also in mountain areas. (Ruggiero et al., 2003)
2

Pond Macroinvertebrate Integrity Index, Apennine mountain ponds, Italy An index based on macroinvertebrates sensitive to the gradient of nutrient enrichment was developed. 31 ponds were sampled along a gradient of trophy and with similar geomorphological characteristics and watershed use. A bioassessment protocol was adopted to collect and process benthic samples and keyassociated physical, chemical, and biological variables during the summer growth season of 1998. 61 genera of macroinvertebrates belonging to 31 families were collected. 31 macroinvertebrate metrics based on selected and total taxa richness, richness of some key groups, abundance, functional groups and tolerance to organic pollution were calculated. The gradient of trophy was quantified with summer concentrations of chlorophyll a. A stepwise procedure to evaluate the effectiveness of a given metric for use in the multimetric index was followed. Those were the pollution tolerance metric ASPT, three metrics based on taxonomic richness (the richness of macroinvertebrate genera, the richness of chironomid taxa, and the percentage of total richness composed by Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Trichoptera), two metrics based on

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FFG attributes (richness of collector gatherer taxa and richness of scraper taxa) and the habit based metric richness of burrowers. The 95th percentile of each metric distribution among all ponds was trisected for metric scoring. The final Pond Macroinvertebrate Integrity Index ranged from 7 to 35 and had a good correlation 2 (R = 0.71) with the original gradient of environmental degradation. The index is specific to this pond type and nutrient pressure, and it is developed using the dataset gathered from a survey of water quality and macroinvertebrates targeting Appenninic mountain ponds more than 1,000 m above see level (asl), most of them impacted solely by cattle density (see Ruggiero et al., 2005). Pond characteristics The 31 study ponds are representative of mountain ponds in the central Apennines. Ponds are situated in protected areas. Ponds are limited in depth and size: only six ponds are larger than 1 ha while only four ponds are deeper than 3 m. Watersheds (in general smaller than 300 ha) are mainly characterized by a large percentage of bare rocks with vegetation being represented only by meadows and bushes. Their water originates from local precipitation and snow melting and the water level shows substantial variation over the year. During the winter, these ponds are ice-covered for a period ranging from 3 to 5 months. Pond ecological importance of Europe in general There has been a remarkable increase in awareness of the importance of ponds and wetlands as habitats for a variety of (unique) flora and fauna, initiating urgent scientific research on those ecosystems. Pond ecological importance of Appennines Most of the mountain areas in central Italy (central Apennines) are protected by local and/or national authorities. Here, the calcareous soil and karstic process result in a rapid loss of surface water. Therefore, the few natural and artificial ponds, often placed in natural parks, represent valuable freshwater ecosystems. The alternative stable state concept In shallow lentic ecosystems, nutrient enrichment can cause a shift from a clear water state with a dominance of aquatic macrophytes to a turbid water state dominated by phytoplankton (Scheffer et al., 1993). A previous study has already shown that patterns of nutrients, phytoplankton biomass, macrophyte cover, and water transparency among Appennine ponds are consistent with the existence of two alternative stable states (Ruggiero et al., 2005). These two stable states are the result of complex interactions, occurring in the pelagic and the benthic habitats, between the biota and some physical and chemical variables, such as water depth, extension of macrophyte coverage, and resuspension of sediments (Scheffer et al., 1993). Since the presence of submerged macrophytes has a strong influence on pond invertebrates (Diehl & Kornijw, 1998; Solimini et al., 2000; Bazzanti et al., 2003; Della Bella et al., 2005), the clear and the turbid states may result in substantial differences in macroinvertebrate community structure. Therefore, the establishment of an assessment method based on macroinvertebrates is likely to prove an effective means of pond assessment. (Solimini et al., 2008)

3.1.2.2. Temporary ponds and pools

Temporary pools as Ramsar wetland type of international importance Hydrology and biology Temporary pools are usually small (< 10 ha in area) and shallow wetlands which are characterized by an alternation of flooded and dry phases, and whose hydrology is largely autonomous. They occupy depressions, often endorheic, which are flooded for a sufficiently long period to allow the development of hydromorphic soils and wetland-dependent aquatic or amphibious vegetation and fauna communities. However, equally importantly, temporary pools dry out for long enough periods to prevent the development of the more widespread plant and animal communities characteristic of more permanent wetlands.

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The water supply for temporary ponds usually comes from precipitation, from run-off from their often small and discrete catchment, and/or from the groundwater table. Significant and characteristic features of temporary pools include: a) the ephemeral nature of their wet phase, normally with shallow waters, which means that they may not appear as obvious wetlands for most of the time; b) their total dependence upon local hydrology, especially with the absence of any link to permanent aquatic habitats; c) the uniqueness of their vegetation with, for example, typical communities of aquatic ferns (Isoetes species, Marsilea species, Pilularia species), normally endangered, and other amphibious plants such as Ranunculus species and Calitriche species; d) the uniqueness of their invertebrate communities and a particular abundance of endangered faunal groups such as amphibians and branchiopod crustaceans, often due to the absence of fish as predators; e) their particularly good representation in arid, semi-arid and mediterranean-type zones (including occurring as surface features in karst landscapes); f) the human-made nature of many temporary pools in different parts of the world, created either as a result of extractive activities or for water retention and storage for use by local communities; and g) their provision of nesting places for waterbirds. The characteristic plant and animal communities of temporary pools are: a) virtually dependent on this wetland type during at least part of, and often for all of, their life cycle; b) very vulnerable by nature, being totally dependent on the very specific hydrological conditions of the pool: by altering the hydrology to drier or wetter conditions, whole plant and animal communities characteristic of temporary pools can be rapidly lost. A number of species typical of temporary pools, for example aquatic ferns (Isoetes spp., Marsilea spp., Pilularia spp.), are globally or nationally threatened and listed in Protected Species Lists or Red Data Books. Temporary pools often occur as clusters or complexes of pools, sometimes involving hundreds of pools. In areas where rainfall is very localized, at any one time different pools may be dry or filled. When filled they may provide habitats for waterbird populations which move around the entire area. Such waterbird populations are thus dependent upon the whole cluster of pools rather than individual pools. Temporary pools in Ramsar Classification System Since temporary pools are defined by their size and their hydrological functioning, whilst the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type is based chiefly on vegetation, temporary pools are covered by a number of categories of wetland types in the Classification System: a) they can occur as a Marine/coastal wetland under category E (Sand, shingle or pebble shores; includes sand bars, spits and sandy islets; includes dune systems and humid dune slacks); b) they can occur as an Inland wetland, under categories N (Seasonal/ intermittent/ irregular rivers/streams/creeks), P (Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes floodplain lakes), Ss (Seasonal/intermittent saline/ brackish/alkaline marshes/pools), Ts (Seasonal/ intermittent freshwater marshes /pools on inorganic soils; includes sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes), W (Shrub-dominated wetlands; shrub swamps, shrub-dominated freshwater marshes, shrub carr, alder thicket on inorganic soils), and Xf (Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; includes freshwater swamp forests, seasonally flooded forests, wooded swamps on inorganic soils); and c) they can occur as a Human-made wetland, in category 2 (Ponds; includes farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks; (generally below 8 ha). Ecological services The guidance has been prepared in recognition of the fact that temporary ponds are often undervalued as wetlands because of their generally small size and seasonal or ephemeral nature, yet such wetlands can be of critical importance for the maintenance of biodiversity and as sources of water, food and other wetland products for local communities and indigenous peoples and their ways of life, particularly in arid and semiarid areas and those which are vulnerable to persistent drought. Temporary pools are small wetlands of all climatic regions, contribute to the maintenance of global biological diversity through the highly specialized plant and animal communities which depend upon them. These wetlands have important socio-economic values which include, inter alia, storage of water for use by local communities, especially pastoral communities in arid zones; provision of grazing areas to these communities; environmental education, facilitated by the small size of these pools; and scientific research, notably concerning the adaptation of whole biotic communities to unstable environments. They also have cultural values, especially in some dry regions, including karst areas and steppic areas.

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Temporary pools can also be important for groundwater recharge in karstic, arid and semi-arid areas The importance of temporary pools is not linked to their size. Important sites in terms of their contribution to global biodiversity can be only a few hectares or even square meters, in size. (The Ramsar Convention., 2002)

Mediterranean temporary ponds as habitat type by Natura 2000 Mediterranean temporary ponds are very shallow temporary ponds (a few centimetres deep) which exist only in winter or late spring, with a flora mainly composed of Mediterranean therophytic and geophytic species belonging to the alliances Isoetion, Nanocyperion flavescentis, Preslion cervinae, Agrostion salmanticae, Heleochloion and Lythrion tribracteati. (Interpretation Manual of.., 2003)

Mediterranean temporary ponds and pools Temporary ponds are one of the most remarkable and most threatened freshwater European habitats. Characteristics Temporary ponds, in general, are characterised by alternating phases of flooding and drying which leads to the establishment of unique and diverse plant and animal communities. Mediterranean temporary pools support threatened and endemic species such as: - The tyrrhenian painted frog (Discoglossus sardus), the mallorcan midwife toad (Alytes muletensis),the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus) and the iberian spadefoot toad (Pelobates cultripes). - The plants Marsilea strigosa, Isoetes olympica, Lythrum thymifolium, Ranunculus revelieri and Artemisia molinieri. - The macrocrustacean Linderiella massaliensis, Cyzicus bucheti, Taymastigites stellae and Immadia yeyetta. Temporary ponds, however, do not constitute a homogeneous group and vary considerably depending on local physico-chemical characteristics such as soils and surface area. Protection Mediterranean temporary ponds protected under the EU Habitats Directive include only a small proportion of all Mediterranean temporary pools: specifically those which have oligotrophic water and support particular plant communities. Other temporary ponds receive little or no protection under national or international legislation. (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

3.1.2.3. Mediterranean ponds

Macroinvertebrate size spectra of Mediterranean ponds with differing hydroperiod length, Italy The size spectra of the macroinvertebrate community in ponds with different hydroperiod length were compared along the Tyrrhenian coast of central Italy. Invertebrate sampling was conducted in 21 ponds (8 permanent and 13 temporary) in three different mesohabitats (central sediments, littoral sediments and macrophytes) during spring 2002. The major environmental drivers affecting the size structure of pond macroinvertebrates were assessed. The size spectra was assessed among different pond types (permanent vs. temporary), different mesohabitats within ponds and different sampling dates. Pond characteristics The ponds are situeted in natural areas along the Tyrrhenian coast of central Italy. These sites are protected under European directives (79/409/EEC; 92/43/EEC) or as part of the Natura 2000 network. This area is representative of the last residue of the original Mediterranean plain forest formerly covering the Latium coast. The 13 temporary ponds are autumnal ponds (sensu Wiggins et al., 1980) and their hydroperiod length depends on the rainfall, which usually shows autumnal and spring peaks.

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Background Benthic ecologists have begun to use the size structure of the assemblage of invertebrates as a complement to taxonomic description (Strayer, 1991). However, very little information exists on the benthic invertebrate size structure of small water bodies and how it responds to environmental variation at the local scale. Results Density and biomass size spectra were calculated for 123 samples and covered six orders of magnitude in size ranging from 0.126 mg to 0.5 g. The shape of the density size distribution was unimodal, the mode being around 0.050.1 mg, with Oligochaeta and Diptera (Chironomidae) numerically dominant in almost all size classes. The periodic drying affected the total biomass per size class, shown by comparing spectra among mesohabitats and pond types. The higher biomass in all size classes showed by permanent ponds and central sediments reflects the major stability of permanent biotopes and, within these, of central sediments. The overall shape of the size spectrum was similar among pond types, mesohabitats and sampling dates. Biomass of larger size classes was linked to variables describing pond stability. We suggest that the biomass size spectrum of benthic macroinvertebrates is a potentially useful tool for quantitative wetland biomonitoring. In small Mediterranean ponds, the regularity of biomass size spectra implies that size-structuring processes are independent of the hydrological stress. (Solimini et al., 2005)

Odonata species and environmental characteristics in lowland ponds of central Italy A set of 21 ponds was sampled three times for odonate larvae during spring 2002. At the same time 17 environmental variables were recorded including area, wet phase duration, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, aquatic macrophytes and land use. A total of 16 odonate species belonging to Lestidae, Coenagrionidae, Aeshnidae and Libellulidae were recorded, and the total number of species per pond varied from zero to six. The relationships between species richness, assemblages and environmental variables were studied by simple and multiple correlation and by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Results The results showed that permanent ponds were larger, deeper, had more macrophyte species, had more extensive macrophytes cover and lower concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus than temporary ponds. Multiple regression analysis showed that the number of odonate species was positively affected firstly by the number of macrophyte species, and then by pond depth. However, pond depth appeared to be interchangeable with several others variables, such as pond area and water duration and negatively correlated with nitrogen concentration, variables which are all linked with the permanent or temporary status of the ponds. CCA analysis indicated that odonate species presence was linked with a few environmental variables, showing a tendency of Odonata to avoid ponds with higher nitrogen concentrations, with the exception of Lestes barbarus, a species typical of temporary water in central Italy. At the same time, the majority of species were linked with longer water phase duration and with greater macrophyte species richness. A comparison with previous studies, and in particular with those carried out in central Italy, confirmed the positive influence of macrophytes, water duration, and also the negative effect of nutrient load. However, several other variables, in particular land use, shade, presence of fish, which were influential in other studies, were not significant in this study. (Carchini et al., 2005)

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3.1.2.4. Kettle holes

Gemmany: Importance for amphibians In Northeast Germany, kettle holes are characterized by a wet-dry-circle and therefore by a high potential for structural and species diversity. Kettle holes are protected by law, but there is still a need to develop effective conservation and management strategies. (Kalettka et al., 2005a) The extinction of many amphibian populations has been documented since 1970. Despite the destruction of many ponds as a result of intensive agriculture, the young-moraine landscapes of Northeast-Germany remain important centres of distribution for amphibians even today. The faunal map in different agricultural areas of Brandenburg indicates up to 11 species of amphibians using these ponds as habitats and for reproduction. (Schneeweiss, Beckmann, 1999) Kettle holes are the most important breeding habitat for amphibian species in Northeast Germany. Viable amphibian populations do not only require intact breeding habitats. Also terrestrial summer and winter habitats are of great importance. In agricultural landscapes, buffer zones around kettle holes can serve as such habitats and offer food and vegetation cover that increases the survival of adults and juveniles. (Helmecke, 2005)

3.1.2.5. Farm ponds

Comparative biodiversity of rivers, streams, ditches and ponds, agricultural landscape in Southern England The comparative biodiversity of different freshwater ecosystems in terms of their wetland macrophytes and aquatic macroinvertebrates in a lowland agricultural British landscape was compared. The survey area of 80 2 km , on the Oxfordshire/Wiltshire border of southern England, includes a representative range of waterbody types, both permanent and seasonal, including streams, ponds, ditches, rivers and lakes. 65 ponds were sampled. Ponds are defined as waterbodies between 25 m and 2 ha in area which may be permanent or seasonal (Collinson et al., 1995). Includes both man-made and natural waterbodies. Chemical characteristics of the four main waterbody types showed that ponds had the lowest mean values for nitrate-nitrogen and suspended solids but also by far the widest range values for these parameters. Out of the total 337 species of plants and invertebrates recorded in the survey, ponds supported 71%, rivers 60%, streams 48% and ditches 35%. This general pattern was consistent for both wetland plants and aquatic macroinvertebrates. Of the 18 Nationally Scarce species recorded in the survey, the majority (14 species) were found in ponds. Permanence, depth, flow and altitude were the main environmental variables explaining invertebrate and plant assemblage composition. The results showed that although all waterbody types contributed to the diversity of macrophytes and macroinvertebrates in the region, they differed in relative value. Individual ponds varied considerably in species richness, with the richest sites supporting similar numbers of taxa to the best river sections, but the poorest sites amongst the most impoverished for all waterbody types. At a regional level (gamma diversity), however, ponds contributed most to biodiversity, supporting considerably more species, more unique species and more scarce species than other waterbody types. Ponds and other small waterbodies can contribute significantly to regional biodiversity. This contrasts markedly with their relative status in national monitoring and protection strategies, where small waterbodies are largely ignored. In contrast to site diversity, regional pond diversity is unusually high relative to other waterbody types. In Britain, comparison of national pond and river data sets showed that pond macroinvertebrate assemblages were richer, and supported more rare species than rivers and streams (Biggs et al., 2000). At a smaller scale, similar trends were found by Verdonschot (1990) in OverIjssel province in the Netherlands and in the Upper Rhne by Usseglio-Polatera (1994). There may be factors operating at landscape level to create and maintain ponds as a regionally important biodiversity resource. Ponds are physically heterogeneous habitats. These waterbodies often have small catchment areas and can, as a result, have highly individual physico-chemical characteristics
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that vary considerably between ponds depending on local geology and land use (e.g. entirely wooded, heavily grazed, draining acid- or base-rich strata). It is possible, therefore, that such heterogeneity in water chemistry and habitat has a bottom-up effect on biodiversity, maintaining ponds as regionally rich habitats. In contrast to rivers and streams, many ponds are relatively isolated and may, therefore, show greater community heterogeneity as a result of stochastic effects acting on the colonisation process (Jeffries, 1988). Variability in pond isolation has the potential to further enhance gamma diversity, because ponds directly connected to streams or located on floodplains are likely to be colonised by species with relatively low aerial dispersal ability whereas isolated sites are likely to be dominated by good dispersers. (Williams et al., 2003)

A comparison of the catchment sizes of rivers, streams, ponds, ditches and lakes, agricultural landscape in Southern England The biodiversity of five waterbody types (ditches, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams) within an agricultural study area in lowland England was compared to assess their relative contribution to the plant and macroinvertebrate species richness and rarity of the region. A 13 x 11 km study area of lowland agricultural landscape in Britain on the borders of Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and Gloucestershire was selected. A Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to compare the catchment areas and landuse composition for each of these waterbody types to assess the feasibility of deintensifying land to levels identified in the literature as acceptable for aquatic biota. Across the study area, the pond sites supported the greatest number of both macrophyte and macroinvertebrate species. Overall, the pond sites supported 238 species, river sites supported 201 species, lakes 186 species, streams 163 species and finally, ditch sites supported 120 species. Ponds also supported the highest index of species rarity across the study area. Catchment areas associated with the different waterbody types differed significantly, with rivers having the largest average catchment sizes and ponds the smallest. There was a broadly inverse relationship between surface water area and number of waterbodies, with ponds being one of the most numerous waterbody types (236) but having the smallest total surface area. Catchment sizes were significantly different between waterbody types. Rivers had the greatest average catchment areas (43,850 ha), followed by lakes (141 ha), streams (86 ha), ditches (29 ha) and lastly, ponds (18 ha). Calculation of the areas of agricultural land within the catchments of the different waterbody types that would need to be deintensified to provide adequate protection, indicated that, for larger waterbodies, such a method of deintensification would be inappropriate and uneconomic due to the scales that are likely to be involved. In contrast, complete catchment protection would be quite feasible for smaller waterbodies. Given that the smaller waterbodies supported higher levels of aquatic biodiversity, deintensification of their relatively small catchments should afford effective protection from many pollutants, enabling pockets of high biodiversity to exist in a working agricultural landscape. Combined with alternative methods to protect waterbodies with larger catchments, and the creation of strategically located new ponds a landscape matrix should result which incorporates minimally impacted aquatic habitats whilst still being economically and socially productive. The important contribution made to regional aquatic biodiversity by small waterbodies and in particular ponds, combined with their characteristically small catchment areas, means that they are amongst the most valuable, and potentially amongst the easiest, of waterbody types to protect.

Macrophyte and macroinvertebrate (a) species richness across the study area

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Macrophyte and macroinvertebrate (b) species rarity across the study area

Average and total catchment areas of the different waterbody types within the study area (Davies et al., 2008)

Biodiversity and distribution patterns of freshwater invertebrates in farm ponds of a south-western French agricultural landscape The importance for biodiversity of farm ponds dug by man in an agricultural landscape in SW France lacking natural wetlands were assessed. The environmental factors influencing invertebrate assemblages in these ponds were also assessed to increase understanding of the factors influencing biodiversity in these man-made ecosystems. A Self-Organizing Map (SOM, neural network) was used to classify 36 farm ponds in terms of the 52 invertebrate families and genera they supported, and to specify the influence of environmental variables related to land-use and to pond characteristics on the assemblage patterns. Ecological importance of ponds in general Ponds are small and shallow, natural or man-made water bodies defined as wetlands by the Ramsar Convention. Ponds typically outnumber larger lakes by a ratio of about 100:1 (Oertli et al., 2005a), and recent studies have revealed their importance for the conservation of biodiversity (Pyke, 2005; Scheffer et al., 2006) because, despite their small size, they disproportionately contribute to regional diversity, e.g. when compared to streams, large rivers, or lakes (Oertli et al., 2002; Williams et al., 2004; Karaus et al., 2005). Thus, ponds challenge conventional approaches to conservation biology, where much attention has been directed towards large-scale ecosystems (Meffe & Carroll, 1997). Ecosystem services in general Natural or man-made ecosystems, such as ponds also provide a wide variety of resources that have a social and economic value (Chase & Ryberg, 2004; Hansson et al., 2005), calling for more attention to be given to their importance both for nature and people, e.g. through cost-benefit assessment of their role in promoting biodiversity in a given area at the same time as supporting human activities (OdlingSmee, 2005). For example, in a recent study, Gaston et al. (2005) showed that urban domestic gardens efficiently increased biodiversity on a local scale, while other authors have demonstrated that wetlands located in agricultural landscapes may support a diverse aquatic fauna (Hazell et al., 2004; Robson & Clay, 2005). Therefore, when ponds are artificially created to support human activities, such as recreation, ornament, agricultural practices, etc., one may consider whether, in addition to the services they offer, they also have an added value for sustaining aquatic biodiversity.

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From local to regional scales, ponds have obvious ecological functions and recognised social and economic uses (Chapman et al., 2001). Characteristics of Astarac Region: economy The Astarac region (SW France) is a 187 km area with an economy historically dominated by agriculture. The modern agricultural economy is now focussed mainly on maize and wheat growing, cattle rearing on extensive pasture, and duck farming. Characteristics of Astarac Region: water resources Water resource being naturally scarce in the Astarac (for geographic and climatic reasons, and as a result of wetland drainage). Natural wetlands were largely eliminated by drainage during the 19th and 20th centuries. Artificial channels (locally called Nestes) were built in the 19th and early 20th centuries, to carry water from the nearby Pyrenees. At the beginning of the 20th century, each farm also had at least three ponds dug by man to hold rainwater, in order to support local activities. Pond characteristics A preliminary inventory based on aerial photographs allowed us to locate 607 ponds (Nature Midi-Pyrnes, 2005) in the study area without a priori consideration of their origins (i.e. either natural or anthropogenic). 36 farm ponds were studied. Twenty-seven ponds currently provided services, being used for: cattle watering (14 ponds), irrigation (7 ponds), duck farming (3), providing visual amenity (2), and baitfish culture (1). The remaining nine ponds were abandoned. Results Only 18 invertebrate taxa out of 114 taxa occurring in the study area were common to ponds and rivers indicating that the contribution of farm ponds to regional freshwater biodiversity was potentially high. The SOM trained with taxa occurrences showed five clusters of ponds, most taxa occurring only in 1-2 clusters of ponds. The invertebrate communities in the ponds appeared to be influenced mainly by widely acting environmental factors (e.g. area, regionalization of assemblages) with little evidence that pond use (e.g. cattle watering, amenity) generally influenced assemblage composition. The invertebrate assemblages and the taxa richness hosted by farm ponds were primarily related to general ecological patterns (regionalization of assemblages, area effect, possibly successional patterns) although the ponds were subjected to different uses. Abandoned ponds tended to support higher numbers of taxa, probably because they were allowed to undergo a natural succession. Nevertheless, abandoned ponds were also amongst the largest, so that it remained difficult to separate the effects of pond size and abandonment, although both factors were likely to interact to favour higher taxon richness. Ecosystem services and biodiversity The ponds were originally created to provide a variety of societal services (irrigation, visual amenity, water for cattle, etc.). The role of man-made ponds is in sustaining aquatic life while at the same time supporting human activities. As the region lacked natural ponds we could be confident that the contribution to biodiversity by ponds was due entirely to waterbodies of anthropogenic origin. Given this, the contribution of farm ponds to freshwater biodiversity was potentially high in the Astarac. Artificial, more or less intensively used ponds appeared to be efficient in sustaining biodiversity at a regional scale. All ponds, of different sizes, with different habitat features, and offering different services, contributed to the diversity of invertebrate assemblages, even if individual ponds hosted few taxa. The taxa sampled in farm ponds (Ephemeroptera, Heteroptera, Odonata, Coleoptera, Mollusca, Diptera, Trichoptera, Oligochaeta) did well at representing the fauna of still waters usually found in European ponds, even under weak to moderate anthropogenic influence. The results of the study support the idea that agricultural landscapes containing man-made ponds make a significant contribution to freshwater biodiversity indicating that protection of farm ponds from threats such as in-filling and pollution can make a positive contribution to the maintenance of
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aquatic biodiversity. This added value for biodiversity should be considered when calculating the economic costs and benefits of constructing water bodies for human activities. (Crghino et al., 2008)

Belgium: Ecological characteristics of small farmland ponds: Associations with land use practices at multiple spatial scales A study of 126 farmland ponds distributed over the entire territory of Belgium (surface area: 30.500 km ) mainly focusing on small ponds that provide drinking water for cattle in order to assess variables related to turbidity state and vegetation complexity and relate them to land use variables assessed at several spatial 2 scales ranging from the pond edge up to 32 km circular areas. Differences between small ponds and lakes regarding exchange of matter, nutrient cycling Small farmland ponds differ from larger ponds, lakes and rivers in many aspects and can therefore be expected to be affected by land use via other mechanisms operating at different spatial scales. They have a smaller volume to edge ratio, which on the whole leads to a higher proportion of littoral zone, a higher impact of shading effects from surrounding trees and a more direct exchange of matter and organisms with the locally surrounding terrestrial matrix. Furthermore, the mechanisms that create resuspension of sediments (and associated nutrient recycling) in ponds differ from those in lakes. Small ponds have lower wind fetch and most often lack large sediment resuspending benthic fish (Scheffer et al., 2003) while in many regions they may be more affected by the wading of cattle. Small size is also correlated with shallow depth, which may tend to allow better light conditions for vegetation, a more intensive benthic-pelagic coupling (Tessier and Woodruff, 2002), and a higher probability to dry out during summer. Land use of Belgium Agricultural practices are diverse in Belgium. The northern and central parts of the country (Flanders) are dominated by agricultural landscapes. Forest patches are scarce, fragmented and small, and the land use is generally intensive (predominantly pastures and crop lands with tillage, often combined with intensive cattle raising). In contrast, land use in the southern part of the country (Wallonia) is more extensive and is predominantly characterized by forests and pastures, in addition to crop cultures. Pond characteristics The studied ponds were generally very small and shallow. The surface area of the 99 permanent ponds 2 2 ranged between 12 and 3674 m and 90% of the ponds were smaller than 400 m . Maximum depth averages ranged between 0.18 and 1.6 m. The set of ponds displayed a large variability for the studied variables and represented both turbid hypertrophic ponds devoid of water plants and with high amounts of phosphorus, chlorophyll a and silt, as well as vegetated ponds with clear water. Results There are significant associations between surrounding land use and pond variables that are related to turbidity status or vegetation complexity. Ponds frequently visited (trampled) by cattle or located near crop land were characterized by relatively high values of turbidity related variables (e.g., total phosphorus, chlorophyll a concentrations, silt on the sediments), lower water transparency and sparser aquatic vegetation. Conversely, ponds with high coverage by forest in the immediate neighbourhood tended to be more associated with the clear water state. Multiple regression analysis also demonstrated a negative effect of trampling and coverage by crop land on vegetation complexity. Ponds with high disturbance by cattle also contained a lower number of abundant water plant taxa, a lower number of water plant growth forms and a lower diversity of biotope types. Effects of land use cover were less pronounced on these indices of vegetation complexity, although a negative association between crops in the immediate vicinity of ponds and the number of plant growth types were observed.
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Degree of trampling by cattle seemed to have the highest impact on both turbidity and vegetation complexity related variables. Cattle can directly increase turbidity of ponds by resuspending sediments and increasing bank erosion. Cattle may also indirectly contribute to increased water turbidity by stimulating phytoplankton growth through an increased nutrient input via defecation and urination and via an enhancement of internal eutrophication (nutrient release fromthe sediments). As a side effect, this increased turbidity can enhance dominance of phytoplankton over water plant vegetations through increased light limitation. Finally, the abundance, taxon richness and structural complexity of water plant vegetations may also be adversely affected by cattle through direct physical damage as a result of trampling and grazing. In contrary, we cannot exclude the possibility that a moderate disturbance by cattle may promote botanic diversity in individual cases, for example in ponds where the vegetation tends to be dominated by invasive species. The negative association between the proportion of crop land and the ecological quality of ponds is in line with the results of former studies on rivers, lakes and man-made reservoirs (Jones et al., 2004). Crop agriculture, especially row-crop farming with frequent tillage and the intense application of fertilizers, leads to high soil erosion and high nutrient and sediment export rates. This may ultimately result in increased nutrient loads adversely affecting water plant cover and richness in favour of phytoplankton. The effect of forest cover may result from reduced wind action on the surface of the ponds, limiting resuspension of sediments. Although important in lakes, however, wind resuspension may perhaps not be so important in the type of small-sized water bodies studied by us because of their lower wind fetch. More likely, forest cover may be correlated with the intensity of exploitation within land use categories. Agricultural land use (fertilizer and herbicide use, stock density of cattle) on crop lands and pastures is possibly less intensive in highly forested areas than in areas with low forest cover. The presence of forest may then indicate an overall lower intensity of agricultural activity in the area. Spatial scales Effects of crop lands and forest were strongest at the local scale (<200 m radius) which indicates that adverse external influences can most efficiently be mitigated at a small scale. The amount of variation in clear water/turbid state variables and vegetation complexity variables that was explained by the percentage cover of crop land and forest showed a strong decline with increasing spatial scale. The percentage of land covered by crops explained more variation in clear water/turbid state variables when derived for a 100 m-radius area than for larger spatial scales. For forest cover the effect was strongest for a 200 m-radius area. These results suggest that the most important land use effects on ponds operate at relatively small rather than at large spatial scales, and that inputs of nutrients and possibly also pesticides mainly originate from local surface water run-off rather than from atmospheric deposition or major ground water flows. It should, however, be noted that the variation in the estimates of the different types of land use cover decreased with increasing spatial scale. In contrast to the situation in rivers, and probably also in lakes, efforts to reduce adverse external land use influences might already be effective when applied at a local scale (e.g., by the adjustment of adjacent land use, the use of buffer zones). Although highly significant, the amount of variation in clear water/turbid state and vegetation complexity variables explained by land use variables was rather low. Because of their isolation, ponds are very heterogeneous systems. Apart from land use, they can be influenced by a multitude of other factors as well (e.g. management history, geological context, water chemistry, hysteresis). (Declerck et al., 2006)

Farm ponds of Andalusia, Southern Spain An extensive physico-chemical and biodiversity survey was carried out during spring 2007 on 120 farm ponds all over Andalusia. In the study of macroinvertebrate diversity regarding the effects of substrate and water quality, a total of 44 macroinvertebrate families were identified in the 20 ponds studied. The most frequent taxa in this set of ponds were: Chironomidae, Corixidae, Oligochaeta, Libellulidae and Caenidae. Ponds with natural substrates showed higher macroinvertebrate diversity compared to ponds made of concrete or made waterproof with polyethylene. However, in ponds with artificial substrates when submerged macrophytes were present macroinvertebrate diversity increased significantly. Ponds filled with treated wastewaters showed the lowest macroinvertebrate diversity, virtually reduced to Chironomidae. (Fuentes et al., 2008)

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3.1.2.6. Karstic ponds

Italy: Karstic ponds and pools in the Karst of Trieste Biodiversity of ponds consist of at least 300 species of vertebrates, invertebrates, plants and algae. The ponds as oases in the landscape are biodiversity spots and sites of reproduction for amphibians. Nonnative species were introduced, leading to local extinction of many native populations. In perennial ponds, several species of fishes were introduced. In the ponds where fish are present, biodiversity is lower both for invertebrates than amphibians. The assemblages of invertebrates in temporary pools have a lower species number than in perennial ponds. The highest invertebrate diversity was observed in perennial ponds devoid of fishes. (Bressi, Stoch, 1999)

Karstic ponds (kali and lokve) in the Kras, Slovenia Nowadays, original role of kali and lokve is in practice unimportant to the local population but, at the same time, kali and lokve, as the only surface water bodies and wetland ecosystems of Kras, have gained a new role. Because of the relatively even distribution of them over the landscape, they create a network of aquatic ecosystems. They are the only habitats of aquatic and swamp plants and animal species on the Kras and thus make an essential contribution to the biotic diversity of Kras. In such environment, where overgrowing because of abandonment of land use also means a loss of biotic diversity, their importance is much greater and they must be preserved as many as possible. (elik et al., 2005)

A survey of ponds and their loss in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park, northwest Croatia Biodiversity and landscape diversity Ponds are habitats for many plant and animal species and significantly contribute to the biological diversity of a region, especially in the karst area. For example, 50% of amphibians that can be found in Croatia, and 18 species of dragonflies (25% of Croatian species) have been identified in ponds in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park (LJUTINA, 2003; VITAS, 2003; ZLATAR, 2004). Many other species are temporary inhabitants or, like livestock and game, use ponds as a source of drinking water. Ponds in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park represent very valuable habitats for amphibians, dragonflies, and reptiles such as the grass snake (LJUTINA, 2003; ANI, 2004; ZLATAR, 2004) and some mammals such as game and bats, especially because this is a karstic and mountain region. Some of the amphibian species such as Triturus carnifex, Bombina variegata and Hyla arborea are listed on annexes of EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Ponds represent a very valuable habitat for them. As a result of human activity, they also represent an important element of the cultural landscape and landscape diversity. (Janev Hutinec, Struna, 2007)

3.1.2.7. Fish ponds

The Czech Republic: Trebon fishponds Trebon fishponds are declared as the Trebon Protected Landscape, the Ramsar Site and the Trebon UNESCO Man and Biosphere Reserve. The site contains representative types of alluvial wetlands and fishponds that are typical for this biogeographic region. The number and total area of fishponds (shallow artificial lakes used for traditional fish-farming) is unique compared to other regions. The overall character and hydrology of the region is strongly influenced by human activity lasting for eight centuries, especially by drainage and building of fishponds. The site embraces a highly complex and disjunct system of artificial fishponds excavated in the floodplain of the Luznice and Nezrka Rivers. The ponds are fed mostly by these rivers and partially by tributaries draining forest complexes. The water table is regulated in all water bodies. Hydrological regime of fishponds and canals can

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be controlled by technical devices, with seasonal draining and refilling of fishponds according to needs of local fish-farming technology. In total, there are 180 fishponds (varying in size from 1 ha to 420 ha) within the Ramsar Site, covering 5,289 ha of open water, and interconnected by a system of drainage canals. This constitutes 70% of all the fishponds in the Trebon region. Ecosystem services Fishponds and other wetlands at the site represent a large-scale water retention and flood control of regional importance and partially sediment trapping and water self-purification. Fishponds with diverse littoral zones (common reed, cattail, sedges) are surrounded by wet meadows, waterlogged shrubs, alder carrs, small peatbogs and fens and broadleaf and mixed forests. Several types of rare and endangered types of wetlands are associated with fishponds (littoral reed and sedge beds, wet meadows, small peatbogs and acidic fens). Several vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered plant and animal species occur at the site. Plant communities at the border between water and land are very rich and diverse. Communities of aquatic plants occur in some fishponds and in alluvial oxbows and pools. In most fishponds, more than 80% of the area is covered by open water without vegetation. The reserve is particularly important for breeding and migratory water birds (IBA). The local population of otter (Lutra lutra) is probably the largest in the Czech Republic. Populations of fish cultivated in fishponds and fish population in streams provide food base for birds and mammals. The site supports also invertebrates with many rare and endangered species of molluscs, rare amphibians and reptiles. (Trebonsk rybnky, 2000; Trebonsk rybnky, 2008)

The Czech Republic: Effects of intensive fish production on waterbird breeding populations Fishponds currently represent the most important habitat for waterfowl breeding in the Czech Republic (Musil et al. 2001). The breeding populations of most water bird species in the Czech Republic increased until the 1970s and then dropped. Fishpond management with increasing fish stocks has been shown to be an important factor. Fishponds represent the most common wetland type in the Czech Republic, with about 20 000 fishponds covering 50 000 ha. These fishponds are the result of landscape modifications by several generations that have led to the development of shallow, eutrophic water bodies, often over-grown with littoral macrophytes, and thus suitable for breeding, resting or migrating waterfowl. Fish production (mostly Carp Cyprinus carpio) was about 50 kg/ha until the end of the 19th century, increasing to more than 1 000 kg/ha from 1950 to 1980. (Musil, 2006)

The Czech Republic, Germany: Comparative analysis of the conflicts between carp pond farming and the protection of otters (Lutra lutra) in Upper Lusatia and South Bohemia The research under 5 FP R&D project FRAP (Development of a procedural Framework for Action Plans to Reconcile conflicts between the conservation of large vertebrates and the use of biological resources: fisheries and fish-eating vertebrates as a model case). A comparative analysis of this biodiversity conflicts with otters was studied in two regions with a long history of carp-farming - Upper Lusatia in Saxony (Germany) and South Bohemia in the Czech Republic. On the one hand, these areas have always had viable otter populations that recovered to a population size allowing otters to spread into neighbouring habitats. On the other hand, both areas are characterised by aquaculture in the form of carp farming in artificial ponds dating back to the Middle Ages. Fishpond landscapes The fishpond landscapes in Central and Eastern Europe have immense historical and cultural value, and are highly significant as a habitat for numerous endangered species. Typical examples of cultural

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landscapes, their maintenance depends on (extensive) fishpond farming. However, although the protection of endangered pescivore predators in these landscapes such as the otter and the cormorant has been successful in recent years, it is increasingly running into conflict due to the damage caused by these species in the fishponds. Biodiversity in central Europe is fundamentally linked to human land use. Different forms of land use led to an increase in species and habitat diversity until the 19th century (Cox et al., 1973; Kaule 1996). In Germany, the Czech Republic and Austria, fish farmers have a long history of creating distinctive pond landscapes and secondary habitats for many species that live in and around water going back to the 13th century. Eutrophication and the ongoing loss of other natural small water bodies leading to the endangerment of several species has even strengthened the role of pond landscapes for biodiversity and nature conservation. In Saxony, some 8,419 ha of pond area exists today, almost all of which is used for carp production. This makes the state of Saxony the second biggest carp producer in Germany, following Bavaria. Large companies dominate carp production in Saxony, the 15 biggest operating on 56% of the total pond area. Out of the total of 170 companies, 55 work on primary occupation, 99 on secondary occupation, and 16 producers are angling or conservation associations (Schsische Landesanstalt fr Landwirtschaft, 2002). Annual fish production varied between 3,351 tonnes in 2001 and 2,931 tonnes in 2002 (Bundesanstalt fr Landwirtschaft und Ernhrung, 2002). The average pond area is 153 ha; however, in Upper Lusatia the average pond area per company varies between 218 ha in the district of Bautzen and 2.4 ha in the district of Lbau-Zittau, where for most of the fisheries employees this is a second occupation. Saxonys average production is about 600 kg/ha and therefore rather low compared to 2,000 kg/ha during GDR times (Thiem, 2002). Some 89% of all the fish produced is carp. In 1994, 622 people worked in aquaculture in Saxony (StaLa Sachsen, 1995). The data indicate that the importance of aquaculture in Saxony is rather low in terms of employment, although high in terms of production and relevance to the German market. Upper Lusatia is home to one of Europes most viable otter populations of approximately 200 (50, +100%) individuals. The otter population in eastern Germany is of special importance for the conservation and spread of the species into bordering states and for integration with populations in Bohemia and Bavaria (Reuther, 1999). In South Bohemia ca. 7,000 fish ponds have a total area of about 25,000 ha, almost half the total pond area in the Czech Republic (ca. 52,000 ha). Carp dominates production (ca. 87%), with other species such as salmonids, tench, whitefish are of less importance. More than half the fish produced in the region is exported (CFFA, 2003). All in all, more than half the Czech Republics output of fish is produced here (SU, 2003). In terms of company size, 124 of the 131 companies have fewer than 10 employees, most of whom work on a part-time basis (SU, 2003). By contrast, only 9 companies have more than 10 employees, and just one has over 100 employees. A small number of companies own most of the fishponds. One single company operates on ca. 400 fishponds mostly located in the Tebo Basin Biosphere Reserve. The total area of these ponds amounts to 7,000 ha fishponds (~ 30% of the regions pond area), 1,213 ha of which are situated in nature reserves. The company, which is the biggest single carp producer in Europe, produces ca. 3,000 tonnes of fish annually - about the same as the total production of Saxony. According to the CFFA (2003), average production in fishponds in the Czech Republic accounts for ca. 450 kg/ha. However, in many ponds the stocking density exceeds 1,000 and in some cases even 1,200 kg/ha (Bure, 2000; Faina, 2000; Kranz, 1996). The results of recent mapping of otter distribution suggest a continuous spread and increase in numbers in mainly Southern Bohemia and the Czech-Moravian Highlands. The main cause of the present expansion is probably the decrease in water pollution together with more intensive fish farming following the restitution programme in 1989 (Toman, 1998a; Kuerov, 2000). The study area contains the largest and most stable otter population in the Czech Republic, which is extends across the South Bohemian fishponds (Tebo basin), the umava Mountains and the Czech-Moravian Highlands. In South Bohemia, otters have reoccupied territories (e.g. the Czech-Moravian Highlands) from which they disappeared in the past due to severe persecution and the poor water quality. In Upper Lusatia, the formerly intensive carp production was transformed into for instance extensive farming management thanks to the agro-environmental measures adopted early on aimed at more environmentally sound pond management. This transformation caused total carp production in Saxony to drop from 6,890 tonnes in 1989 to 2,620 tonnes in 2002. By contrast, in South Bohemia fish stocks remained at their rather high level, tending to exacerbate the conflict. In both study areas, compensation is paid for damage caused by otters. (Myiak et al., 2004)

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3.1.3. Gravel pits

France: Importance of gravel pits for waterbirds Study on habitat preferences of wintering coots censused weekly during two winters at three gravel pits located in the Garonne floodplain at Saint Caprais near Toulouse, SW France. Each winter, the number of coots was recorded on each gravel pit, and the microhabitat used by coots identified according to environmental variables (water depth, bank slope, bank vegetation, vegetation between watermarks, macrophytes, human disturbance, zones of open water or near the bank) in order to relate habitat characteristic with abundance of coots within gravel pits. Importance of gravel pits for birds in general Human population growth, urbanisation and conversion of land to agriculture have led to loss of natural wetlands throughout the World, making artificial wetlands such as gravel pits, dam lakes or rice fields important for waterbirds. Human activities destroy natural wetlands, but also create artificial wetlands such as rice fields, gravel pits, and dam lakes. These new wetlands have become substitutes for wildlife habitat (BELL et al., 1997; FASOLA & RUIZ, 1997; MORI, 2001). The biological value of gravel pits, particularly for waterbirds, is increasingly recognised. Gravel pits in the Garonne river floodplain Gravel extractions on the floodplains in France have increased over the last 25 years. Today, 45 gravel pits are active in the Garonne basin near Toulouse, southwest France, representing a water area of 2000 ha. Importance of gravel pits for birds in the Garonne river floodplain The increasing abundance of gravel pits has allowed several bird species to colonize the region. These new wetlands have become substitutes for the natural habitats of waterbirds. Populations of waterbirds have increased significantly in the region over the last few years, especially during winter. Creation and development of gravel pits have attracted numerous species of birds, of which the coot (Fulica atra L., 1758) is the most abundant (SANTOUL & TOURENQ, 2002). Coots (Fulica atra L. 1758) colonised the Midi-Pyrnes area when gravel pits were created in the 1970s. In the Garonne floodplain, the number of coots has increased from about ten birds in the 1980s to more than one thousand at the end of the 90s (JOACHIM et al., 1997). Population size of coots wintering in Midi Pyrnes remains small on an international scale (about 2500 coots at the mid-winter waterbird census). However, gravel pits are the major wintering habitat in this region, and those of Saint Caprais have a high carrying capacity (SANTOUL, 2000). The geographical location of the gravel pits near the Pyrenees mountains also makes the Midi-Pyrnes region important as a stop-over for coots (HOYER, 1994). Studied gravel pit characteristics The total area of the three gravel pits is about 66 ha with a mean depth of 3m (maximum depth: 4m). Mixed farming of corn and sunflower surrounds the gravel pits. These gravel pits are unmanaged. Waterfowl hunting and fishing are forbidden. Results Coots preferred areas with lawn over those with herbs, shrubs or trees. They occupied deep areas (3-4 m) with macrophytes and preferred areas of open water. An occupation of the central zone of the water reservoir/pond by coots were noted. These zones, easily accessible (depth: 3-4 m) for coots (CRAMP & SIMMONS, 1977), are rich in aquatic plants. They also constitute a safe habitat (from terrestrial predators) where birds can rest and carry out their comfort activities (e.g. preening) (BOROWIEC & JAKUBCZYK, 1975). By providing opportunities for coots to congregate far from the bank, gravel pits with large open water areas and a deep-water zone in their centre provide suitable foraging areas while reducing the risks of predation (BELL et al., 1997).

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Open water, which constitutes a secure habitat for this species during the wintering period, abundance of macrophytes (Characea) and presence of lawn on the bank appear as the most important factors influencing coot distribution. (Santoul, Mastrorillo, 2004)

The UK: Gravel pits and biodiversity The ecological value of 40 gravel pits in the Lower Windrush Valley was assessed in terms of wetland plants and macroinvertebrates and their environmental factors, placing them in a local, regional and national context. Water quality Lake water quality was generally very good and most lakes were classified as either mesotrophic or on the mesotrophic/eutrophic boundary, based on Total Phosphorus concentrations. Nitrogen concentrations were also close to the levels seen in other minimally impaired lakes. Heavy metal concentrations were generally low or undetectable. Biodiversity Overall the Lower Windrush Valley gravel pits supported a very diverse wetland plant assemblage, with a total of 122 species (c. 35% of the wetland plant species occurring in Britain). Comparisons with data from the Cotswold Water Park and other gravel pits in southern England confirmed that the Lower Windrush Valley gravel pits were of high value in terms of their wetland plant biodiversity. A total of 27 uncommon wetland plant species were recorded in the survey, the stonewort assemblage being of particular interest. The Lower Windrush Valley is a nationally Important Stonewort Area (Stewart, 2004). Plant species richness and rarity was primarily related to water quality, lake age, lake size and bank characteristics; intensively stocked angling lakes tended to support fewer species overall. Invasive species Also of concern was the presence of two invasive species in a small number of sites: New Zealand Pigmyweed (Crassula helmsii) and Indian Balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). The Windrush Valley gravel pits also supported a very diverse macroinvertebrate assemblage. In total, 191 macroinvertebrate species were recorded, which represents c. 25% of the aquatic species occurring in Britain in the groups surveyed. Diversity was particularly high for water snails (23 species), crawling water beetles (Haliplidae, nine species) and dragonflies (12 species breeding). On average, species richness were similar to other high quality minimally impaired lakes and gravel pits in England and Wales. A total of eleven Nationally Scarce species were recorded, all water beetles, as well as 18 nationally local species. All 40 gravel pits supported at least one uncommon species, with c. 90% having at least one Nationally Scarce species. Macroinvertebrate species richness and rarity were primarily related to lake age, the degree of marginal complexity and the amenity use of the lakes. Generally, heavily used pits were less diverse. Invasive species Also of concern was the presence of the invasive Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), which was found in about 25% of the lakes. The data from the Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) showed the Lower Windrush Valley to be of national importance for certain bird species including Gadwall, Pochard, Tufted Duck and Coot. The pits attracting the greatest wildfowl numbers and diversity were observed to have some or all of the following features: large area, limited tree cover, presence of islands, extensive margins and shallows. Overall the results of the Baseline Ecological Assessment indicate that the Lower Windrush Valley gravel pits are of regional and probably national importance for their nature conservation interest. A number of factors were identified that influence the nature conservation value of these lakes, including after use, water quality, size, age, design and management of the lake margins. (Baseline Ecological Survey, 2005)

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Slovenia: Gravel pits as secondary biotopes - biodiversity Due to the destruction of nature, and man`s careless attitude towards it, there are less and less areas with natural living conditions. Therefore, gravel pits have become interesting also for the plants and animals, moreover, they have become their secondary biotopes. A special attention is paid to gravel pits as substitutive biotopes in the developed western Europe. For some of the animal species, gravel pits are of vital importance. Since they are usually located in the middle of farming fields - cultural steppes, the animals find their resorts here. Among more important animal species are birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some of the insects (butterflies, dragonflies). All this animal species are strongly endangered in Slovenia as well as in Europe. Gravel pits, functioning as substitutive biotopes, are of special importance for birds. 20 bird species that can be found in the Red List of endangered birds in Slovenia, and 5 species found to be endangered in Europe, are nesting here. Even some other species which had already lost heir natural living space in Slovenia (Common Tern, Blackheaded Gull) could be found here. Gravel pits are also playing a very important role during the migration time when overgrown bans offering shelter and food to the numerous birds, especially song birds. Altogether, 163 bird species, 59 of that nesting birds, were registered in the gravel pits. Also amphibians and reptiles are strongly endangered in Slovenia. Especially amphibians are severely affected by the meliorations and other interventions in the environment. Gravel pits located in the middle of wide farming fields, are the only places with stagnant water where they can multiply. 8 species of reptiles, and 11 species of amphibians have been registered so far in the gravel pits. Larger gravel pits are offering various living areas to the animals and the plants. Gravel pits and their with vegetation overgrown banks have favourable influence on microclimate. The importance of such zones of trees and bushes is increasing also within an integral protection of plants. Gravel pits are of great importance to nature, however, there are more and more sanations that neglect their role. (Vogrin, Sovinc, 1994)

Spain: gravel pits as artificial recharge The intensive agricultural activities that have developed over the last 50 years in the Campo de Dalias (Almeria region) have required large quantities of gravel and clay as the basic materials for the substrate over which crops are raised. With this motive, numerous gravel pits have been opened that have extracted several million cubic metres of material in recent years. Similar quantities of clay have been extracted from the distal sectors of the alluvial fans that descend from the Sierra de Gador, and from within a large endoreic basin. In the latter quarries, some wetlands have developed, probably because of the rise in the water-table level in the aquifer over which they lie. The gravel pits are situated in the apical sectors of the alluvial fans, overlying hydrogeological units that are widely overexploited. For this reason the gravel pits could be used for artificial recharge; in addition to increasing the availability of water in the aquifer, the risk of catastrophic flooding would also be reduced. (Pulido-Bosch et al., 2000)

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3.1.4. Springs
Factors governing macrozoobenthic assemblages in perennial springs in north-western Switzerland The fauna and abiotic parameters of 20 perennial springs in north-western Switzerland were investigated. Springs and species in general Springs are an interface between surface and groundwater (Williams, 1991; Webb et al., 1998). They provide unique habitats for many rare species (Lindegaard et al., 1998; di Sabatino et al., 2003) and for relict species that have survived in an environment of rather stable ambient conditions (Hynes, 1970; Ito, 1998). Springs are important freshwater habitats that provide refuge for many rare species. Thermal stability has been thought to be one of the main characteristics of springs and the reason for the presence of cold stenothermic animals (Illies, 1952; Erman & Erman, 1995). However, springs differ in their geomorphological features and their water supply from deep or shallow groundwater. Conditions in springs also change on a temporal scale (Bohle, 1995). Within a spring and between springs, these variabilities lead to a patchy environment with fluctuating conditions for small, isolated populations as described in the patch dynamics concept (Pickett & White, 1985; Townsend, 1989). The periodical changes of abiotic parameters, such as discharge and substrate composition, lead to temporal and spatial patchiness in springs. Both disturbance events lead to a redistribution of individuals within and between patches of one spring and open up space for new colonists. In comparison with intermittent springs, perennial springs consist of more patches and therefore associated species (Danks & Williams, 1991) and are refuges for glacial relicts (Fischer et al., 1998; Williams & Williams, 1998). A single spring can be considered as a patch of a naturally fragmented spring system at landscape scale with temporal, spatial, and functional aspects. Furthermore, the population of one species in one spring forms a part of a metapopulation as described in the metapopulation concept (Hanski & Gilpin, 1997). Area characteristics The study area is located around the city of Basel in north-western Switzerland, into the Jura Mountains. The landscape ranges from urban areas near Basel to agricultural areas and forest. Spring characteristics The springs are situated between 280 and 630 m above sea level, with an average altitude of 430 m above sea level. The geological underground mainly consists of limestone with groundwater of usually high conductivity. 20 relatively undisturbed, perennial springs were studied. Seven of them are situated near the city of Basel, while others are located in the Jura Mountains, either in the forest or in rural areas. The chosen springs included amongst others limesinter-rheocrenes, karst and alluvial springs, as well as two tubed springs. Results A total of 82 species and higher taxa were recorded. On average 20 taxa per spring were found. Correlation of abiotic and macrozoobenthos data showed that physicochemical parameters had little impact on macrozoobenthic composition, whereas specific substrate parameters strongly influenced the composition of the macrofauna. Substrate composition of a spring also influences the diversity of macrozoobenthic communities. Detritivores dominate muddy, helocrene-like springs with low discharge, whereas mostly grazers inhabit springs with coarse substrate and high discharge. Leaf litter is particularly important because of its function as a source of energy in an ecosystem with originally little allochthonous material (Rosi-Marshall & Wallace, 2002). Leaf litter is the most common food source, especially for Amphipoda (Cummins et al., 1973). Leaf litter was identified as one of the most important substrate components for macrofaunal composition in springs. Discharge was identified as the factor significantly determining substrate and the composition of macroinvertebrate assemblages. Variation in discharge is the disturbance factor governing the macrofaunal composition temporally and spatially within and between patches. (von Fumetti et al., 2006)

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Finland: Benthic macrocrustacean and insect assemblages in relation to spring habitat characteristics Variation in benthic macrocrustacean and insect assemblages in relation to spring habitat characteristics was studied in six springs located in a single groundwater area in south-west Finland. Area characteristics The studied springs are located in the southern Finland in the southern boreal ecoregion within a single large groundwater area in the Kiikalannummi glacial delta complex. The Kiikalannummi formation comprises a series of glaciofluvial marginal delta plains, and a steep proximal ice contact slope with strongly undulating dead-ice terrain and end moraines at the northwest edge. The delta plateau of the more than 10 km long and 2-5 km wide delta complex lies 116-118 m above sea level. The formation, especially the proximal part of it, is rich in springs and spring fens and is known for its valuable flora. Spring characteristics The studied six springs are located at the proximal northwest slope of the Kiikalannummi formation. These springs are generally surrounded by spruce-dominatedmesic heath forest and small bogs of varying naturalness (forest fertility classification according to Reinikainen et al., 2000). The studied springs varied in size and complexity from small limnocrenes covering an area of only about 10 2 m to spring complexes of several hectares. The spring area was defined as the area of open water and evident spring vegetation and emergent groundwater. These springs are: 1. The spring on the northern edge of Pillistonsuo bog is a small and distinct limnocrene. 2. In Sorttakorpi bog there is a small helocrene with little open water and a small trickle draining the emergent groundwater in the area. 3. Kultalhde is a combination of a diverse rheohelocrene complex (as in Gerecke & Di Sabatino, 1996) with all types of spring habitats and a large limnocrene spring pond with a swiftly flowing spring brook. 4.,5.Lammenlhde and Yrttikorpi are also large and diverse rheohelocrene complexes. 6. In Herakkaanlhde the groundwater emerges directly as a swiftly flowing spring brook with a detritus bottom and dense vegetation, and ends up in a large spring-fed pond. Kultalhde and a small part of Yrttikorpi are protected as nature conservation areas. Sprig types in theory Besides water flow per se, substrate characteristics related to water flow are also important factors influencing the fauna of a given microhabitat, as they provide a mosaic of variable food supply, shelter and light intensity within a spring. For example, swiftly flowing spring brooks and trickles with a minerogenic substrate provide ideal conditions for periphyton grazers (Thorup & Lindegaard, 1977), which reached their highest abundance in the minerogenic sites in our study. Emergent mosses provide shelter and vertical zonation, thus increasing the structural diversity of the habitat (Lindegaard et al., 1975). Moss carpets harbour many specialised species (e.g. Lindegaard et al., 1975; Fischer, 1993; Lindegaard, 1995). Spring habitat types Five habitat types in the studied springs were defined according to water flow and benthic substrate characteristics, ranging from standing water pools and moss carpets to swiftly flowing spring brooks. Minerogenic spring brooks had a substrate dominated by sand and gravel. Two of the minerogenic brooks were small rills in rheohelocrene complexes, with some mosses growing at the shoreline; one was a larger spring brook without bryophytes in the sampling site. Organogenic spring brooks were deeper and had a stronger flow, with coarse detritus substrate, and some large bitter-cress and bryophytes. Helocrene habitats were characterised by very little open water area, the water seeping through the substrate, and they were covered by mud and mosses. Vascular plants were also abundant. Floating moss carpets appear at the edges of brooks and in pools. Limnocrene pools had no or few mosses, and a bottom dominated by fine and coarse detritus. Results About 6000 individuals belonging to one macrocrustacean and 77 insect taxa were identified. Most studied invertebrate orders, as well as individual taxa, showed differences in relative abundances between the habitat types, but the most common taxa occurred in all springs and habitat types. The studied macroinvertebrates were most abundant in the moss carpet sites and least abundant in the pool sites, but the difference was not statistically significant. Significant differences in mean taxonomic richness per sample

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between habitat classes were not observed. The observed taxonomic richness in pooled samples of habitat classes was highest in moss carpet habitat and lowest in pool habitat. Benthic macrocrustacean and insect assemblages varied more between habitat types than between individual springs. Spring brook sites were separated from the moss carpet and pool sites, whereas helocrene sites were widely scattered among sites in other habitat classes. The strongest ecological gradients were related to water flow and the presence of minerogenic substrate, separating lentic and lotic habitats. The results support the spring typology with three categories: lentic (limnocrene), lotic (rheocrene), and intermediate (helocrene) conditions. Abundances of moss and coarse detritus accounted for most of the within-class variation. Several indicator species for minerogenic and organogenic brooks and for moss carpet and pool habitats were identified, but none for the helocrenes. Several occurrences of two crenobiont insect species considered threatened in Finland were found. The bryophyte species richness was clearly highest in helocrene habitats, whereas in brooks, pools, and floating moss carpets the bryophyte assemblages were very simple or even monocultures (Ilmonen, personal observations). In some small minerogenic brook sites the recorded bryophytes occurred at the edges of the brook running within a helocrene. Vascular plants were also abundant in helocrene habitats, including rarities such as angelica. (Ilmonen, Paasivirta, 2005)

The UK: Flow permanence and macroinvertebrate community variability in limestone spring systems 18 Limestone (karst) springs within the River Wye catchment (the Peak District National Park) in the UK were investigated to examine the influence of physical and chemical characteristics and habitat variability on macroinvertebrate community composition. The study also examines the differences between faunal communities in freshwater springs and adjacent stream habitats. Springs and species in general Groundwater fed springs represent a unique interface between surface and groundwater ecosystems (Webb et al., 1998). Groundwater inputs have been associated with increased species richness and abundance in limestone streams (Mattson et al., 1995) when compared to surface water systems (Laperriere, 1994). Freshwater springs have high species richness and diversity (e.g. Ferrington et al., 1995; Webb et al., 1995; Hoffsten & Malmqvist, 2000). Some species of macroinvertebrates are endemic to, or have been primarily recorded in, spring habitats (Erman & Erman, 1995). Area characteristics The Peak District National Park is located in north central England. A broad anticline of Carboniferous 2 limestone underlies the area, which covers over 540 km (Gunn et al., 1998) and is commonly referred to as the White Peak. Spring characteristics A total of 127 perennial and intermittent springs are known to exist in the Carboniferous limestone outcrop, 2 with at least 85 recorded within the River Wye sub-basin, an area of c. 170 km (Gunn, 1998). A number of springs help to augment and maintain the flow of the River Wye throughout the year. Many of these springbrooks only flow for a short period each year and become desiccated during the summer and autumn months. Results The invertebrate community is dominated by insect fauna and is comparable to other areas subject to glacial activity (Hoffsten & Malmqvist, 2000). Although many of the species recorded in springs are relatively ubiquitous, some may be threatened due to increased drought or groundwater abstraction. Flow permanence had a greater influence on the invertebrate community than any other physical or chemical variable examined. Clear differences in the macroinvertebrate community were observed between perennial (7) and intermittent springs (11) and the mainstem river.

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Springs support distinct communities, with some taxa exclusively recorded at the source or within the springbrook (e.g. Agabus guttatus [Paykull] and Micropterna lateralis [Stephens]). The total number of taxa recorded within the Wye basin in this study was 99. Of these only 20 (20.2 %) were restricted to springs. A degree of faunal overlap with the mainstem river occurred suggesting that perennial springs may form a refugium for many taxa and that intermittent springs are rapidly colonised by taxa from the mainstem river after the resumption of flow. (Smith, Wood, 2002)

The UK: Flow permanence and macroinvertebrate community diversity within groundwater dominated headwater streams and springs The response of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities to flow permanence within limestone springs and headwater streams was examined across the English Peak District at two spatial scales (i) regional - 48 limestone (karst) springs within the English Peak District and (ii) Catchment Scale - springs and headwater sites within the upper reaches of the geographically isolated River Lathkill. Springs in general Headwater springs have high frequency of occurrence and potential contribution to species richness (Feminella, 1996; Hoffsten & Malmqvist, 2000) and high levels of endemism in some locations (Erman & Erman, 1995). Headwater streams and springs demonstrate the majority of the structural and functional properties seen in other lotic systems, yet are generally considered less complex than sites further downstream (Williams & Williams, 1998). The ecology of intermittent springs and headwater sites may reflect discharge variability, the degree of isolation from perennial colonization sources (Williams, 1996), and downstream changes in water temperature associated with groundwater inputs (van Everdingen, 1991). Many perennial springs exhibit thermal stability, with less than 2 C annual variation in water temperature (Erman & Erman, 1995). Downstream of the boundary between the thermally stable spring-head (eucrenal zone) and the springbrook (hypocrenal), marked changes in biotic community structure and composition may occur (Smith et al., 2003). Area characteristics Part of the English Peak District is underlain by Carboniferous Limestones (White Peak). The limestone 2 outcrop extends over some 540 km (Gunn et al., 1998) and, in contrast to the other British Carboniferous Limestone regions, the White Peak forms a compact area, 40 km long (north-south) and up to 20 km wide, surrounded by lithologies that support significant surface drainage networks. Within the White Peak there is a dense network of valleys but most are permanently dry. Only one major river, the Lathkill, has its origins within the limestone area and is thought to discharge only autogenic water (water that has only had contact with carbonate rocks). It drains the centre of the limestone outcrop, and it has both perennial and intermittent springs and mainstem river reaches. Results At the regional scale, a total of 76 taxa from 43 families was recorded from the 48 sites. Macroinvertebrate communities of perennial and intermittent springs displayed significant differences in the number of taxa, macroinvertebrate community abundance, diversity indices and the dominance index at intermediate discharge. However, no significant difference was recorded between intermittent and perennial sites at high discharge or when all sampling occasions were pooled. At the catchment scale, a total of 60 taxa was recorded from 70 samples. The number of taxa and community abundance within the River Lathkill differed significantly between intermittent springs and other habitats. At both the regional and catchment scale the macroinvertebrate communities of intermittent springs were characterized by a small number of taxa displaying life cycle adaptations to intermittent aquatic habitats, particularly Trichoptera. Insect taxa dominated the intermittent springs and on average comprised 62.4 % of the total number of individuals. Insect taxa are able to aerially colonise springs and exploit resources accumulated during the dry phase.

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A number of terrestrial taxa are known to utilize temporary aquatic habitats, particularly Diptera and some Coleoptera groups (Drake, 2001; Lott, 2001), but were not included in this study. (Wood et al., 2005) Macroinvertebrate communities of karst springs of two river catchments in the Southern Limestone Alps (the Julian Alps, NW Slovenia) The macroinvertebrate communities of 16 karst springs in the Southern Limestone Alps of Slovenia were studied from May to September 1999, together with the major chemical parameters of the water and selected physical characteristics of the springs. The spring fauna of two river catchments were compared. Characteristics of sprigs in general Groundwater-dominated springs exhibit a degree of thermal stability throughout the year and, as a result, can provide an ecologically stable environment (Williams 1991). Additional characteristics of karst springs are highly fluctuating discharge rates and hard water. High porosity and permeability of strata are the main reasons for the great fluctuations in discharge rate. Spring species in general The biological communities that inhabit springs are distinct from those in the downstream parts of streams fed by those springs (Vannote et al. 1980) and from those in other streams in the same geographic area (McCabe 1998). Springs are places where relicts of former geological times have survived, being protected from extremes of climate (cold winters or warm summers). Many species that are confined to springs (crenobionts) are species that occur far outside their normal geographical range (Hynes 1972). The fauna in and near the spring mouth often include specimens of groundwater dwelling animals (stygobionts) (Botosaneanu 1998). Species that are restricted to a spring environment frequently live alongside species that occur in a wide range of freshwater habitat types and are widely distributed (eurytopic organisms) (Williams and Williams 1998). Spring species also show considerable variation in vagility, which is relatively high in winged insects, while amphipods, triclads, water-mites and others are less vagile (Hoffsten and Malmqvist 2000). The composition of macroinvertebrate communities in springs is shaped by historical and geographical factors (Williams and Williams 1998), and by environmental characteristics, including geology (Bonettini and Cantonati 1996), flow permanence (Smith et al. 2003), pH (Glazier 1991), alkalinity and macrophyte cover (Glazier and Gooch 1987). Characteristics The springs are situated along deep, narrow Alpine valley (the Trenta valley, the Vrata and Radovna valleys, the valley of the Sava Bohinjka River) between 410 and 955 m a.s.l., and drain into two rivers whose catchments are separated by mountain ranges up to 2864 m. The rivers drain waters from the karst massif of the Alps. The Soa river drains into the Adriatic Sea and the Sava into the Black Sea. The distance between the two most distant springs is approximately 40 km in the east-west direction and 20 km in the north-south direction Most of the springs discharge directly into the channel of the spring stream and are described as rheocrenes. Nine springs were perennial, two were intermittent and five springs were linear. Results Springs showed relatively large fluctuations in discharge and small variations in temperature (normally about 1 C) during the period of study. Seventy macroinvertebrate taxa were collected. Chironomidae (Diptera), Limnephilidae (Trichoptera), Enchytraeidae (Oligochaeta), Tricladida (Turbellaria) and Belgrandiella kuesteri (Gastropoda) were the most widespread taxa, collected from the majority of sampling sites. The environmental characteristics showed a great heterogeneity, and there was a large variation in the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of taxa between springs and during seasons. The coexistence of taxa with highly divergent ecological requirements is characteristic of the spring communities studied. They range from stygobionts to spring-restricted species and to more frequent species. The macroinvertebrate communities of the springs from the two different river basins separated by high mountains differ mostly in taxonomic richness and less in taxonomic composition. Differences in spring fauna of the two river catchments were most probably governed by differences in the local environment of springs and were not the result of their geographical location in different river catchments. (Mori, Brancelj, 2006)

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Croatia: Brakish karst spring Characteristics Pantan area is situated in the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast near town Trogir. It is the area of approximately 40 ha and presents inseparable unit consisting of Pantan spring, river course with surrounding 2 swamp area and sea coast. Spring makes small lake Pantan with surface area from 35 to 60 m and depth of 13 meters. River Rika flows out of the lake to the sea and into the numeral brackish lateral channels that irrigate surrounding, swamp area. Spring characteristics Spring is a permanent and abundant coastal spring of ascending type. Spring discharge oscillates during the 3 year. In summer period minimal discharge is 0,3 m /s, while in the winter period maximum discharge is 12 3 m /s. The opening of the spring is located at the elevation of 3 meters above sea level in the contact zone between the limestone and flysch layers while the catchments area is formed of highly permeable limestone rocks (Fritz et al., 1993). Flysch zone presents incomplete barrier towards the sea resulting with sea water intrusion into the spring aquifer (Bagari 1973; Bonacci 1995). Therefore, the main characteristic of the spring is periodical salinity during the year with the highest salinity in summer months. Ecosystem services Vegetation of the area is favourable for permanent or occasional residence of numeral bird species. Some of these species are unique and threatened of dieing out. Due to the variable ecological factors, temperature and salinity, life conditions in this biotope are very specific making favourable conditions for spawn and growth of particular fish and crab species. Particularity of the area is swamp which is unique example in this part of the eastern Adriatic coast mostly characterized by dry karst areas. This ecological oasis is evaluated as a highly valuable environment. The area has also significant cultural-historical value (Pantan mill). Pantan has unique beauty and presents tourist potential due to its particular natural and historical values. According to the Nature protection law in year 2000 Pantan area is named as special reservation since it has particular importance for preserving biological diversities (Fistani, 2006)

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3.1.5. Mires, bogs and fens

Headwater wetlands (peat-bogs and fens) in general Headwater peat-bogs are unique ecological communities that can be destroyed in a matter of days, but require hundreds of years to form naturally. Generally, bogs are associated with low temperatures and short growing seasons where ample precipitation and high humidity cause excessive moisture to accumulate. Therefore, most bogs are found in the northern states where they often form in old glacial lakes. They may have either considerable amounts of open water surrounded by floating vegetation or vegetation may have completely filled the lake (terrestrialisation). The sphagnum peats of northern bogs cause especially acidic waters. The result is a wetland ecosystem with a very specialized acidophile flora and fauna. These lands support many species of plants in addition to the characteristic sphagnum moss, including cotton grass, cranberry, blueberry, pine, Labrador tea, and tamarack. Moose, deer, and lynx are a few of the animals that can be found in northern bogs. Headwater fens are peat-forming wetlands that receive nutrients from sources other than precipitation: usually from upslope sources through drainage from surrounding mineral soils and from groundwater movement. Fens differ from bogs because they are less acidic and have higher nutrient levels. Fens may be dominated by woody or herbaceous vegetation. Ecosystem services The value of the service provided by headwater wetlands (peat-bogs and fens) value is estimated as an economic benefit of 2.8 trillion USD/year. These wetlands providing benefits in the fields of: water supply, retention and flood mitigation, control of water quality, timber production, wildlife and biodiversity conservation, tourism, cultural heritage and source of aesthetic inspiration, local tradition and religion. Headwater wetlands (peat-bogs and fens) play the special role within the wider contexts of environmental management. These can be very significant, even when the actual area of such wetland is small, which is often the case in lower latitudes. Frequently, headwater wetlands are controlled by a fragmented system of legislature in the frame of many disparate aspects of national policy. Typically, this administrative framework is more oriented to regulating the services provided by headwater wetlands than to the well being of the headwater environments themselves. Although special policies may be required for the effective management of headwater wetlands, a priori, it seems likely that these strategies should be guided by the wider frameworks of headwater control. Headwater control is an integrating approach. It seeks to combine the perspectives, resolve the conflicts and satisfy the needs of all stakeholders (Krecek, Haigh, 2006). (Krecek, Haigh, 2006)

Bogs, very common across the northern hemisphere, are notable for their substantial peat accumulation, high water tables and acid-loving vegetation. These habitats are enormous carbon sinks and thus, while in good health, are one of our greatest allies in the struggle against global warming. (LIFE and Europes wetlands, 2007)

Bogs, fens, mires of Bioreal region The diversity of mires is very high both in terms of habitat types and associated species. Mires are defined as waterlogged ground with a peat layer made up of partly decomposed vegetation, at least 30 cm thick. In this region, it can reach up to 10 m thickness. Mires which receive virtually all their water and nutrient input from precipitation are ombrogenous, while mires where some of the water and nutrients also come from the mineral soil are minerogenous mires or fens. The most common types of mire in the Boreal region are fens on level or gently sloping ground, often mixed with smaller areas of open water, raised bogs, and drier, firm ground. Characteristic ombrogenous raised bogs, with a central dome of accumulated peat, are mainly found in the southern part. In the most oceanic parts of the region, terrain-covering blanket bogs may occur. Special types of palsa mires, which are heaps of peat with a nucleus of ice, may be found in areas of permafrost, generally surrounded by fens. Various Sphagnum mosses dominate in bogs, but only a few

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vascular plants may be found there, such as species of sedges, cotton-grasses and rushes (Carex, Eriophorum and Juncus spp.), heather (Calluna vulgaris), and stunted Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris). Important plant species for animals are cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus), cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) and other berry-carrying dwarf shrubs. A special group of plants on bogs are the insect-eating sundews (Drosera spp.), which benefit from the extra nutrients in their animal diet. On rich fens a far greater range of species may be found, including orchids like the marsh helleborine (Epipactis palustris) and marsh orchids (Dactylorhiza spp.). Although bogs and poor fens generally have rather few species, such habitats have great significance for several specialised species, including many of conservation interest. Of the most well-known are migrating birds such as common crane (Grus grus, Photo and BOX2) and wading birds like broad-billed sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus) and jack snipe (Lymnocryptes minimus). The remoteness and inaccessibility of many large mires provide important refuges for these sensitive species. Mires also provide special habitats for many species of insects and other invertebrates. (The Boreal biogeographical, 2007)

The UK: Active raised bogs and degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration (habitat type Natura 2000) Raised bogs and mires and fens in the UK 7110 * Active raised bogs 7120 Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration 7130 * Blanket bogs 7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs 7150 Depressions on peat substrates of the Rhynchosporion 7210 * Calcareous fens with Cladium mariscus and species of the Caricion davallianae 7220 * Petrifying springs with tufa formation (Cratoneurion) 7230 Alkaline fens 7240 * Alpine pioneer formations of the Caricion bicoloris-atrofuscae No. of SACs 55 37 77 41 32 13 17 49 15

Active raised bogs are peat-forming ecosystems that have developed during thousands of years of peat accumulation, to such an extent that the depth of peat isolates them from the influence of groundwater. Typically, lowland raised bogs form a raised dome of peat irrigated solely by rainfall. Such rainwater-fed ecosystems are very acid and poor in plant nutrients and typically support a restricted range of species, some of which are otherwise abundant only in the cooler and wetter uplands of the UK. In line with the Interpretation manual of European habitats (European Commission DG Environment 1999), active is defined as supporting a significant area of vegetation that is normally peat-forming. Such vegetation includes plants such as the bog-mosses Sphagnum spp., cottongrasses Eriophorum spp., heather Calluna vulgaris and other ericaceous plants, and the carnivorous sundews Drosera spp. Under some circumstances purple moor-grass Molinia caerulea is also peat-forming. Northern sites are richer in the reindeer-moss lichen Cladonia spp. Active bog vegetation is characteristic of intact (primary) bog surfaces, but peat-forming communities also occur frequently on bogs which have previously been cut for peat (secondary surfaces) but have since become revegetated. Within the raised bog ecosystem the bog surface typically displays a distinctive microtopography, with patterns of hummocks and hollows rich in Sphagnum and other peat-forming species. Around bog pools there may sometimes be patches of 7150 Depressions on peat substrates of the Rhynchosporion. Classical descriptions of the ecosystem show raised bogs as having a discrete lens-shaped dome of peat with flat or imperceptibly sloping topography with a halo of fen vegetation in the zone where water draining the bog meets that from adjoining mineral soils. This is known as the lagg. A characteristic of the lagg zone is that normally it has more available plant nutrients, is more alkaline and hence shows greater species diversity, with a preponderance of sedge Carex spp. As a result of peat-digging and other activities, no example of raised bog that conforms exactly to this model is now known in Europe. The Interpretation manual of European habitats (European Commission DG Environment 1999) stresses that Degraded raised bogs only includes examples which are capable of natural regeneration, i.e. "where the hydrology can be repaired and where, with appropriate rehabilitation management, there is a reasonable expectation of re-establishing vegetation with peat-forming capability within 30 years". This has been assessed on a case-by-case basis.

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Degraded raised bogs occur where there has been widespread disruption, usually by man, to the structure and function of the peat body. This can involve changes to the hydrology, vegetation, and physical structure of the bog, leading to desiccation, oxidation and loss of species or changes in the balance of the species composition. In contrast to 7110 Active raised bogs, peat is not currently forming in degraded bog. The vegetation of degraded bog contains several, but not all, of the species typical of Active raised bogs, but the relative abundance and distribution of individual species differs. The importance of Degraded raised bogs in the SAC series is the habitats potential to be restored to 7110 Active raised bog, and thus contribute to attaining favourable conservation status for raised bogs as a whole. (SAC Interest Features, 2008)

UK: headwater peat wetlands Upland peat lands serve a large number of environmental functions. These include: physical and hydrological influences on flood flows, sediment loads, and aquifer recharge; biochemical impacts on water qualities, and biodiversity through the special habitats they provide. They also serve wider functions to the human communities of headwaters providing water, peat, timber, and grazing land. Locally, some of these lands are also valued for aesthetic, cultural, recreational and educational values - although these benefits are sometimes exaggerated. Britains NERC (Natural Environment Research Council) adds the value of preserving a record of environmental change and the sequestration of carbon, a function which is much debated. Their assessment also suggests some sustainable land uses: runoff modification, controlled light grazing, forestry (where naturally forested) and human recreation. (Haigh, 2006)

Denmark: Odense Pilot River Basin. Provisional Article 5 Report Mires encompass various types of swamp forests, swamps, open fens, raised bogs and swamp springs. Raised bogs are characterized by the fact that their vegetation is not in contact with the groundwater, but exclusively meets its water and nutrient requirements via precipitation. Fens have arisen in depressions in the terrain with a relatively flat water table typically either directly on moist soil or through lakes becoming overgrown. Springs, in contrast, are characterized by upwelling groundwater. They can occur in the various types of mire except raised bogs. (Odense Pilot River Basin, 2003)

The Netherlands: Marshes, bogs and swamps Bogs come about when the vegetation closes over the open water and terrestrialisation begins. The natural vegetation succession will ultimately result in swamp woodland or boggy heathland. In addition to the extensive bogs there are also waterlogged zones alongside lakes, pools and other water bodies. Those on peat are called bogs. Those on clay are marshes. Most of the marsh, bog and swamp habitats are in the carr peat and marine clay areas. Marches, bogs and swamps contain many rare plant communities, especially in the early stages of terrestrialisation and in sphagnum-reed vegetation. Many of the plant species found in Dutch marshes, bogs and swamps are endangered species that are also rare in Europe. A large proportion of the Western European population of certain breeding birds also occurs in these habitats, such as bluethroat, cormorant and spoonbill. There is a subspecies of the large copper butterfly that is unique to the Netherlands. (Guidance Marshes, bogs and swamps, 2008)

The Netherlands: Heathland, fens and raised bogs Within or adjacent to heathlands there are fens, raised bogs or active dunes. Heathland (heath) fens are calcium-poor and moderately to severely nutrient-poor water bodies (small pools) found in the low, wet parts of heath areas. Raised bogs have a thick layer of peat that has been formed by peat moss. (Guidance Heathland and fens, 2008)

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3.2. Economic and social importance

Ireland: turloughs Grazing is a major ecological factor in turloughs, either as commonage or in privately owned fields. They are grazed, sometimes heavily by cattle, sheep and even horses and domestic geese (MacGowran, 1985; Goodwillie, 1992, 2003; Feehan, 1998;Aughney and Gormally, 1999; N Bhriain et al., 2003). Large variation in times and rates of stocking occurs between sites, even on one turlough (N Bhriain et al., 2003). (Sheehy Skeffington et al., 2006)

Ponds For the last few thousand years people have also artificially created ponds for industry, agriculture and to provide beauty in the landscape. Ponds are now increasingly being created for ecosystem services and leisure activities (e.g. on golf courses). (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

Some origins of artificial ponds and pools Industrial ponds

As a 'by-product'

Field ponds Specialist ponds 'Accidental' ponds Ornamental ponds Village ponds (Boothby, 1999)

mill lodges for corn mills, cotton mills, dye works etc; used for retting flax; beavering woad for dye extraction; ice-harvesting; swannery and furnace ponds; canals; cooling ponds in extraction of gravel or clay; by marl extraction; coprolite digging; formed in quarries, sawpits, charcoal pits dug for stock watering; dewpond constructions fish ponds; for growing watercress; defensive moats; as duck decoys; curling ponds; ice-ponds; garden ponds and ornamental lakes bomb craters; subsidence of salt; coal mining landscaped ponds on great estates or business parks; garden ponds; moats used for water supply, fire-fighting, swelling cartwheels, washing horses; support ducks and fish for food; willow used for baskets; used for skating in winter

Ponds in the UK Functions Ponds have been created for a wide variety of functions, including mineral extraction (Andrews and Kinsman 1990), watering livestock, irrigation for agriculture (Gee et al. 1997), as ornamental features (Williams et al. 1997), and even to drive industrial processes (Giles and Goodall 1992). The amenity value of ponds is widely acknowledged and they are commonly incorporated as hazard features on golf courses (Stubbs 1999), and extensively utilized for recreational angling (Williams et al. 1998). Ponds have considerable aesthetic value and, historically, medieval fish ponds were an important source of food (Rees 1997). (Wood et al., 2003)

Italy: Karstic ponds in the Karst of Trieste Ecosystem services in the past (before World War II) The problem of water supply were solved by relying on rainfall, snow and ice collection; the rainy water was conveyed from roofs into water tanks after filtration. Those water reservoirs often belonged to several families of the same village, and were used as a supply of drinking water for humans and animals. Furthermore, every village had at least one reservoir for field irrigation. Pasture ponds were dug taking advantage of natural depressions usually sited close to the village. Although most of these man-made ponds were created to supply drinking water or to support agricultural activities, it is noteworthy that the purpose of these very shallow ponds was the production of ice. During winter, when water froze, karstic ponds yielded ice sheets of various thickness. The ice-tanks used for ice-

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keeping were built in the same manner as the water-tanks for the villages, and were protected with roof, similarly to stables. (Bressi, Stoch, 1999)

Origin of ponds and their ecosystem services in the past In a mostly dry karstic area, as the region around Trieste is, ponds have been managed, modified or created probably since first neolithic settlements appeared in the area. During the Bronze Age a big system of fortified villages exited in all the region, supporting an economy based mainly on cattle and hunting. Nevertheless the origin of karstic ponds have to be natural, since: (1) during the prehistory it is difficult that a human population would decide to inhabit permanently an area without natural water basins; (2) many ponds still today maintain remains of their clearly natural origin; (3) bones remains of both prehistorical and roman ages reveals a big quantity of freshwater animals (Emys orbicularis, Cyprinus carpio, Bufo viridis). Ponds around Trieste has been managed for centuries (assuming also cultural and ethnographic value), and they reached their main importance for the inhabitants of the region at the beginning of the 900, when cattle and agriculture were well developed and ponds were used also for ice production. Ecosystem service today (research, conservation, education) After 1950, as in most part of Europe, ponds become useless and their number started to decline very quickly. To protect these habitats, in 1965, began the first organic study of the ponds, with the publication in 1969 of the first catalogue of small wetlands in the Province of Trieste, which was published by the Trieste Natural History Museum with the explicit aim of management and conservation of these ecosystems. So, exactly 40 years ago, the first European study group on the protection of minor wetlands was founded in Trieste. In 1974 we achieved the first restoration in Europe of a pond with the only aim of protecting its biodiversity. By Pond Tutors and Trieste Natural History Museum, in 2001 started also the first Italian Course in: Conservation and Management of Small Freshwater Wetlands. (Bressi et al., 2005)

Inventory of karstic ponds (kali and lokve) in the Kras, Slovenia Characteristics of rainwater collectors and its ecosystem services in the past Kras is the landscape bounded by the Bay of Trieste, the Vipava valley, the Brkini hills and the Soa plain. Kal (plural kali) and lokev (plural lokve) formerly had an essential function in the existence, not just of agriculture but even of the human population of Kras. Because of typical karstic terrain, there are no surface waters here, and for the most part the groundwater is very deep below the surface, so before the supply of mains water, kali and lokve were the only source of water. Since there are few karstic springs in this region, water supply was based on collection rainwater (Gams 2003). The people of the Kras used natural hollows as water collectors, into which rainwater flowed. These were often the floors of swallow holes, from which they first removed the upper layers of soils. The porosity and permeability of clays in the floor of the swallow holes were reduced by livestock being driven over the clay, which made the floor of the swallow hole sufficiently impermeable that water stood in it, even in summer (Mihevc 1999). Two types of water collectors were therefore created: kal and lokev. Villagers took drinking water from lokve, for washing they used water from kali, where the livestock were also watered (Gams 1987; 2003). They adopted access to watering places for animals, so they chose hollows with gentle slopes as kali. In contrast, lokve are collectors with steep sided walls, which are often built or reinforced with large stone blocks to prevent earth sliding into the water. The third type of rainwater collector of the Kras is stone wells, which people dug in the less permeable limestone and dolomite where the layer of the earth was thick and clayey. The rainwater was led to them from the roofs by stone guttering. The stone wells were used for drinking water or watering livestock (Gams 2003). People arranged water collectors in the vicinity of pastures and settlements, and even in the very heart of villages. There were common water collectors and also each house had its own water collector (Gams 2003).

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Threats After the Second World War, with a gradual shift of the agricultural population to other professions, cultivation of the land was reduced and livestock breeding abandoned. After the abandonment of pasturage, the permeability of kali increased because the base was not being trampled. Kali dried up and overgrew with terrestrial vegetation. After mains had been supplied, the primary purpose of lokve as surface drinking water reservoirs was lost. When mains water was supplied, people even stopped maintaining some lokve. Usage of ponds in the present and threats In the fieldwork carried out in 2001, 2002 and 2003 the kali and lokve in the part of the Karst of Slovenia were inventoried. Results 44 kali and 16 lokve were investigated. Because of abandonment of their traditional use, their structure and purpose is changing. There are 43 permanently or at least occasionally flooded kali and lokve. Locals maintain them as a source of water for watering cultivated areas and extinguishing fires and exceptionally for watering livestock. The water is generally kept by concreting or stone floor and banks. For the most part only floating aquatic vegetation thrives in these. In kali that have retained the original structure of floor and banks, the permanent or occasional presence of water can be the result of occasional trampling of livestock and deer (kali in the forest or close by), active keeping as decorative and educational object or use has only recently been abandoned. In some kali and lokve with permanent water, fish, tortoises, ducks and geese are reared. Kali and lokve that are abandoned and left to natural succession, because of overgrowing are gradually drying out and changing into the terrestrial ecosystem with vegetation of karstic shrubs. An extreme and the least acceptable use of abandoned kali and lokve is infilling with building material and rubbish. Among 44 investigated kali there were 7 % of them that have been used for watering livestock. A little less than a half (43 %) investigated kali have been kept for secondary use as: either reservoir for field watering and extinguishing or educational object or decorative object. A half of investigated kali have lost the function of local surface water reservoirs; present state of them is: in process of abandoning (23 %), abandoned (18 %) and overgrown with terrestrial vegetation or filled with rubbish (9 %) and transformed into rubbish dumps or other surfaces. Nowadays locals use more than a half (56 %) of lokve as reservoirs for watering and extinguishing. A quarter (25 %) of lokve have been in process of abandoning, 19 % have been entirely abandoned. (elik et al., 2005)

A survey of ponds and their loss in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park, northwest Croatia A field research into the ponds in umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park and aquestionnaire survey of 54 people living in 43 villages within the border of the Park was conducted in 2005. Usage of ponds In the umberak-Samoborsko gorje Nature Park, ponds are mostly result of human activities. The main purpose of the ponds is specified as water supply for livestock and water supply for farming. As for other purposes the ponds have been used for laundry, the production of pig swill, keeping ducks and geese, ice skating, swimming and protection against fire. Ponds are also used by game, particularly roe deer and wild boar. The majority of the ponds are on private land, while others are on state-owned land. The attitude of local inhabitants The positive attitude of local inhabitants is surprisingly positive. As many as 87 % of respondents said that waste disposal in the pond bothered them, 70.4% wanted ponds in their proximity and more than a half would

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even clean the pond. Only few of respondents thought that the ponds had to be filled in. Mainly elderly people that appreciate the traditional way of life were included in the questionnaires. And although they are willing to participate in pond maintenance, their ages may make this unrealistic. (Janev Hutinec, Struna, 2007)

The Czech Republic: Trebon fishponds Besides agriculture and fishery, there is increasing (foreign) tourism and hunting in the area. Summer activities prevail, especially hiking, camping, cycling, swimming and canoeing. There is a field research station (research projects particularly on increasing eutrophication). Conservation education and training takes place here as well. (Trebonsk rybnky, 2000; Trebonsk rybnky, 2008)

The Czech Republic: FAO Fishery Country Profile Freshwater aquaculture is an important and integral part of the Czech agriculture sector. There is particular emphasis on pond fish farming which in the Czech Republic is a traditional form of aquaculture and where there is specialised knowledge. Pond farming is the dominant aquaculture technology in the Czech Republic accounting for more than 95 percent of the total production figures. Pond fish farming has deep historical roots and is a national heritage which should be promoted. Czech pond systems also play a fundamental role in landscape water management such as water retention and flood prevention and in the preservation and protection of biodiversity. Ponds also have an important social, cultural and recreational function and this contributes to the sustainable development of living conditions, not only in the relevant region, but also in adjacent regions. The role of fisheries in the Czech national economy is rather marginal. However, due to Czech history, tradition, and environmental aspects, fisheries have quite a reputable position in the country. Pond farming in lowlands and trout culture at high altitudes play an important social role in maintaining local populations in their native environment. However, this is not currently of any particular importance. (The Czech Republic, 2005; The Czech Republic, 2008)

Ponds in Northeast-Germany In the young-moraine landscapes of Northeast-Germany, the ground-moraines are known for their high -2 density of ponds (up to 40 km ). These ponds are of glacial or artificial origin (marl-pits or peat-cuts). The ground-moraines have been used for agriculture for hundreds of years. Up to beginning of the 20th century, many of the ponds were surrounded by grassland. In addition to pasture, various other uses (e.g. cutting reed and wood, extraction of mud, marl and peat) prevented succession and formed open ponds exposed to sunlight. (Schneeweiss, Beckmann, 1999)

Croatia: Coastal karst aquifers and karst springs Croatia coast characteristics Croatia is a typical Mediterranean country with very long coastal area and more than thousand islands on the eastern part of Adriatic sea from Istria peninsula on the north and Dubrovnik area on south. This is the part of Dinarc karst region mainly built from karstified carbonate rocks. Due to the sea level changes in Quarternary it is characterised by deep karstification what enable on many places very distant sea water intrusion forming labile balance of fresh and salt water in karst underground. Importance of springs The main characteristic of coastal karst aquifers in Croatia is the existence of big karst springs (up to 3 200 m /s) with considerable amplitudes in outflow depending on the season precipitation rate, so some of the big karst springs in the summer period completely lack the outflow.

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The exploitation of coastal groundwater resources is connected to the relation between needs and natural 3 capabilities. Today in the Adriatic catchment area, around 8.5 m /s of water is in exploitation. This value is connected to summer dry periods, when the level of needs is the highest. The highest degree of exploitation is in the areas of two major cities (Rijeka, Split), but the other cities and tourist centres in the coastal area as well, and the lowest degree is on the islands, where the resources are limited. Only two islands have independent water supply. Many of the big islands are connected to the water supply from the mainland, completely or partially. In Croatia the water is mainly used for water supply of inhabitants, tourism and remaining industry, and very little for the agriculture, because there is the specific type of predominantly rocky coast, where it is impossible to develop agriculture. Only in the south of Istria the agriculture is developed and numerous private wells are used for the irrigation, without any real control and suggestion possibility. Because the water is used mostly for water supply of inhabitants and numerous tourists, it has to have strict standards for drinking water, which is the case with all water supply systems in Croatia. It is emphasized that the karst groundwaters in Croatia are of naturally high quality, especially during the summer dry periods, when the consumption is the highest, because the epikarst aquifer zone has the maximal protecting function. The danger comes with the first strong water wave, when the epikarst zone is washed out and the springs are weighted mostly with increased turbidity and bacteriological pollution. The role of coastal karst aquifers in the development of coastal region is immeasurable, because these are the only water resources in this region and the whole development depends on protection and correct exploitation of such water resources. It is important to mention that despite the high vulnerability of karst aquifers the waters are of good quality and big attention is given to protection, especially during the construction of major infrastructure objects (highways). It is emphasized that the water supply springs and aquifers are for now in very good condition and the water is completely within the drinking water standards and some of the springs are planed to be used for water bottling. (Biondi, Biondi, 2003)

Croatia: Brackish karst spring Brackish karst springs are common along every karstic sea shore consisting of limestone and dolomite. Along the Adriatic Sea coast in Croatia there are more than 300 permanent or temporary brackish karst springs. Karst springs situated along the littoral belt are very often not protected from sea water intrusion. From the standpoint of water supply, the problem of karst spring water salinization is quite significant because large quantities of high quality fresh water are not available to be used either as drinking water or for industrial and agricultural purposes. The salinity of brackish karst springs situated along the Adriatic coast varies from 10 to more than 18 000 mg -1 Cl l with an unfavourable distribution during the year. In the wet winter period, when water quantities in the region are abundant, the salinity is exceedingly low. In the warm and dry summer period the chloride concentration is high. At that season, when a shortage of fresh water in the region occurs, especially due to tourism, karst spring water is so salty that it cannot be used at all. The increasing shortage of drinking water in coastal areas will require the use of brackish karst springs and even submarine springs within the future. The mechanism of sea water intrusion is relatively well known but the problem of karst springs desalinization has not been solved in practice. Detailed investigations and measurements were carried out on the Bla Spring to provide a practical engineering solution for the desalinization of brackish karst springs. (Bonacci, Roje-Bonacci, 1997)

Croatia: Brakish karst spring Characteristics Pantan area is situated in the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast near town Trogir. It is the area of approximately 40 ha and presents inseparable unit consisting of Pantan spring, river course with surrounding

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swamp area and sea coast. Spring makes small lake Pantan with surface area from 35 to 60 m and depth of 13 meters. River Rika flows out of the lake to the sea and into the numeral brackish lateral channels that irrigate surrounding, swamp area. Ecosystem services It is not possible to use water from Pantan spring for the water supply but it is still possible to use it for the other purposes as for irrigation and fish-farm. In summer period water can be used only for the purposes of fish-farm since it is not sensitive to the chloride oscillations. Spring presents potential drinking water source under consumption that salinization problem is solved. Extensive water investigations have been taken for the purpose of better understanding of complex hydrogeological conditions and finding solution for spring desalinization for the purpose of exploiting fresh water for the water supply (Bonacci et al., 1995; Komatina 1990; Mijatovi 1984). (Fistani, 2006)

Slovenia: Drinking water supply In Europe, where carbonate rocks cover 35% of the surface, groundwater from karst aquifers is an especially important water resource. In some countries karst water contributes more than half of the drinking water supply (e.g. in Austria) and in many regions it is the only available source of fresh water (COST Action 65, 1995). In Slovenia carbonate rocks cover over 44% of the country (Novak, 1993a; Gams, 2003). As in many European regions also in Slovenia, karst aquifers represent important reservoirs of qualitative water resources. Karst sources are already extensively used for drinking water supply, but are not yet completely exploited. Half of the countrys needs are already covered by the capturing of karst water sources, but in the dry period of the year this amount reaches about two thirds of the total consumption (Breko Grubar and Plut, 2001). Extensive areas on the western, southwestern, southern and southeastern parts of the country are almost entirely dependent on karst water sources. Therefore in Slovenia karst aquifers are of special economic importance. (Ravbar, 2007)

Slovenia: Karst springs Slovenian karst areas extend over 43% of the country; limestones and dolomites of the Mesozoic era prevail. In Slovenia karst groundwater contributes up to 50% of the total drinking water supply. Karst aquifers in Slovenia, especially High Dinaric Karst and Alpine Karst are, due to scarce population, less intensive agricultural activities, etc., more convenient for water protection as compared with the intergranular aquifers (dense population, intensive industry, traffic and agriculture activity, immoderate groundwater exploitation, etc.). Slovenia is known for abundant resources of relatively high quality drinkable water, which is not exploited as a whole. Therefore karst groundwater is often considered as a self-evident and plentiful natural resource despite the fact that it is extremely vulnerable to pollution. The quality of water is very high, despite the fact that it is extremely vulnerable to pollution. (Kovai, Ravbar, 2005)

The Netherlands: Marshes, bogs and swamps A large area of the Dutch marches, bogs and swamps have been exploited for agricultural land. Another part has been converted into open waters because of large-scale exploitation for peat. However, still a substantial area of marches, bogs and swamps has been left over. Marshes, bogs and swamps have long been exploited for reed, rushes and withies. To guarantee the supply, people planted and maintained reeds, rushes and willows. Nowadays these crops are of little economic significance and the main value of marshes, bogs and swamps is for recreation and nature conservation. (Guidance Marshes, bogs and swamps, 2008)

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4. THREATS TO STANDING SMALL WATER BODIES 4.1. Different threats

Lakes of Boreal region 0ligotrophic lakes are widespread. Because they are relatively young and carved out of hard bedrock, the lakes tend to be shallow, cold, clear and poor in nutrient loads. They are also therefore particularly sensitive to nutrient overload, acid rain and pollution from agriculture and large-scale forestry activities. The ringed seal Phoca hispida is the smallest and commonest of the northern seal species. During the last Ice Age, populations around the Baltic Sea and in the lake systems of Finland and Russia were cut off from the sea and had to adapt to new aquatic conditions. They eventually evolved into three distinct subspecies: the Saimaa ringed seal (P. h. saimensis), the Baltic ringed seal (P. h. botnica) and the Ladoga ringed seal (P. h. ladogensis). All three are unfortunately now threatened through a combination of habitat loss, increased recreational pressure and fluctuating water levels in the lakes, combined with entanglement in fishing nets and the accumulation of pollutants. A major conservation programme was launched to conserve the Saimaa ringed seal in the lake systems of the Saimaa region in Southern Finland. Since the start of the work, seal numbers have increased to 200 but remain highly threatened due to the low population size. (Natura 2000 in the Boreal region, 2005)

Ireland: Turloughs: drainage, pollution, agricultural abandonment The main threat to turloughs in the past was drainage, but pollution by nutrients is also now potentially detrimental. Roughly one third of turloughs over 10 hectares have been irreversibly damaged by drainage (Coxon, 1986). The impact of land drainage on groundwater resources is particularly acute in karst areas because of the unique characteristics of karstic aquifers. Arterial drainage, or drainage of river systems to dry out land within the catchment, of karst lowlands in Ireland since the mid-19th century has resulted in losses of recharge, lowering of water tables, drying up of turloughs, alteration of underground flow routes, and periodic groundwater contamination (Drew and Coxon, 1988). Though large-scale drainage has ceased, it resulted in the loss of at least 50% of flooded turlough area (Coxon, 1986; Goodwillie, 2001). Catchment water is thought to be the main factor determining nutrient input into turlough systems (Southern Water Global, 1998). Risk assessment for turlough nutrient pollution is required under the Water Framework Directive (Working Group on Groundwater, 2004). However, a more recent and important threat may be the cessation of farming within turloughs. It is possibly the current economic threat to the survival of relatively small farms in the more extensively farmed regions of Ireland where turloughs occur, that may now be the single greatest threat to the conservation of turlough biological diversity, through the cessation of grazing on turloughs. (Sheehy Skeffington et al., 2006)

Ireland: Turloughs: groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystems by WFD Karst groundwater environments, where turloughs typically occur, have been identified as particularly vulnerable to pollution (Drew, 1996) and can result in contaminants, such as phosphorus, being rapidly transmitted from groundwater to surface water ecosystems via springs (Kilroy and Coxon, 2005). GWDTE are vulnerable to a range of pressures including abstraction, drainage and nutrient enrichment, depending on their degree of hydrological dependency and sensitivity. In Ireland, high farm animal stocking rates have been suggested as potentially negatively impacting on turlough plant and animal communities (N Bhriain et al., 2002). The Irish National Parks and Wildlife Service have assessed all potential GWDTEs for sensitivity, mainly to nutrients and abstraction pressures. For turloughs, Ellenberg Fertility Indices (Ellenberg, 1988; and Holl et al., 1999) were used to rank turloughs into three categories, according to the nutrient sensitivity of the plant communities present at each site. A significant number of turloughs were considered to be extremely sensitive to nutrient enrichment.

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Groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystems such as turloughs are particularly challenging in terms of delineating their catchment areas for the purposes of risk assessment and implementation of measures by WFD. Better understanding of such complex systems with high degrees of groundwater-surface water interaction will be required to ensure their protection in river basin management plans. (Kilroy, 2005)

Temporary pools as Ramsar wetland type Temporary pools are often neglected due to their ephemeral character and are disappearing worldwide because of abandonment of traditional life styles and land agricultural use, as well as from unsustainable management practices, including permanent flooding, land-filling for agricultural and urban developments; negative changes to their very specific hydrology, both in surface and groundwater fluxes, as is recognized by the Guidelines for rendering the use of groundwater compatible with the conservation of wetlands (Resolution VIII.40); overexploitation of their renewable resources; and other indirect causes. There are a number of threats to the sustainable maintenance of temporary pools, the most important of which include: a) alteration of the delicate hydrological functioning upon which they depend, including drainage for land conversion and conversely their transformation into more permanent pools, which leads to encroachment by less specialized, more competitive plant and animal species and which may threaten the key biodiversity values of temporary pools through increases in predators or competitors; b) the vulnerability of temporary pools and their biological diversity to increasing and persistent drought in arid and semi-arid regions; c) unsustainable exploitation of the natural resources of temporary pools, such as over-grazing, excessive harvesting of vegetation for fodder, and over-abstraction of water; d) solid waste dumping; e) indirect threats including pollution, excessive water abstraction or diversion in the catchment, and natural changes through filling in from sedimentation and shrub encroachment; f) abandonment of traditional life styles and land uses leading to neglect of the temporary ponds and loss of recognition of their values and functions; and g) lack of recognition of their values and functions. (The Ramsar Convention., 2002)

Mediterranean temporary ponds and pools Temporary ponds are one of the most remarkable and most threatened freshwater European habitats. Threats to ponds in the Mediterranean region are similar to those faced by small waterbodies everywhere, but their vulnerability is greater. The pools are shallow and often small in area and volume. This makes them exceptionally susceptible to pollution, drainage and destruction by man and increasingly now, to the effects of climate change. (The Pond Manifesto, 2008)

Malta: Ponds, pools, water tanks: drainage and water abstraction Malta with surface are of less than 300 km is mostly limestone, and before 1830s had much surface water: marshes, pools, ponds, rivers, springs, etc with species that are typical of (undamaged) limestone in southern Europe (e.g. Sicily, S. Italy, S. France). Because of sever land drainage and abstraction, the island is now very dry as nearly all Malta`s surface water have been removed, yet, surprisingly, some ponds remain. There are summer ponds in rivers; spring pools, natural and constructed; freshwater rock pools; and constructed water tanks, etc. The destructive elements of the past century are typical of European countries. Malta is exceptional, because it is tiny size and high population (346,000 in 1996) and tourists (one million) give extremely severe impact over an undue amount of the surface. Land drainage of marshes for public health rather than farming was enforced from the 1830s, to prevent fevers. Land drainage is sill increasing (1990s).
2

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Abstraction of ground and spring water started in the seventeenth century. It became severe in the 1890s, when complex pumping and underqround systems were introduced. Abstraction continued to increase, and in 1997 was more than ever before. Abstraction for farming from boreholes and springs is increasing much faster than for domestic supply. Surface pollution of different sources (e.g. run-off from roads and build-up areas, agrochemicals) is worse since 1970 and has increased rapidly in the 1990s. Damage can cause also disturbance, like removal of water for irrigation often causing pond to empty in one day, which lead to extreme changes in water regime. Malta has dried greatly, and is still drying. Aquatic habitats, including ponds, are decreasing and deteriorating. (Haslam, 1999)

Finland: Benthic macrocrustacean and insect assemblages in relation to spring habitat characteristics Spring characteristics The studied six springs are located at the proximal northwest slope of the Kiikalannummi formation. These springs are generally surrounded by spruce-dominatedmesic heath forest and small bogs of varying naturalness (forest fertility classification according to Reinikainen et al., 2000). Threats The Kiikalannummi groundwater area has been modified by anthropogenic disturbances, i.e. silviculture, ditching, roads, a small airport, gravel extraction and groundwater use. Silvicultural activities have affected the nearby surroundings of all the springs studied except one spring, and in three springs the forest was cut very close to the spring 10-20 years before this study. However, the spring habitats are mostly well preserved, although logging and ditching near or even within the spring complex has diminished the naturalness of three of the springs to some degree. (Ilmonen, Paasivirta, 2005)

The UK: Flow permanence and macroinvertebrate community variability in limestone spring systems Threats in general Water quality and quantity within groundwater aquifers may be affected by many factors including urbanisation, quarrying and agricultural practices. It is now widely acknowledged that anthropogenic activities may threaten the biodiversity of springs and other groundwater dominated habitats at a global scale (Williams & Williams, 1998; Sket, 1999). (Smith, Wood, 2002)

Headwater wetlands (peat-bogs and fens) in general Headwater wetlands (peat-bogs and fens) rank among the worlds ecosystems most threatened by human actions. They face the local impacts of development and land use conversion (especially drainage, forestation, over-exploitation (e.g. mining), point or non/point pollution) and also the larger scale effects of global climatic change, air pollution, acid atmospheric deposition and so forth. (Krecek, Haigh, 2006)

These habitats are enormous carbon sinks and thus, while in good health, are one of our greatest allies in the struggle against global warming. However, due to over two centuries of damage largely due to burning, overgrazing, peat extraction and industrial pollution, bogs across Europe and beyond have been so degraded that they can begin to release carbon instead. (LIFE and Europes wetlands, 2007)

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The Netherlands: Marshes, bogs and swamps (see also under characteristics - fragmentation) Much of the pristine marshes, bogs and swamps have been drained and converted to farmland; the remainder have become areas of lakes, because water has filled the holes left after large-scale peat extraction. Many Dutch marshes, bogs and swamps are too small for many species to be able to survive in them for a long period, particularly if these areas are very isolated. It is not only habitat fragmentation that puts the flora and fauna (such as butterfly and dragonfly species) at risk: a further problem is that the vegetation is not rejuvenating and shrubs and trees are encroaching. Other negative factors are intensive mowing regimes and water recreation. Pleasure boats can be damaging because of the wash they create and because reed is damaged when they are moored. Lack of rejuvenation After marshes, bogs and swamps adjacent to rivers have been flooded, the vegetation succession starts again. But in marshes, swamps and bogs where the water is stagnant or sluggish, early stages of terrestrialisation are much less likely to arise naturally. In spite of this, early stages of terrestrialisation used to be found in bogs, in the water-filled depressions left after peat had been extracted. Peat extraction has almost ceased, so no more depressions are being created; furthermore, if the water quality is poor and the water level fluctuates unnaturally, early stages of terrestrialisation rarely occur. The natural fluctuation of water levels is between high in winter and low in summer, but nowadays the levels are often kept constant by regulating the inflow and outflow of water. The result is that there are few instances of new early stages of terrestrialisation, and any that do exist have to be maintained by intensive management. Animal species associated with early stages of terrestrialisation (rafts of water soldier or reedbeds, for example) are therefore declining. Scrub encroachment (vegetation succession) In many marshes, bogs and swamps, the vegetation is becoming rank and shrubs and trees are rapidly encroaching. This process is attributable to the eutrophication of the surface water, the effects of water drawdown and the abandonment of the small-scale management of reedbeds. However, because of the encroaching by shrubs and the withdrawal of reed borders certain birds of reed vegetation are declining, while hedgerow and woodland birds are increasing. (Guidance Marshes, bogs and swamps, 2008)

The Netherlands: Heathland, fens and raised bogs Dutch fens have suffered greatly from acidification, eutrophication and the effects of water draw-down. This is why there has been massive degradation of the characteristic vegetations. Thanks to restoration measures, characteristic plant species are increasing again. Trends in fen vegetation Heath fen characteristic vegetation is under severe pressure from acidification, the effects of water drawdown, and eutrophication. Because fens have limited buffering capacity, acidification has great influence on their water quality: hence the dramatic decline in the distribution of the characteristic plant community of quillwort and water lobelia. This vegetation is able to recover if the fens are dredged and the hydrology is improved to prevent acidification. In recent years, restoration measures have been implemented in many locations. In the Beuven reserve in Noord-Brabant, for example, this has allowed plants of calcium-poor water such as shoreweed and water lobelia to re-establish. Shoreweed and water lobelia are found in weakly buffered fens and in dune pools. In the last 50 years of the 20th century, the number of sites suitable for these species fell sharply because of acidification, eutrophication and the effects of water draw-down. However, since 1990 there has been a dramatic resurgence, especially in sites with shoreweed. Trends in dragonflies Dutch fens changed greatly during the 20th century. The dragonfly fauna characteristic of pristine fens declined sharply, as can be seen from the mean indices of nine characteristic species. The decline in the 20th century was caused by acidification, often in combination with eutrophication. Certain plant species disappeared as a result, and the change in the vegetation structure led to a decline in the dragonflies. (Guidance Heathland and fens, 2008)

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4.2. Hydromorphological alteration

Czech Republic: river canalization and backwaters (see ecological importance)

Malta: ponds, springs: drainage (see different threats) Poland: kettle holes and meliorations (see historical overview) Bogs, fens, mires of Bioreal region Mires and fens are well represented. They range from active raised bogs, transition mires and bog woodland, within a forest landscape, to extensive aapa mires in the north. Until recently commercial peat extraction was widespread, with countries like Lithuania losing up to 70% of their peatlands. Nevertheless, all five countries still harbour large intact mires, some of which are amongst the largest in Europe. In Finland, two-thirds of the mires are utilised for commercial purposes, mainly forestry. (Natura 2000 in the Boreal region, 2005) Peat mining and ditching of mires to allow the mining was used during the 1800 to mid-1900s in most of the region, firstly on a limited local scale but ending up in very large scale operations. When left to natural regeneration many of the least exploited areas have developed into oligotrophic bog or dwarf shrub complexes, albeit disturbed ones. Disturbed raised bogs, however, are not likely to regenerate due to different moisture regimes and less Sphagnum growth today than when they were initially formed. In Finland and Sweden, extraction of peat for fuel or power generation has had a renaissance during recent 3 decades; together they extract 8-12 million m of peat yearly. The peat is also being harvested for use in gardening and agriculture at a considerable scale. The peat extraction is presently mostly performed by stripping peat areas horizontally, gradually lowering the peat surface uniformly over large areas till close to the mineral layer. On such areas regeneration will often be by afforestation or agriculture. In Sweden 20 % of all mires are estimated to have been influenced by peat mining at some time. Peat cutting in the Baltic States is at present low, but may grow, considering the existing large amounts of peat containing wetlands and export interests. (The Boreal biogeographical, 2007)

Peatlands in Baltic countries Damage to wetlands Human activities have modified substantially the extent and quality of the natural wetland resource. This has occurred as a result of both deliberate actions such as drainage and construction as well as by non-intentional actions such as agricultural or industrial pollution, river regulation and groundwater abstraction (Maltby, et al. 1994). Although detailed national inventories and ecological assessments do not exist for the whole Europe, regional information provides examples of loss and degradation: - Only a relatively small proportion (probably no more than half) of the original medieval resource remains (Maltby, 1991); - Much of the remaining wetland resources have been altered by human activity and continues to receive various degrees of management; - Even though many wetlands appear intact, often there is a firm evidence, such as bird populations and fisheries, that ecosystem functioning has been impaired; - Wider environmental degradation with direct implications for human welfare such as enrichment of surface waters and groundwaters in nitrate and other contaminants may be associated with agricultural conversion of wetlands or intensive farming of land in the surrounding catchments.

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Direct damage Human pressures on peatlands are both direct (through drainage, land conversion, excavation, inundation and visitor pressure) and indirect (from air pollution, water contamination, contraction through water removal and infrastructure development). The greatest wetland losses have occurred as a result of agricultural conversion (Maltby, 1991). Agriculture has caused not only the direct loss of wetland but also degradation of ecosystems well beyond the boundaries of development. Peatlands as one of the wetland types have been depleted or degraded in many countries around the world. It has been mostly due to short-term or single sector development strategies leading to conflicts between different user groups. The global area of peatlands has been reduced significantly (estimated to be at least 10% to 20%) since 1800 through climate change and human activities, particularly by drainage for agriculture and forestry. The latter continue to be the most important factors affecting changes in peatlands both globally and locally. Wetland management in the frame of LIFE-Nature projects deal with the consequences of direct and indirect damage to wetland habitats. Drainage Drainage is an important damage to wetlands as the water is the single most important factor in the wetland environment playing a critical role in its formation. Drainage impacts the system by restricting the ability of a Sphagnum dominated vegetation type to re-establish. Drainage losses can occur by internal processes, such as drainage canals and peat removal, and by external processes, such as downward loss caused by penetrating the bog substrate or lateral losses caused by drainage of surrounding areas. About a half of peatlands in Latvia are influenced by drainage systems. Peatlands damaged by drainage are also found in Estonia and Lithuania as well as other countries, such as Great Britain, the Netherlands, Finland, and Northern Ireland. Therefore, the activities of many LIFE projects include the restoration of mire hydrology and habitats. In Estonia, before the political changes of 1987 the major threat was drainage for agriculture. Since development of peatlands for agriculture is no longer profitable this threat is now receding. Peat extraction is now the principal threat. Spring fens are threatened by groundwater depletion due to drainage of their surroundings. Most floodplain fens also have been destroyed by drainage, but several floating fens remain undisturbed. In Latvia, mires have been influenced by drainage that was carried out all over Latvia between 1930s and 1980s. Drainage has affected the natural active raised bog succession, leading to the reduction of the open bog habitats. In many protected raised bogs drainage system is still functioning. As the drainage changes the natural functioning of wetlands, their restoration may be required. The management methods would include damming and blocking drainage ditches as well as their in-filling. Due to drainage, encroachment of trees and shrubs in the mires takes place, and the management would be either removing them by cutting or introducing grazing animals. Peat extraction Today many countries in Western Europe have lost more than 90% of their peatland heritage. The most drastic losses can be found in Finland, the Netherlands, Estonia, Denmark, and the UK (Bragg, Lindsay, 2003). The Netherlands have destroyed almost 100% of their natural peatlands. Since the 1950s, Finland has destroyed the majority of its 96 000 km mire area, largely by drainage for forestry (Paavilainen and Pivanen 1995). Currently, commercial peat extraction in Europe is concentrated on the raised bogs. This extensive history of human influence to some degree has impacted the ecological processes in essentially every raised bog throughout Europe. About 9% of Latvias raised bogs (37 bogs with the total area of 70 000 ha) are affected by peat extraction and 20 000 ha are nearly exhausted. Similar to Estonia and Latvia, drainage and peat extraction has affected the peatlands of Lithuania. Of the 800 peatlands larger than 50 ha, at least 600 are affected by intensive mineralisation and peat degradation. Cutting of slightly humified peat now predominates in Estonia. Most of peat there is excavated for export; for example, during the period 1993-1996, 51-57% was exported. After peat extraction only bare peat remains, hence the natural recolonisation of plant species is slow. Therefore, the management of such peat fields could include their rewetting, planting of plant species and increasing species and habitat diversity of these degraded peatlands. (Pakalne, 2004)

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UK: headwater peat wetlands The perceived value of this land has been low. Most of the UKs peaty uplands have been degraded by human activity. The destructive uses have included agricultural reclamation through drainage, forestation and peat cutting, all of which have been reduced in recent years, except for continued forestation on the more shallow peats. Perhaps a fifth of the British peaty uplands have been drained and, since 1945, about a fifteenth forested. Today, only a tiny fraction of Britains original peat wetlands survive - around 10% of the blanket bog and 2% of its raised mires. Threats registered for those peat lands that remain include drainage - both deliberate and inadvertent, erosion, water pollution, mining, road construction and other development, and ecological pressures that include trampling, overgrazing, as well as transformation by ecological invasion and natural succession. Peat bogs are net sinks for CO2, N and many other environmental chemicals. However, environmental changes including drainage and forestation can affect sequestration, indeed disturbed peat soils tend to become net carbon sources. Since peat bogs lose their capacity to sequester carbon in warm years, global warming may raise local temperatures sufficiently by 2021 for most UK peat lands to become net carbon sources. In recent years, official perceptions have changed. Currently, around 200*10 ha of peat wetlands are protected and attention to restoration has overtaken the clamour for land improvement by drainage. (Haigh, 2006)
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The UK: Active raised bogs (habitat type Natura 2000) Parts of many lowland raised bogs have been damaged through peat extraction, afforestation, drainage and other activities. Consequently most lowland raised bogs contain a mixture of Active raised bog and Degraded raised bog. In some cases changes in land use have resulted in fragmentation of formerlycontinuous raised bog or wetland complexes. Destruction of Active raised bogs in north-west Europe, combined with the relatively high proportion of the EU resource remaining in the UK, means that the UK has a special responsibility for the protection of sites supporting this priority habitat type. Consequently a high proportion of the total UK resource has been included in the SAC series. (SAC Interest Features, 2008)

Denmark: Odense Pilot River Basin. Provisional Article 5 Report Mires encompass various types of swamp forests, swamps, open fens, raised bogs and swamp springs. The physical pressures on the wetlands have had a considerable impact on the function of the wetlands as nutrient sinks and on their natural state. Drainage/lowering of the water level, filling-up and excavation as well as the input of fertilizer and soil preparation are the main modifying factors of mires. In addition, lowering of the water level in wetlands can also occur as a result of watercourse regulation and groundwater abstraction. The majority of mires and springs are affected by lowering of the water level and groundwater abstraction. At the same time, nitrogen input (mainly via deposition) to the most sensitive types of mire such as raised bogs, poor fens and rich fens is so great as to exceed their critical loads. Moreover, Fyn Countys habitat registration shows that just over 80% of the mires are becoming overgrown, and that several plant species have disappeared from Fyn County (Tranberg et al., 1995; 1996; Vinter & Tranberg, 2002). Filling-in leads to the disappearance of the wet low-lying parts through covering of the peat layer, usually with other soil types. Conversely, peat mining entails removal of the peat layer, whereby valuable plant communities disappear and are replaced by water-filled peat mines. Peat mining has now ceased in Fyn County, and the filling-in of wetlands has reduced considerably in recent years. (Odense Pilot River Basin, 2003)

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4.3. Water withdrawal

Slovenia: Riana spring The only major spring in the Slovenian Istria is the karst spring of the Riana River, which is the most important source of water supply for the Slovenian coastal area. There are also other water users and water polluters (water abstractions for fish-farms and industry, legal and unregulated water abstractions for irrigation in summer, 30 small discharges of wastewater into the river). The riparian vegetation along the watercourse is quite degraded due to land cultivation and vicinity of roads. With its 14 km of length, the Riana River drains a watershed area of 204.5 km . Its hinterland is primarily composed of karst. In summer months the natural flow is very low, whereby part of water drains off into the underground and several tributaries of the Riana River dry up. At the same time, the water abstractions along the watercourse for drinking water and irrigation are extremely high - at their highest. This has been reflected in the deterioration of the aquatic environment. There were several cases of fish kill. Four sampling sections of the Riana River were selected (near the spring, in the middle part of the river (two) and near its estuary in the Adriatic Sea). Because of large water abstraction and pollution of the river, changes in diversity of macroinvertebrates, in diversity of periphytic algae and in periphyton biomass were established. The values of saprobic index (SI) slightly increased along the river, nevertheless it was classified in all sampling sections as quality class III. The results of biologic analyses revealed that the water flow of 0,110 m /s in summer period was too low, thus causing the growth of phytobenthos and a decrease in zoobenthos diversity. A high deficit of macroinvertebrates taxa was recorded. Taking into consideration the hydrological, ecological, landscape, morphological and ichthyological characteristics and habitat evaluation, the ecologically acceptable flow (EAF) 3 values for the dry summer period amounting to 0.160 m /s was proposed in order to maintain the ecological balance in the river and in the riparian zone. (Smolar-vanut et al., 2003; Smolar-vanut, Vrhovek, 2004)
3 2

Croatia: Coastal karst aquifers and karst springs, sea intrusion Water supply problems The biggest water problems are connected to the supply during the summer dry periods. The dry periods are especially expressed in the south part of coastal region, where sometimes there is no rain for more than 3 summer months. The whole water supply system of coastal region is directed to the organization during the summer dry periods, when the water quantities are the lowest and the consumption is several times greater than in winter. The attempts of water system management during the dry periods are mostly connected to the areas with the problems. The problems are periodical intrusions of salt water into coastal aquifers, the aquifer protection, because of the fast spreading of the cities and building of highways. The problem is the constant increase of water needs and the exploitation in the conditions of open sea influence on the coastal aquifers. This is evident on many places along the coast, however the solutions of satisfying the peak consumption of drinking water during the dry summer period lay in the regional connecting of the distribution nets and in using the water from permanent river waterflows (Zrmanja, Krka, Cetina). The major changes in the water balance of coastal karst aquifers emerged after the construction of hydroenergetic objects some thirty years ago, which significantly decreased the fresh water inflow during the summer dry periods, because numerous swallow holes with constant outflow in most part of the year remained dry. (Biondi, Biondi, 2003)

Malta: Abstraction of groundwater and springs (see different threats)

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4.4. Pollution and water quality

Denmark: SoE report (see also under ecological importance and water quality) The poor environmental state of Danish lakes is attributable to the high level of nitrogen and phosphorus loading. The decisive factor for biological diversity in the majority of Danish lakes is the degree of eutrophication - in particular with phosphorus, but also with nitrogen. Water level regulation, shading and pesticide input (especially in small lakes and ponds) can also be decisive. In a number of lakes, large amounts of phosphorus have accumulated in the sediment over the years. In these cases, internal loading from the sediment phosphorus pool can keep the lakes in a turbid state despite a reduction in external phosphorus loading to acceptable levels. Case study Lake Sbygrd at Hammel (lake area 29 ha, mean depth 1 m) is a well-documented example of the reaction of lakes to reduced nutrient loading. Up through the 1950s and 1960s the lake received large amounts of solely mechanically treated wastewater from the town of Hammel. Biological treatment was established at the wastewater treatment plant in 1976. This was followed up in 1982 by the addition of phosphorus stripping. The latter resulted in a marked decrease in phosphorus loading of the lake. This was subsequently followed by a reduction in nitrogen loading in 1987 following closure of the abattoir at Hammel. The marked decrease in phosphorus loading only resulted in a very slow decline in the lake phosphorus concentration due to the release of phosphorus that had accumulated in the lake sediment. Modelling studies have demonstrated that the phosphorus pool in the lake sediment will finally be exhausted in 2016, i.e. fully 34 years after phosphorus input was reduced, and despite the fact that throughflow is rapid, the lakes hydraulic retention time only being one month. Conversely, the decrease in lake water nitrogen concentration seems to follow the decrease in nitrogen loading without any delay. Changes have started to occur in the biological state of the lake. (Bach et al., 2002)

Denmark: Odense Pilot River Basin: Provisional Article 5 Report Over the years, the majority of the lakes in Odense Pilot River Basin have been subjected to extremely high nutrient loading. Some of the lakes served as recipients for poorly treated urban wastewater, and many are affected by nutrient loading from agricultural sources and wastewater from sparsely built-up areas. This has led to a marked increase in algal growth, blooms of potentially toxic blue-green algae, the shading-out of submerged macrophytes, and the impoverishment of the lake fauna (macroinvertebrates, fish and birds). By far the majority of the lakes in Odense River Basin are affected by nutrients to such a degree that they do not meet the objective of a natural and diverse flora and fauna or the criteria for good ecological status. (Odense Pilot River Basin, 2003)

Apennine mountain ponds, Italy Threats of ponds of Europe in general Environmental degradation associated with human activities, such as eutrophication and/or morphological modifications, have increased in the last decade even in high-altitude shallow lakes and ponds (Mosello et al., 1996; Mez et al., 1998; Rioual, 2002; Ruggiero et al., 2003a,b).

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Threats of Apennine mountain ponds In mountainous areas of the central Apennines, nutrient enrichment from livestock (Solimini et al., 2000) and uncontrolled introductions of fish (primarily cyprinids) have contributed to the shift towards turbid conditions for most of the water bodies (Ruggiero et al., 2003b). Permanent ponds and small lakes show high concentrations of nutrients causing algal blooms and fish kills (Ruggiero et al., 2004) and this degraded condition is at odds with their conservation status as most of them are located within protected areas. Therefore, urgent remedial measures are needed to conserve and manage these valuable habitats. In Apennine ponds, direct damage of macrophyte beds may occur as a consequence of occasional drying out of ponds, a long period of ice cover and/or livestock trampling. Since the first two types of damage are dependent on climate and cannot be predicted, local authorities should carefully regulate the number of sheep, horses and cows using catchment pastures during summer. Livestock-derived excreta enter lakes and ponds either directly or after draining from the catchment and contain large quantities of nutrients. Annual estimates (kg per individual) of phosphorus and nitrogen -1 -1 excreted by livestock ranges from 1.5 (sheep) to 11 (horse) kg yr and from 8.9 (sheep) to 77 (horse) kg yr respectively (Moss et al., 1997: p. 41). Thus, they represent a high potential source of nutrients and they are an important contributory factor in the eutrophication of mountain Apennine lakes and ponds. Apennine mountain ponds display limnological features similar to lowland degraded lakes, mainly as a consequence of the increased livestock densities in the catchment (Ruggiero et al., 2003b). (Ruggiero et al., 2005) During snow-free periods, livestock is taken to graze at high altitudes, and as a result lakes and ponds receive high inputs of nutrients (N and P) and become unusually eutrophic (Solimini et al., 2000). During snow-free seasons, these systems are used for watering cattle and receive a high input of nutrients (N and P). Some of them are turbid with phytoplanktonic chlorophyll a reaching concentrations similar to low-land degraded systems. However, some of these eutrophic lakes and ponds exhibit clear water conditions associated with macrophytes (Solimini et al., 2000). (Ruggiero et al., 2003) Threats of ponds of Europe in general Small lentic freshwater bodies like wetlands, ponds, ditches, and ephemeral pools are increasingly threatened at the European scale as a result of the human-induced changes in the landscape. Evidence of a decrease in the number of ponds in several European countries has appeared in the last decade in the scientific literature (see for example the recent articles by Biggs et al., 2005; Sondergaard et al., 2005). Threats of Apennine mountain ponds Although being of high conservation status, the ponds of those areas are often affected by nutrient enrichment coming from livestock reared in the watershed during snow-free months. Livestock derived excreta enter lakes and ponds either directly or through watershed drainage and represent a high potential source of nutrients (Steinman et al., 2003) and a contributory factor to the eutrophication of these ecosystems (Ruggiero et al., 2004). Park managers are faced with a range of problems related to eutrophication, such as blooms of algae, turbidity of waters and fish kills, and ask for reliable mitigating and preventative management strategies. The lack of a system for the assessment of ecological quality specific for these pond types prevents an effective management of these natural resources. (Solimini et al., 2008) Italy: karstic ponds as dumping sites (see historical overview)

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Slovenia: karstic ponds as dumping sites (see economic and social importance) Kettle holes: matter accumulation and water quality In agricultural regions of ground moraines of Northeast Germany, 268 kettle holes were investigated to define hydrogeomorphic types and to characterise matter loading impacts on sediments, water quality, and biodiversity. Investigations on matter accumulation in kettle holes gave results with respect to restoration measures. Kettle holes are subject to pollution, drainage, and structural reduction by intensive land use practices. Furthermore, shores of kettle holes are a source for enhanced greenhouse gas emissions due to eutrophication. Results Most kettle holes were characterised by a fossil clayey A-horizon, functioning as a sealing layer. Mineral sediments above the fossil A reached 0.5-3 m due to soil erosion. Sedimentation by soil erosion increased from 0.1 to 1 mm/year by intensified land use (FRIELINGHAUS & VAHRSON 1998). As a result, high accumulations of nutrients and heavy metals in sediments and macrophytes were detected. Sometimes concentrations of Pb, Cd and As exceeded limits for pond muds. Water quality was eutrophic to strong polytrophic, with highest values for soluble P at reducing conditions. That was combined with high concentrations of instable P at sediment surfaces. Additionally, at polluted potholes only 25 % of 275 macrophyte species were frequent. In general, kettle holes with lowest trophic levels are characterised by wide buffer and/or shore zones and catchments with low soil erosion potential (KALETTKA 1999, KALETTKA et al. 2002). Kettle holes are acting as depressions with a sealing layer, and therefore they accumulate incoming matter loadings. Accumulated nutrients in the sediments have a high cyclic impact on water quality. In consequence, an effective improvement of water quality should combine dredging out and buffer strips. (Kalettka et al., 2005a)

Matter loading effects on kettle holes were characterised as a basis for the development of strategies for conservation and management of kettle holes. At selected kettle holes in 3 agricultural used regions of East Brandenburg, the following was observed: 1. Matter accumulation in sediments and vegetation is specific depending on site within the transect from terrestrial to aquatic zone, on the depth in bore profile and on the macrophyte species. These are basics for measures to restore kettle holes by excavation and harvesting of vegetation. 2. Due to matter loadings by soil erosion and quick mineralisation during temporal drying up, the most kettle holes have silicate muds. 3. The water quality of kettle holes is highly influenced by matter loading disposition. The most kettle holes within arable are polytroph and characterised by internal phosphorus loadings from the sediment in times of oxygen deficit. In opposite to lakes, eutrophication results in massive growth of species poor hydrophyte communities. Maxima of algae blooms preferably occur in winter periode. 4. Climatic relevant nitrous oxide and methane emissions in shore zones of kettle holes are depending on the water regime, and they are enhanced in strong eutroph kettle holes. 5. Kettle holes have a high potential for biodiversity of macrophytes (275 detected species). Strongly polluted kettle holes are characterised by species poor communities combined with suboptimal growth or lack of some species, for instance of hydrophytes and sedge stands. (Kalettka et al., 2005b)

The Czech Republic: Trebon fishponds The most important negative factor affecting the site especially during last 20-30 years has been too intensive fish-farming (liming, fertilising, extremely high fish-stock with dominating Common Carp). Modern fish-farming technology increased the production of fish (biomass per hectar) by 1-2 orders of magnitude compared to that common during last several centuries (up to 2000 kg/ha). Most of the fishponds are owned by private joint-stock company.

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Water environment became overall eutrophic or hypertrophic with many problems resulting from that situation (oxygen and pH fluctuations, cyanobacterial water bloom, fish intoxication caused by ammonia, extinction of sensitive plant species). High fishstocks destroy water vegetation, cause negative changes in the structure of zooplankton and do not provide enough natural food (zooplankton, bentos) available for water birds. Additional negative factor is dredging of bottom sediments causing destruction of littoral vegetation. This Ramsar site was added to the Montreux Record because of the excessive eutrophication and rapid siltation of the Trebon fishponds, being caused also by nutrient inputs through runoff from agriculture land and pig farms. Together with land drainage operations and conversion to agricultural land, wet meadows and peat bogs are being degraded. Other threats Waterbird hunting is uncontrolled, but is subject to restrictions. Increasing tourism also presents threats to the area. (Trebonsk rybnky, 2000; Trebonsk rybnky, 2008)

The Czech Republic: FAO Fishery Country Profile Environmental regulations severely constrain opportunities for some intensive and even semi-intensive culture systems (i.e. fertilizers and feeds cannot be used without special permission in grow-out ponds). The majority of ponds are heavily silted up with flushed soil particles deposited in thick sediments, considerably reducing pond production capacity and contributing to overgrowing of the littoral zone with water macrophytes. The only solution for this problem is the consistent removal of excessive mud layers, but this is extremely costly and unrealistic without a state subsidy. Other threats Predators are considered an important threat to pond farming and recreational fishing. Currently, the losses caused by predators are estimated at 13 million/year, with otters, cormorants, grey herons and mink taking about 35, 50, 10 and 5 percent, respectively. (The Czech Republic, 2005; The Czech Republic, 2008)

The Czech Republic: Effects of intensive fish production on waterbird breeding populations More recently, the important grazing effect of fish (especially Carp) has been recognised as a factor affecting benthic and plankton communities, the extent of littoral vegetation, and consequently water transparency and chemistry. As a result, there is an overgrowth of phytoplankton, water turbidity increases, and the light cannot penetrate to the deeper water layers where anaerobiosis may occur. (Musil, 2006)

Slovenia: Gravel pits: illegal dumping sites Along with the constantly increasing technological development, our nature is being more and more impoverished. An example of such an impoverishment are among other things also gravel pits becoming illegal dumping sites after the exploitation is finished. The problem is even more acute due to the fact that these gravel pits, and other opencast mines are located in areas with an intensive agriculture and the most important layers bearing ground water. Agriculture represents the greatest threat to the oases in the middle of monocultures, such as gravel pits. (Vogrin, Sovinc, 1994)

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Croatia: Brakish karst spring An overview of the state of the spring as well as proposed measures of sustainable management directed to the preservation of this distinct karst ecosystem of Pantan area is given. DPSIR framework was used as the basis for analyzing the inter-related factors that impact on the environment. Characteristics Pantan area is situated in the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast near town Trogir. It is the area of approximately 40 ha and presents inseparable unit consisting of Pantan spring, river course with surrounding swamp area and sea coast. Spring makes small lake Pantan with surface area from 35 to 60 2 m and depth of 13 meters. River Rika flows out of the lake to the sea and into the numeral brackish lateral channels that irrigate surrounding, swamp area. DPSIR DPSIR framework provide rational and clear guideline for analyzing the influence of pressures derived from human activities on natural environment, and the way they are changing state of the environment. Due to bad watershed management water quality of Pantan spring and environment of Pantan area is highly devastated. Consequently, salinity of the water is not the main problem comparing to the other water quality parameters. Today Pantan area presents an example of not preserving balance between natural resources on karst and human interventions in watershed area. Driven forces and pressures Area on the eastern border line of Pantan area is used as the waste disposal of town Trogir. On the west side new settlements are growing without any plans. For these springs sanitary protection zones are proposed which was not the case with Pantan spring. These settlements do not have sewage system but they dispose water directly to the ground. Main road in the county is placed very close to the spring. In watershed area unplanned agriculture is developing. Fish farm is built without plan. Concrete bankment has been built making contrast to the surrounding area. Water loaded with fish food and dung is discharging from fish farm. As the result of above mentioned processes and interrelations is the spring water quality that does not comply standards of drinking water. Water usage for the fish farm is also endangered. Water quality in swamp area is also changed causing biotope changes. As the result of these changes dieing out of certain unique species is happening. Sea water intrusion process presents the pressure not from the human activities but from natural conditions. Resulting unwanted impact is the inability of using brackish water for water supply. In this problem driving forces present closeness to the sea and natural conditions of karst that make underground aquifer open to the sea intrusion. First step of response is directed to analyses and better understanding of sea influence on fresh aquifer, and it presents analysis of sea water intrusion process. Knowing these conditions is the prerequisite for making adequate technical interventions for the purpose of preventing sea water intrusion. This means desalinization process but it remains a relatively expensive measure. Results of the analyses showed that DPSIR framework is adequate tool to shape and implement sustainable development strategy for the Pantan area. In the watershed area, which is very vulnerable karst area, unplanned construction, intensive agriculture and waste dumps should be stopped. It is evident that in this process is extremely important to take into the consideration vulnerability of the karst.

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The DPSIR model of the Pantan area

(Fistani, 2006)

Karst aquifers in general Karst aquifer systems are especially vulnerable to contamination in comparison to non-karst ones. Due to rapid recharge of the infiltrating water underground and its fast distribution over large distances, to high flow velocities and short residence time, the self-cleaning capacity of the karst groundwater is very low. Consequently, the remediation and neutralizing of eventual infiltrated contaminant in the karst network would be negligible and the contamination could be, without effective attenuation of its concentration, transported over large distances (Ford and Williams, 1989; Drew and Htzl, 1999; Zwahlen, 2004). Since karst aquifer systems are very susceptible to contamination and of vital importance, these sources require appropriate and careful managing. (Ravbar, 2007).

Slovenia: Karst springs The potential and actual hazards to the groundwater and karst springs in the selected karst aquifers were reviewed. These are aquifer of the Alpine karst (the Velika planina plateau), an aquifer of the High Dinaric karst (the Snenik plateau) and an aquifer of the Low Dinaric karst (the Kras plateau). Protection of karst springs (improperly protected springs as a threat) In most cases groundwater protection zones in Slovene karst regions are often not established on a solid hydrogeological basis (tracer tests or measurements of water table in wells). Despite relatively favourable conditions for protection, many important karst aquifers and springs are improperly protected in Slovenia. The reason is the lack of knowledge about sustainable water management in karst regions and the confusion in drinking water protection policy. Increasing conflicts between land use and demands for water protection often lead to a situation where there are no water protection areas and regulations established. It must be stressed that even in cases where water protection zones and regimes are established the implementation of

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regulations is frequently not effective. Thus many important karst springs tapped for water supply are still not properly protected. Since the protection regimes of drinking water sources are often established inappropriately and control over the implementation of protective measures is inefficient, obvious offenders of water protection measures are usually not prosecuted because of inefficient inspection. In addition, as karst aquifers are very dynamic systems and monitoring points of groundwater pollution scarce, the detection of actual hazards is very difficult. Definition of hazards In the context of groundwater contamination, a hazard is defined as an existing and potential source of contamination resulting from human activities taking place mainly at the land surface (Zwahlen, 2004). Hazard classification is based on type of human activities placed in the background of associated karst resources and sources. The Kras plateau Characteristics The Kras plateau along the Gulf of Trieste covers about 440 km and it reaches heights from 200 to 600 m above the sea level. The Kras aquifer empties in numerous small surface and submarine karst springs on the western and northwestern edge. The aquifer of the Kras plateau is an important source of drinking water in southwestern Slovenia, but the advantages of its capacities are not yet fully taken (Krivic, 1983). Hazards The Kras plateau is relatively disperse and scarcely inhabited. Except tree larger settlements, settlements on the plateau still do not have regulated sewerage and treatment of sewage. The landfill of waste materials in the largest settlement Seana has legally regulated status, but it does not entirely meet the demands of the new Slovene legislation (Decree on the emission of substances in the discharge of landfill effluent, 2000) and European guidelines. There have been 59 illegal dumps registered on the surface of Kras and another 55 of them in the caves. Among waste material building and excavation material, rural and furniture waste material prevail. There are also dangerous materials. The Kras plateau lies on the crossroads of important routes including haghway and railway with transport of dangerous material. Agriculture is no longer an important activity and is restricted to cultivation of small fields on the bottom of depressions on the plateau. Viticulture is becoming the most profitable rural activity in the past few years. Intensely cultivated vineyards and orchards, where a lot of fertilizers and protective means are used, are the areas most exposed to suspended pollution. The stud farm and tourist recreative center Lipica is known as the biggest polluter of the karst groundwater. Industrial production on the Kras plateau is limited and concentrated above all in bigger urban areas. The biggest pollutants of industry are the hamcuring plant and the glue factory. The Velika planina plateau Characteristics Velika planina is found on the eastern part of the Kamnike-Savinjske Alps massif. It is a high alpine karst plateau at the altitude between 1300 to 1600 m. At the edge of Velika planina some more sufficient springs can be found. Numerous sources that are on the margins of the plateau supply smaller areas with drinking water. Also numerous small springs on the plateau are captured for the local water supply of nearby lodging houses. Hazards The Velika planina plateau does not have permanent residents. There are around 170 holiday huts, some mountain lodging houses and some pastoral houses still used by herdsmen. Except the biggest mountain hut, holiday settlements, mountain lodging houses and pastoral houses do not have suitable systems for the wastewater drainage. Wastewaters represent the most dangerous hazard to karst springs. Many of the pastoral houses also have their own manure heaps, which are not regulated according to the water-protection standards. The limited cattle density does not pose a threat to the quality
2

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of groundwater. There were 40 garbage dumps registered. The dumps are most frequent in the vicinity of tourist settlements. On the dumps domestic, building and furniture waste material prevail, while there is no dangerous waste material (Pali, 2002). The Snenik plateau Characteristics The Snenik plateau extends over 293 km .The plateau is situated at the southeastern part of the belt of High Dinaric Karst along the Slovene-Croatian border. The central part of the plateau lies at an average elevation of 1000 to 1400 m; the highest peak is Snenik (1796 m). Precipitation water which percolates into the deep karst aquifer runs towards karst springs in its margin. One of them are the Bistrica karst springs, which are major outflow on the west margin of the plateau (mean 3 annual discharge 1.85 m /s). One of the springs is captured for the water supply of a nearby community. Hazards The background of the Bistrica karst springs that streches over 90 km is threatened by sports (trapshooting ground), construction (two quarries), tourist (small tourist resort) and traffic. In the area of former military shooting ground situated in the vicinity of the Bistrica karst springs, a trapshooting ground has been operating. There are two quarries, but one of them is no longer operational for active mining. Until recently the quarry was for a short period also used as a waste dump for construction material including some hazardous waste. There are several mountaineering huts and weekend houses and also a tourist resort with a small restaurant and some 90 weekend houses. Wastewaters from the restaurant and weekend houses are drawn off to cesspits, but the quality of their construction is doubtful. The traffic density is very low, but the potential risk of the contamination in the case of an accident is anyway high. In the Snenik plateau the sustainable forest management has a tradition of several hundred years. There are some sheep pasturing, but the sheep density is low. Description of hazards Differences in types of potential and actual hazards and their spatial distribution between inhabited and uninhabited karst regions are evident, showing that the inhabited Kras plateau is threatened by more diverse types of hazards, coming from different human activities. Some serious potential hazards to the quality of the karst springs can be found even in uninhabited areas, like in the case of the Velika planina and the Snenik karst plateau. Unlike the other selected plateaus, the Kras plateau is inhabited. There are several settlements in the area and the industrial, agricultural and traffic activities carried out that represent a serious threat to the quality of karst groundwater. The Velika planina and Snenik plateaus do not have permanent residents, however there are some serious hazards to the quality of the karst springs arising from sports, tourist, construction and farming activities, as well as from the traffic related to them. In all three selected karst aquifers point and line hazards prevail coming from either sports, tourist, construction, forestry, farming, industrial and other activities as well as from the traffic related to them. Agriculture and farming are not intensive on the selected plateaus, therefore they do not significantly affect the quality of the karst groundwater, except in the case of viticulture on the Kras plateau. Roads, highways and railways that are crossing the recharge areas are serious potential sources of accidental pollution. Landfills in karst terrains may influence the quality of groundwater by bacterial and chemical load as well. Sources of pollution are also industrial effluents on the Kras plateau, specially in the cases, where wastewater collection and drainage systems are not built. An example is the ham-curing plant. (Kovai, Ravbar, 2005)
2 2

Slovenia: fuel spill accidents Well-known is the case of the spill in the catchment area of the Riana karst spring, which supplies the 3 coastal area. In October 1994 there was an accident near Obrov, when 16 m of engine fuel was spilt in the

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area of the springs second protection zone, 15 km distant. A few days after heavier rain Riana and some smaller springs were contaminated (Kogovek, 1995) and the capture was expelled from the system for three weeks. (Ravbar, 2007)

Slovenia: Military training area (potential threats) Slovenia's main military training area at Poek is located in the mountainous Javorniki Watershed. This is a karstic district without surface drainage or river valleys. The lithology, tectonic structure and speleological data indicate a typical karst aquifer with underground water moving rapidly through fissures and conduits. Little attenuation occurs in such conditions and as a result there is a high risk of pollution. Tracer tests have shown that a significant proportion of the water recharging the Malni and Vipava springs comes from the vicinity of the military training area. As a result any polluting activities taking place within the military training area are likely to affect the two springs. This is a very serious matter as the springs have been developed to provide the water supply for the population of southwestern Slovenia. (Kogovek et al., 1999)

Slovenia: pollution by heavy metals from mining in the past Multielemental analyses of 66 elements and anions such as nitrate, nitrite, sulphate, chloride, phosphate, bromide and fluoride in water from the spring Mrzlek and the river Soa in Slovenia, as well as determination of trihalomethanes in chlorinated water, were carried out to reveal eventual impacts of environmental pollution on the quality of drinking water from the spring Mrzlek. Spring characteristics The spring Mrzlek near Solkan, which lies at the bottom of the river Soa bed, is a typical karst spring with its catchment area on the Banjice plateau lying about 800 m above the spring. For many years the spring Mrzlek has served as the major and the most important source of drinking water for the city Nova Gorica area. Therefore, its pollution represents a serious hazard to water quality and consequently to human health. Threats The construction of the Solkan Hydroelectric power plant in 1984 significantly aggravated the situation since the level of the river Soa in the HE plants basin was raised by over 20 metres above the spring Mrzlek. Hydrological studies have confirmed partial mixing between the spring water and the water from the river Soa, which is strongly affected by the hydrological conditions and the quantity of water in the spring (Kranjc 1997). The spring is therefore exposed to pollution from the river Soa, which carries heavy metals such as chromium, lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury and others. These are released with effluents from a cement plant, as well as from the former lead and zinc, and mercury mines located upstream of the river Soa and its affluents. The exposure to organic pollutants is also possible through the release of untreated municipal wastewater, runoff from the motorways, local industry and farming. Results (long variant) Pollution of the river Soa with heavy metals, as evidenced by their presence in sediments, is recently declining. This is most probably due to the decreased exploitation of mercury, lead and zinc at the mines upstream, which were releasing their waste waters into the river Soa affluents. With the decline of pollution in the river Soa, there is less threat of pollution by heavy metals to the spring Mrzlek. The concentrations of trihalomethanes in drinking water are not increasing and remained at the level below the threshold limit values for drinking water (Uradni List RS 1997). While concentrations of most elements are very similar between the river Soa and the spring

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Mrzlek, the concentrations of some elements such as Mg, Mn, Ba, and As are significantly higher in the river. Increases in concentrations of these elements in the water from the spring, could therefore be an indication of pollution from the river due to the mixing of waters. Due to the unknown and hardly predictable mixing ratio, it is impossible to clearly distinguish between the sources of eventual direct pollution, and that pollution caused by the river Soa. Some elements, like Ca, Fe, and Zn, are already present in the spring water at concentrations higher than those measured in the river. At the same time a similar trend was observed for chloride and nitrate ions. Most probably, their higher concentrations originate from differences in natural background and possibly from environmental pollution on mostly a rural area of the Banice plateau. This is predominantly originating from farming. Results (short variant) It was observed that the pollution of the river Soa with heavy metals is recently decreasing, while the concentrations of trihalomethanes in drinking water are relatively low and have not increased during the last five years. At present the quality of drinking water from the spring Mrzlek meets all the standards. Higher concentrations of nitrate in the spring, however, indicate potential pollution from farming on the Banjice plateau. In general, quite similar concentrations of most elements and anions were observed in the spring Mrzlek and the river Soa. Higher concentrations of Ca, Fe, Zn, nitrate and chloride were observed in the spring, while concentrations of Mn, Mg, Ba, As, and sulphate were significantly higher in the river. (Jug et al., 2000)

Slovenia: Pollution by PCBs (problem of accumulation) The situation and trends regarding pollution with the concentrations of PCBs in the environmental compartments (air, water, sediment, and soil) of the Krupa river after ten years of remedial measures are studied. PCBs characteristics PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) are synthetic organic compounds (209 possible isomers) of high physical, chemical and biological stability, and persist for long periods in a contaminated environment: they are undegradable (xenobiotics, Hutzinger et al., 1974).They are mutagenic and teratogenic, and are suspected to be carcinogenic (Safe, 1984). PCBs source and remedial programme There was an increase in use of PCBs in Slovenia after l960, when a condenser factory at Semi in Bela Krajina was built by Iskra (about 80 km southeast of the capital Ljubljana and 100 km east of Trieste). PCBs were introduced into the production process in 1962. Iskras total consumption of PCBs between 1962 and 1985 was about 3.7 million kg, with a PCB waste rate of 8 to 9 per cent in the form of waste impregnates, condensers, etc. By l974, 130,000 kg of waste containing around 70,000 kg of pure PCBs had been dumped at various waste sites within 5 km of the factory. After 1975 waste impregnates were collected and sent to France for processing (170,000 kg), but smaller waste condensers were still disposed of at a local waste site (Poli, 1997). Initial analysis in l983 showed a very high concentration of PCBs in environmental compartments (water, air, sediments, Medved et al., 1984, Jan & Tratnik, 1985), and in food, animal, and human tissues. PCB levels were particularly high in the River Krupa.

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A Remedial Environmental Programme began in 1984, encompassing a waste disposal project, an environmental monitoring programme, and health research (Polio, 1997, Poli & Konti, 1987). In early 1985 Iskra was forced to cease its production of PCB condensers. In 1986 a concrete watertight storage 3 facility was built and filled with 6000 m of highly contaminated subsoil and wastes. Krupa river, source of the Krupa and its importance The source of the Krupa has a mean flow rate of 3 to 5 m /s and is situated in typical karstic terrain about 3 km south of the condenser factory. The water rises to the surface in strong karstic springs from underneath steep overhanging rock faces, in a unique green-coloured dammed pool. The hinterland area is 2 karstic, with numerous fractures in various directions, and a total catchment area of 140 to 170 km . The river has a relatively small drop in altitude as it flows 2600 m through a gorge 30 m deep into the River Lahinja. Together with its source and the surrounding environment the Krupa is an exceptional piece of natural and cultural heritage, and has been classified among the most important heritage in the country, being proclaimed a site of outstanding natural significance. Prior to 1983 the River Krupa was the only suitable source of water for regional exploitation. No use was made of the water because of the high content of PCBs in the water and the sediment. The Krupas source is the largest in Bela Krajina and is thus the most important future source of drinking water for the Bela Krajina region. Hydrological research has pointed towards the possible use of deep underground karstic waters in the Krupa catchment area. The region is relatively densely populated, and the major settlements lie right along the Krupa gorge. Results The PCB pollution problems in Krupa River are related to sinking surficial streams that mix with the regional groundwater supply, thus endangering the quality of the groundwater reservoirs. The PCB load was much reduced after the ecological remedial work, as less and less contaminated sediment was being washed into the Krupa from underground. Comparisons between PCB concentrations in the polluted water measured from 1986 to 1988 and the concentrations measured in 1995 to 1997 show a decreasing trend (i.e. from a mean of 380 ng/l to a mean of 100 ng/l in the Krupas water). The emission flux of PCBs from water to air for the entire River Krupa (2.6 km long) was estimated at 200 to 500 g/year, i.e. approximately one-tenth of the figure at the time the remedial measure was initiated ten years before. (Poli et al., 2000)
3

Peatlands in Baltic countries Indirect damage Wetlands are subjected to various indirect forms of damage, such as eutrophication and atmospheric pollution. Eutrophication is a major problem throughout European wetlands. Especially vulnerable to atmospheric pollution are raised bogs as they are rain-fed and nutrient poor. Eutrophication of wetlands results in increased plant growth rates and species change. This can lead to changes in decomposition rates, possibly preventing peat formation. Enrichment may come from a variety of sources, e.g. farm waste, domestic refuse, sewage, road surface water drainage and bird roosts. Wetlands are often subjected to damage through cumulative impacts. There are sites where damage has been caused so many years ago that the direct evidence is difficult to discern. Drains may be well adapted but still functioning. Past burning is also difficult to identify that can be still affecting sites hydrology. Atmospheric pollution and changes in surrounding water levels are particularly difficult to isolate as causal agents for ecological change, yet they may have profound effects. It can be that wetlands of seemingly near-natural vegetation are closely surrounded by more damaged areas. As different parts of the same mire are connected through the same hydrological systems, damage in

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one area of a site is likely to affect another. Consequently, many mires are probably continuing to degrade due to forms of damage that may have occurred many years ago. (Pakalne, 2004)

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4.5. Acidification
Europe: Mountain lakes A static critical loads model, the First-order Acidity Balance (FAB) model, was used to assess (1) the extent of critical load exceedance in 300 lakes in nine European lake districts and (2) the relative importance of sulphur and nitrogen deposition in contributing to acidification. The regional sensitivity of FAB to the choice of 1 critical acid neutralising capacity (ANC: 0 or 20 meq L ) was explored. Acidification in general Remote mountain lakes, by virtue of their inaccessibility and distance from human activities, are relatively unpolluted systems compared with lowland lakes, and often affected only by long-range transported atmospheric pollutants. However, even the low pollutant levels experienced by most sensitive mountain lakes cause measurable change in lakewater chemistry and biology, to the extent that in some mountain regions these lakes are far from pristine (Grimalt et al., 2001; Skjelkvle and Wright, 1998). High mountain lakes are sensitive to environmental change and the effects of air pollution and lake acidification have been recorded in many countries. A well-known phenomenon is that of surface water acidification in areas of base-poor soils and crystalline geology, which are frequently coincident with mountainous regions of slow-weathering, igneous rocks. EMERGE Acidification status is one of the suite of water quality variables recommended for assessment under the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive (EU, 2000). The EU funded EMERGE programme (European Mountain lake Ecosystems: Regionalisation, diagnostics and socio-economic Evaluation) provided the first opportunity to carry out a pan-European assessment of the extent of the acidification problem in a particular lake habitat assumed to be highly sensitive, that of alpine lakes, or mountain lakes located above the tree-line. Surveyed lakes Within the EMERGE programme, 353 survey lakes with catchment scale data in 12 European mountain regions spanning 14 countries were sampled for water chemistry during the ice-free period (generally JulyNovember 2000). The minimum and the maximum size area of surveyed lakes per region ranges from 0.05 ha to 8 ha and from 6.51 ha to 180 ha, respectively, whereas the average size area ranges from 2.4 ha to 76.84 ha. Number and proportion of survey lakes, with minimum measured ANC in each lake district.

* alkalinity - insufficient major ion data for independent calculation of ANC.

Results In mountain regions of calcareous geology (e.g. Central Alps and the Julian Alps of Slovenia) lake acidification will never be a problem, although chemistry and biology may be affected by other pollutants or climatic changes. These lake districts (n = 53 lakes) were omitted from further modelling work on the basis of assumed non-exceedance of critical loads for acidity.

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Even in areas of crystalline geology, the remoteness of mountain lakes from the anthropogenic sources of acid emissions protects many of them from the adverse effects of acid deposition. Depending on the choice of ANCcrit used in the FAB model, all nine modelled lake districts show critical load exceedance to varying extents, indicating the presence of at least some highly sensitive mountain lakes. 1 With a critical ANC value of 0 meq L only four lake districts had sites showing exceedance of critical loads (Piedmont Ticino, the Pyrenees, the Retezat Mountains and the Tatras) indicating that modelled atmospheric deposition is sufficiently high to depress ANC below zero at steady-state (i.e. with enhanced nitrate leaching) in some of the mountain lakes in these areas. These lake districts are therefore potentially the most severely acidified. When a more stringent critical ANC of 20 meq L was used, all nine lake districts showed critical load exceedance in one or more lakes. The greatest proportion of exceeded sites was generally found in those lake districts showing exceedance at the lower value of ANCcrit. The four lake districts showing the lowest proportions of exceeded sites were Northern Finland, the Rila Mountains, Scotland and the Tyrol. For two lake districts, the Retezat Mountains of Romania and the Rila Mountains of Bulgaria, critical load exceedance is recorded here for the first time. Nitrogen is a more important agent of acidification in some areas such as the Pyrenees and Piedmont Ticino, and its relative importance is likely to increase elsewhere as pan-European measures to reduce sulphur deposition continue to take effect. Over-estimated exceedances may be locally significant in regions of sulphur bearing geology in the Pyrenees, where it may be difficult to separate the relative contributions of climate change driven effects on sulphate release from pyrite oxidation and acid deposition in causing changes in acidity status of lakes. Given the coarse scale EMERGE deposition data used and potentially underestimated loads at high altitudes, the extent of the acidification problem may be under-represented here. (Curtis et al., 2005)
1

Switzerland: Alpine lakes Impacts of long-range transboundary air pollution on acidification of 20 Alpine lakes and three rivers were studied in the Central Alps in the northern part of canton Ticino, Southern Switzerland. Lake characteristics Precipitation in this region is mainly determined by warm, humid air masses originating from the Mediterranean Sea, passing over the Po Plain and colliding with the Alps. Since the study areas lithology is dominated by base-poor rocks especially gneiss, its freshwaters are sensitive to acidification. The lakes watersheds are constituted mainly by bare rocks with vegetation often confined to small areas of Alpine meadow. The selected Alpine lakes with size area between 0.3 and 16.9 ha are situated between an altitude of 1690 m and 2580 m and are characterized by intensive irradiation, a short vegetation period, a long period of ice coverage and by low nutrient concentrations. Results Trend analyses of the key parameters involved in acidification processes measured in 20 Alpine lakes during the period 1980-2004 reveal significant decreasing sulphate (15 out of 20) and increasing alkalinity trends (14 out of 20) in most studied lakes, while trends for base cation and nitrate are small and mostly insignificant. -1 The average increase in alkalinity between 1980 and 2004 was 0.012 meq l . Today 2 lakes out of 20 are acid -1 -1 (alkalinity < 0 meq l-1), 13 sensitive to acidification (0 meq l < alkalinity < 0.05 meq l ) and 5 have low -1 -1 alkalinities but are not sensitive to acidification (0.05 meq l < alkalinity < 0.2 meq l ). Differently, in the 1980s 4 lakes were acid, 14 were sensitive to acidification and 2 had low alkalinities. The average increase of pH during the same time period was 0.3. Nowadays only 3 lakes out of 20 have an average pH below 6, while in the 1980s 8 lakes had an average pH that may be defined critical for aluminium dissolution. Accidification and climate change As writes Skjelvle (2003) the uncertainties in future chemical recovery mainly relate to the effects of climate change and the future behaviour of nitrogen in the ecosystem. Due to decreased SO2 emissions, the

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importance of nitrogen to freshwater acidification becomes more and more determinant. Therefore, uncertainties in the evolution of nitrogen emissions make it difficult to predict future trends in freshwater recovery. Probably, because of increasing nitrogen leakage out of the soil (Mosello et al., 2001), due to increased nitrogen saturation level or increased mineralisation because of climate warming, if nitrogen deposition remains constant or increases, further recovery from declined sulphate export may be delayed and in the worst case already obtained recovery may be nullified. On the other side, climate warming may increase the number of alkaline rain episodes (containing Saharian dust) and enhance weathering reactions, that buffer better acid precipitation, increasing alkalinity and pH. Macroinvertebrates as indicators for acidification Macronvertebrate samples collected in the littoral and effluent of 4 Alpine lakes between 2000 and 2004 are poor in species and typical for this ecosystem. The predominant orders are Diptera, Plecoptera and Oligochaeta. All 4 Alpine lakes are characterized by extreme conditions (high altitudes, low temperatures, long ice cover, low nutrient concentrations, pH and alkalinity). Because of the high altitudes and therefore extreme physical-chemical conditions the population of macroinvertebrates in Alpine lakes is expected to be generally poor (Fjellheim et al., 2000; Hieber, 2002; Marchetto et al., 2004), however, differences in the population of macroinvertebrates may reflect differences in pH and alkalinity between the lakes. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and metals in fish muscle Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and metals are chemical substances that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through the food web and pause a risk of causing effects to human health and the environment (UNEP definition). Results from HCB, HCH, PCB, DDT and metal analyses in fish muscle from 2 Alpine lakes in the period 20002004 correspond well with what reported for other European mountain lakes, confirming the importance of transport through the atmosphere for the distribution of these parameters. Although concentrations of POPs and metals in fish muscle from Alpine surface waters are low and not a problem for fish consumption, their occurrence in areas far from local pollution sources indicates that these substances origin from atmospheric deposition. (Steingruber, Colombo, 2006)

Lakes of Boreal region Fennoscandia and the Kola Peninsula are the most sensitive areas to acidification in Europe because of the low natural buffer capacity and nutrient levels of most of the soil and waters. Pollutants such as SO2, NOX and various other chemical compounds from combustion processes started to reach the Boreal region from continental Europe and Britain already in the early part of the 19th century. The resulting effects on freshwater fish were noticed already around 1920, but it was not until the 1960-70's that the large-scale, regional acidification in the south-western part of the Boreal region was recognised. Waters with pH below 5 are generally devoid of fish. Of the 85 000 Swedish lakes larger than 0.01 km around 25 % are in a state where they only contain organisms capable of living under acid conditions. During the winter the pH value is below 5 in more than 6 000 of the lakes. The effects are extermination of certain species, in particular salmonid fish like atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), as well as changes in species composition and ecosystem processes. Though deposition of acidifying substances from central and western Europe is decreasing, and some lakes and rivers show slight increases in pH, the acidic heritage in the soil and water bodies is still strong and will persist for a long time. Of the acidic Swedish lakes, around 40 % or around 90 % of the total acidic lake surface were under improvement by liming by 1997 (some started already in the 1970s). 500 more lakes are limed to protect downstream waters and around 10 % of acidic streams are limed. This is the largest liming programme of the world, though also Norway, Finland and Canada have such programmes. (The Boreal biogeographical..., 2007)
2

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4.6. Climate change

Nordic countries: lakes The Nordic countries have many lakes. For the lakes, the temperature change, change in ice cover and change in precipitation pattern are the predominant factors of the projected climate changes. The temperature rise, the changes in ice cover and precipitation patterns are the primary climate changes affecting the lakes. If the growing season is extended, it will probably lead to an increase in the primary production, and a change in the trophic levels and the stability of the lake. As with other ecosystems, the change in precipitation pattern will lead to an increase in the leaching of nutrients and organic matter, and thereby obstruct the primary production that is dependent on light. The effect of the above will be influenced by a number of factors that are not directly connected to climate change, such as the depth of the lake, the size and form of the catchment and the nutrient stressing (Jeppesen pers.com.). The temperature rise in nutrient-rich lakes A eutrophic lake is typically rich in nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients stimulate the growth of algae, which leads to a decrease in the permeability of light, thus affecting the water plants, the macrophytes. A reduction in macrophytes will, in turn, result in a reduction in predatory fishes such as pike (Esox lucius) and perch (Perca fluvitilis), which thrive among the plants. A reduced pressure from the predatory fish on non-predatory fish such as bream (Abramis brama) and roach (Rotinus rotinus) will lead to an increase in these populations, thus also increasing the grazing on zoo plankton. The number of algae will increase, and the circle of pollution will be cemented, resulting in a muddy lake, rich in nutrients (Carpenter & al., 1992). The season with pycnocline, which separates the surface water from the bilge water, is also expected to be extended in the lowlands, thus producing a risk of deoxygenation in the bottom layer. Deoxygenation has a great impact on the composition of species, including fish, demersal organisms and macrophytons. This may lead to an increase in the release of heavy metals, nutrients, etc., found in the sediment. The consequences of this, and the mechanisms involved, are not fully understood. The uncertain future of the nutrient-poor lakes The reaction of lakes that are poor in nutrients to a changing climate is not fully known either. On the one hand, the extended growing season will lead to an increase in the macrophytes water rinsing capacity. On the other hand, it could lead to an increase in algae production, and the leaching of nutrients and organic matter, thus making the lake richer in nutrients (Weyhenmeyer unpubl.). The lakes of Sweden, Norway and Finland are found in the boreal coniferous zone. This, and the rocky ground, is the reason why the lakes are acidic and poor in nutrients. If the deciduous forest moves northwards, the degree of acidification will be reduced, and the nutrient concentration of many lakes in the coniferous forests will be increased. The effects of the climate changes on lakes are complicated by cumulative, nonlinear, coupled feedback mechanisms. The extent and effect of the climate change will thus vary considerably from one region to another. As with the other ecosystems, there is a great deal of uncertainty surrounding the development of lakes in a changing climate. The fishfauna The flora and fauna will probably change. One possible reaction would be a migration of species from the south to the north. The speed and extent of this migration would depend on the migration possibilities in the form of watercourses, and any physical barriers that might hinder the migration (Poff & al., 2002). The characteristic fish the carp (Cyprinus carpio) will probably experience increased success in the southern parts of the Nordic region in the event of a temperature change. This will have extensive consequences for the lakes involved, due to the carps way of life. The carp rubbles the sediment when it forages, which results in the lake becoming muddy and less permeable to light. This will stress the macrophytes and species of predator fish that rely on sight for hunting. (Conservation of Nordic, 2005)

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Lakes of Boreal region The Boreal region may expect an overall increase in average annual temperature of at least 2 over the next C 50 years. Most of this increase is likely to occur in winter, increasing precipitation and decreasing the period of ice cover on lakes and in the Baltic Sea. The consequences for ecosystems are difficult to predict. Vegetation growth is likely to increase but so may the rates of decomposition. There is also a global concern that higher temperatures may lead to the release of greenhouse gases from boreal forests and peat deposits. Native, cold-tolerant species may retreat northwards and have reduced populations as species with broader habitat requirements move in from the south. Rare species such as the Saimaa ringed seal may all be affected in due course. (Natura 2000 in the Boreal region, 2005)

The UK: lake Physical responses of three lakes to climate change in different climate regions in Europe including one small 2 lake (1 km ) were studied. Scenarios from Regional Climate Models (RCMs) were used to force a physical lake model for Esthwaite Water. The control period for today`s climate is between 1961-1990 and the future climate is for period 2071-2100 using two emissions scenarios A2 and B2. A2 represents a higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than B2 (IPCC 2001). Lakes and climate change in general Observations from previous studies show that ice-free season in lakes has increased (SCHINDLER et al. 1996, MAGNUSSON et al. 2000) as well as the average lake temperature (SCHINDLER et al. 1990, DE STASIO et al. 1996), the surface temperature (ARHONDITSIS et al. 2004) and the temperature at all depths (LIVINGSTONE 2003). An effect of shorter ice-cover periods and reduced thickness of ice and snow cover (providing enhanced light conditions underneath) is the changes in timing and composition of phytoplankton spring peaks (WEYHENMEYER et al. 1999, PETTERSSON et al. 2003). Future scenarios show shorter periods of ice-cover, earlier onset of stratification, increased summer epilimnetic temperature, longer duration of stratification (DE STASIO et al. 1996, FRISK et al. 1997, STEFAN et al. 1998) and increased water temperatures at all depths (PEETERS et al. 2002). As a result of higher water temperature and longer growing seasons, nutrient cycling and lake productivity will increase (BLENCKNER et al. 2002). Characteristics Esthwaite Water (1 km ) in the UK is a shallow eutropic lake (15.5 m deep) with short retention time (0.3 year) and no ice cover. Results In Esthwaite Water increase in stratification period (25 days for A2 and 20 days for B2) as well as an increase in surface temperatures (2.9 C for A2 and 2.0 C for B2) can be seen. The increase in bottom temperatures is less than for the surface water. Lake surface temperature is related to the mean temperature of the photosynthetically productive zone and therefore plays an important role in lake biology (LIVINGSTONE&DOKULIL 2001), so lakes could be expected to be more productive as a result of future climate warming. Changes in climate will initially alter physical parameters of the lakes such as ice-cover, temperature and stratification period, which in turn influence the biological response of the lakes. (Persson et al., 2005)
2

Italy and Austria: mountain lakes Study on changes in the water chemistry of two remote high altitude lakes in the Alps under the impact of active rock glaciers in connection with increasing air temperature (climate warming). Characteristics Rasass See (area of 0.015 km , 7 m deep) and Schwarzsee ob Slden (area of 0.035 km , 18 m deep) are high alpine lakes in headwater catchments of metamorphic rocks in the Central Eastern Alps. Rasass See is
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located in the upper Vinschgau in South Tyrol (Italy), while Schwarzsee ob Slden is located in the Oetztal Alps in North Tyrol (Austria). Results In a response to climate warming, dilute surface waters on metamorphic bedrock in the Alps have recently become impacted by the rising export of ions and heavy metals from meltwater derived from active rock glaciers. Many rock glaciers in mountain areas are situated near the local boundary of permafrost, and hence, their mean annual surface temperatures are close to 0 rendering them sensitive to C, climate warming. The recent pronounced rise of ion concentrations and the current high concentrations of nickel and manganese in Rasass See are not attributable to the geology of the catchment, rather we attribute them to meltwaters from active rock glaciers. The source of nickel and manganese released from these rock glaciers is so far unknown. The impact of glacial meltwater on the solute concentration of Schwarzsee ob Slden is much lower than that of Rasass See due to the higher elevation of the active rock glaciers at Schwarzsee ob Slden and the much smaller ratio of rock glacier size to lake volume. As global climate models generally predict a continuous increase in air temperature during the coming decades, we anticipate high mountain freshwaters to become increasingly impacted by meltwaters from active rock glaciers, which are a morphological feature in many cold-climate mountain regions around the globe. (Thies et al., 2007)

The UK: ponds Changes in site hydrology because of climate change may lead to temporary ponds drying out completely and to more permanent ponds becoming shallower perhaps, reducing dilution of pollutants. Rising sea levels may also impact coastal dune slack systems. It is possible that losses of seasonal ponds may be balanced by the shallowing of existing deeper sites; whether such a process will occur, and if it does, whether the new temporary ponds will be good habitats for rare and widely dispersed obligate temporary pond species such as the Fairy Shrimp Chirocephalus diaphanus, is unclear. Certainly, given the large number of shallow ponds in the countryside (c. 40% of ponds in the Lowland Pond Survey 1996 that contained water in summer were 10 cm or less deep (Williams et al., 1998)), there is the potential for a very large-scale loss of shallow water habitat. Increasing air and water temperatures may well benefit some thermophiles like dragonflies. However, it is equally possible that dragonflies may follow the pattern shown by butterflies in which widespread habitat generalists are spreading under climate change influences, whereas habitat specialists are declining under the effects of continued unsuitable habitat management, irrespective of the general warming (Warren et al., 2001). Long-term monitoring is needed to assess these changes. (Nicolet et al., 2007)

Croatia: Coastal karst aquifers and karst springs, sea intrusion The danger for the coastal aquifers lays in possible global climate changes and in the expected increase of the sea level, but for now, there are no firm evidence although the problems of salinization in coastal aquifers are more frequent. It is important to say that coastal aquifers in coastal region of Croatia have the renewal reserves in season cycles and there are no permanent effects of over pumping. It is difficult to claim that the global climate changes have provoke the major changes in exploitation of coastal aquifers, but the existing scenarios of possible effects show the sea level increase up to one meter in the next 100 years. The very thought of such conditions has to provoke the dilemma of how to carry on, because it would for sure have the negative effects on the coastal fresh water systems, and especially on the island systems. The changes in ground hydraulics could have catastrophic consequences on the fresh water exploitation in the coastal regions. Of course, there is the whole sequence of possible influences because of local changes, from the infiltration to moving of waters into other catchment areas. (Biondi, Biondi, 2003)

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4.7. Introduction of invasive alien species

Slovenia: mountain lake The response of the zooplankton community to fish introduction into the fishless small mountain lake in NW Slovenia is described. Effects of fish introduction in general Fish are rarely native inhabitants of mountain lakes. Usually they are introduced by man, mainly for the purpose of game fishing (Northcote et al., 1978; Bahls, 1992; Delacoste et al., 1997). In the past four decades, researchers have pointed out some detrimental effects of fish introduction or stocking in mountain and high-mountain lakes. These effects could be dilution or complete loss of the gene pool in lakes that have been populated by fish from ancient or medieval times (Delacoste et al., 1997; Hofer & Medgyesy, 1997), competition of the introduced fish with native fish (Dymond, 1955; Hubault, 1955) or destruction of the whole ecosystem. Decreased zooplankton density following introduction of some planktivorous invertebrates, i.e. Mysis sp. (Langeland, 1988) or fish (Richards et al., 1975) have been reported. Intensive fish predation on zooplankton can result in the suppression or extinction of crustaceans from the zooplankton community, as reported by several authors (Gliwicz, 1985; Gliwicz & Rowan, 1984; Larson et al., 1994) for some high mountain lakes. From lowland lakes it is well documented that fish introduction or removal can result in zooplankton and phytoplankton shifts and consequently also in a change of the lakes trophic status (de Bernardi & Guissani, 1978; Northcote et al., 1978; Stenson et al., 1978; Meijer et al., 1993; Brett & Goldman, 1997; Vanni et al., 1997). Successful fish introduction In Slovenia, there have been several attempts to introduce fish into mountain lakes, three of them successful (the lake Krnsko jezero, the lake Jezero na Planini pri Jezeru and the lake Dvojno Jezero). In 1991, twentyfive specimens of Arctic charr were illegally transferred into the fishless small lake Dvojno Jezero (Twin Lake). The introduction was successful and the fish population has increased significantly during the last eight years. The first spawning of the Arctic charr was observed in autumn 1994 and regularly each year thereafter. Lake characteristics Dvojno Jezero consists of two basins at 1670 m a.s.l., which are normally separated by about 30 m apart. The two basins become connected after snowmelt during spring or after heavy rainfall, so that fish can move between basins. The northern basin is larger, with an area of 0.5 ha and a maximum depth of 8 m. The southern basin has a surface area of 0.4 ha and a maximum depth of 5 m. Results Dvojno Jezero represents an example of a strong suppression of macrozooplankton following fish introduction into a pristine mountain lake. The lake is relatively small and its ecosystem was very simple and fragile. Before fish introduction, food chain was short and consisted exclusively of herbivorous zooplankters as endconsumers. Autumn zooplankton samples, collected before the introduction of Arctic charr, contained adults (including ovigerous females) of two copepod species: Cyclops abyssorum tatricus and Arctodiaptomus alpinus. No planktonic Cladocera were found. Seven years after the introduction of fish standing crop of zooplankton declined 100-fold. The zooplankton contained only a few copepodites (IV and V) of C.a. tatricus. Simultaneously, water transparency declined and the concentration of chlorophyll a increased and filamentous green algae and picoplankton became abundant in the littoral zone of both lakes. (Brancelj, 1999)

Apennine mountain ponds, Italy In Central Apennine ponds, the uncontrolled introduction of fish in these originally fishless systems, together with low oxygen conditions, has resulted in assemblages dominated by cyprinids. Since cyprinids from early to adult stages consume zooplankton, they have a negative effect on the density of large

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zooplankters (Giles et al., 1990). In addition, during bottom foraging benthivorous fish increase the resuspension and nutrient release from sediments that in turn increase algal biomass. (Ruggiero et al., 2005)

Illegal introduction of fish, mostly cyprinids contribute to the degradation of these systems. (Ruggiero et al., 2003)

The UK: Lowland pond survey It was estimated there were 228,900 ponds in lowland areas in 1996. Invasive, non-native plants had invaded countryside ponds. Non-native plants were found in 14% of ponds surveyed. (Lowland pond survey, 2008)

Germany: Alien plants in ponds and oxbows Regeneration capacity, growth at different nutrient availabilities, photosynthesis and biomass of H. ranunculoides were investigated. Alien species Floating Pennywort (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L. fil.) is a worldwide distributed aquatic plant. The species is native to North America and quite common also in Central and South America. In Europe, Japan and Australia it is known as an alien plant, sometimes causing serious problems for affected ecosystems and human use of water bodies. Starting from Western Europe with an eastwards directed spread, Floating Pennywort was recorded in Germany in 2004 for the first time. Since then, the species spread out and got established in western parts of Central Europe. Results Results show an enormous regeneration capacity (e.g., by forming new shoots from small shoot fragments), increasing growth rates under increasing nutrient availability and a maximum increase of biomass 1 1 reaching 0.1320.008 g g dw d . Dense populations of H. ranunculoides growing in ponds and oxbows were found at high nutrient content 2 of the substrate, the biomass reaching there up to 532.414.2 g dw m . Gas exchange analysis showed a physiological optimum of H. ranunculoides CO2 uptake at temperatures 2 1 between 25 and 35 and high photon flux densities (PPFD) above 800 mol photons m s . In comparison, C native Hydrocotyle vulgaris showed an optimum of net photosynthesis at 2030 and a light saturation of C 2 1 CO2 gas exchange at 350 mol photons m s . (Hussner, Lsch, 2007)

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4.8. Sedimentation
Germany: Kettle holes: Sedimentation by soil erosion In one of kettle hole in NE Germany, with a catchment area of 3.8 ha and a maximum slope of 17.6%, the amount of erosion by running water was determined. Because of the considerable relief in the resulting small inland catchments, sedimentation of eroded soil from croplands represents a major threat to these important habitats. The kettle hole itself contained about 3600 m of sediment, with a further 7700 m of colluvium around the 3 depression: a total of 11,300 m . In terms of slope steepness, only about 50 % of the catchment area is prone to erosion by runoff. This means that during some 600 year of agricultural land use, the mean soil loss from 1 1 1 those 1.9 ha of erodible land amounted to about 0.6 m, i.e., 9000 t ha or 15 t ha yr . From the 14th 1 century to 1960, the mean accumulation rate around the kettle hole was about 0.1 to 0.2 cm yr , 1 137 increasing to 0.5 cm yr after 1960 owing to intensified cultivation. Analysis of Cs activity indicates low erosion rates at the hilltops, increasing erosion at midslope and sedimentation around and within the kettle hole. This caused eutrophication and the slow filling-up of the small morainic lake. (Frielinghaus, Vahrson, 1998)
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4.9. Lack of management

This threat (e.g. agricultural abandonment, decrease of population) and consequent natural succession is connected with economic and social importance of SWBs. Slovenia: karstic ponds (see economic and social importance) Italy, Croatia: karstic ponds (see historical overview) Minorca: Mediterranean temporary ponds The conservation of Mediterranean temporary ponds in the island of Minorca has been related to human uses since prehistoric times. This situation changed in the 70s decade with the decline of rural activities and the introduction of new agricultural techniques. Most of the temporary ponds are facing important threats due to these changes in farm activities. Some specific problems reported are the destruction of traditional dry stone walls that protect the inundation area from over frequentation by cattle or, on the other hand, the overgrowth of bushy vegetation due to a lack of grazing. (Mascar Pons et al., 2008)

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5. REFERENCES
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