European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management 6 (2000) 195}206

Greening the construction supply chain in Singapore

George Ofori
School of Building and Real Estate, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore Accepted 6 April 2000

Abstract It is acknowledged that construction activity has major impacts on the environment. Moreover, the construction process is usually fragmented, and involves several parties with di!erent objectives. Thus, often, none of them normally assumes direct responsibility for protecting the environment. The concept of supply chain management (SCM) is now commonly applied in business for the mutual bene"t of enterprises in the supply chain (from the organization extracting the basic raw material to the "nal customer). A basic principle of SCM is `integrationa. However, SCM is not well known in the construction industry. This paper considers the potential of applying SCM to integrate the construction process in Singapore, and thereby, address its pressing problems including its poor environmental performance. It is found that SCM can help to green the construction supply chain in Singapore. Some recommendations on how awareness of SCM can be enhanced, and its application by construction enterprises made most likely to succeed are o!ered. 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Supply chain management; Sustainable construction; `Green procurementa; Corporate environmental performance

1. Introduction 1.1. Background Like its counterparts in many countries, the construction industry in Singapore is characterized by fragmentation and poor co-ordination among project participants (CIDB, 1989) which leads to ine$ciency, waste, and quality and safety problems. Moreover, the construction industry pays inadequate attention to the protection of the environment: the participants see the responsibility as lying with others; and various authors identify di!erent main players (Ofori, 1992; Low, 1996; Tan et al., 1999). The concept of supply chain management (SCM) is viewed as a strategic tool (Dale et al., 1994) which is vital to corporate competitiveness and pro"tability in today's operating environment (Burgess, 1998). SCM can improve e$ciency and productivity, and reduce overall operating costs (Lambert et al., 1998). SCM is neither widely known nor signi"cantly applied in the construction industry in any country. Like the traditional approach to business for which SCM o!ers an alternative, in Singapore construction, business relationships are

based on narrow, short-term interests, and win}lose arrangements. It is pertinent to study the possibility of using SCM to improve the performance of construction enterprises in Singapore, especially their environmental performance. 1.2. Research objectives The study seeks to address the following questions: E what are the environmental impacts of construction activity and what are the most e!ective measures for dealing with them? Speci"cally, what is the situation in Singapore? E what are the trends in other business sectors with respect to corporate environmental commitment? E who is the customer of the construction industry? E what is SCM and how relevant is it to construction? E does SCM help to address environmental issues in economic activities? E can SCM help to green the construction supply chain in Singapore? The study is based on a review of published works in the construction management and the logistics literature, and on the Singapore construction industry. The paper starts by considering the environmental impacts of construction activity.

E-mail address: bemofori@nus.edu.sg (G. Ofori).

0969-7012/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 6 9 - 7 0 1 2 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 1 5 - 0

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2. Construction activity and the environment The serious, long-lasting and wide-ranging impact of construction activity on the environment is widely discussed in the Construction Management literature, as the review below shows. Table 1 presents a brief summary of the adverse implications and considerations. These have led to increasing statutory requirements, pressures from environmental groups, increased costs of some construction inputs, non-availability of some inputs, and delays to some projects (McKone, 1999). Pasquire (1999) reports that, in the UK, the cost of protecting the environment has risen from 2% of the total building cost in the 1970s to 14% in the 1990s, compared with a general cost increase of 3.2%. However, Building (1999) indicates that this extra cost is currently only 1% of construction cost. Ofori (1999) highlights actions by organizations in various countries to address construction's environmental impacts. Several cost-e!ective, high-performing and environmentally friendly construction materials have been introduced. Increasingly complex assessment methods for materials, projects and buildings are being developed, and the information base required to apply them are available. Some designers and contractors are responding to increasingly stringent demands of knowledgeable clients. Contractors are paying more attention to corporate environmental strategy, environmental impact assessments, ecological and land-management surveys and evaluations, and waste management (Barrie, 1999b; Pasquire, 1999). Some contractors, such as Skanska of Sweden, Shimizu of Japan, and Neo Corpora-

tion and Dragages et Travaux Publics of Singapore have environmental management systems (EMS) * the last two are certi"ed to ISO 14000. Professional and trade bodies have prepared &green' policy papers to guide their members to adopt environmentally responsible practices. Many national and international organizations have published guidance reports and manuals. International research groups have been formed: these include TG16 on `Best Practice for Sustainable Constructiona of the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB). The CIB adopted the environment as a focus research area in the second half of the 1990s, and launched international research projects which culminated in some seminal works (CIB, 1999). The concept of sustainable construction has emerged, and the expression has now passed into the mainstream of Construction Management vocabulary (Hill and Bowen, 1997; Ofori, 1998). Sustainable construction involves creating constructed items using best-practice clean and resource-e$cient techniques from the extraction of the raw materials to the demolition and disposal of its components. The merits and otherwise of sustainable construction are discussed by many authors (see, for example, Ofori, 1998). It is su$cient to say here that construction activity will always involve some adverse environmental implications although `sustainable constructiona should reduce their extent. The commercial merits of adopting policies of sustainability are clear (Hawken, 1993; Cairncross, 1995). Construction contractors can derive savings from the minimization of resource use; and improve their

Table 1 Environmental implications of construction activity and relevant considerations What is used Where raw materials are obtained Where it is built Location of facility; nature of terrain and ground conditions; alternative uses Immediate physical environment; proximity to water sources and ecosystems (e.g. water pollution, loss of biodiversity) Social disruption (e.g. displacement of inhabitants) Economic disruption (eg. loss of livelihoods of previous inhabitants) Present infrastructure, need for expansion, its impact Impact on local vehicular tra$c How it is built Methods of construction What is built

How raw materials are extracted; how land is restored (if necessary) How raw materials are processed Whether, and how renewable raw materials are regenerated How materials are transported How materials are stored How materials are moved on site Source: Ofori (1999).

Planning and design of facility (e.g. potential of daylighting daylighting and natural and natural and natural ventilation) Construction project management Speci"cation, its implications for systems (e.g. quality management materials used systems) Site control measures Life-cycle economic, quality, maintainability considerations Welfare of site workers, neighbours Extent of use of energy and other and general public resources in operation of building Resource management (including Ease of demolition of building waste minimization) Recycling and reuse of demolition waste

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corporate image. The enterprises' compliance with regulations and codes would be facilitated, and risks and uncertainties reduced. However, in most countries, very few construction "rms are convinced about the merits of sustainable construction. Building (1999) reports a general lack of awareness, interest or commitment to environmental issues among all but a few large UK contractors. Tan et al. (1999) found that Singapore contractors would only act if addressing environmental issues was made mandatory by the government. Some works on ways of achieving sustainable construction are now reviewed. 2.1. Attaining sustainable construction: some past works Many suggestions are made in the literature on e!ective measures which the construction industry can take to address the environmental implications of its activities. Building (1999, p. 3) uses the phrase `joined up thinkinga which `seems to cover everything from committing the whole supply chain to making buildings more sustainable, to convincing individual "rms that going green will not push them into the reda. It notes that UK developers who may be keen on `greena issues `are often thwarted by hostility from their own investors or tenantsa. Building (1999, p. 3) anticipates a tax on energy and aggregates, and amendments to the Building Regulations. It asks for government-subsidised innovative demonstration projects. Barrie (1999a) also notes that the UK government is committed to strengthening green legislation. Barrie (1999b) describes major green initiatives by large UK contractors (Laing and Tarmac) and clients (Railtrack). The contractors' measures include: having an environmental policy and publishing an environmental statement; incorporation into the annual report of an audit of the company's contribution to green causes; contribution to training in handling of materials and waste; undertaking environmental audits of their buildings; environmental impact assessment of some activities such as quarrying; and placing a main board member in charge of environmental issues. The CIBs `Agenda 21 on Sustainable Constructiona (CIB, 1999) seeks to create a global framework and terminology to facilitate initiatives at national and subsectoral levels; and outline research and development activities. Michel (1998, p. 27) puts at the top of eight major changes in the US construction industry in the past 25 years, `the emergence of the environment and hazardous waste clean-up as a top national prioritya. He urged the conservation of worldwide resources through more e!ective recycling and more e$cient use of resources; integration of environmental policies on a global scale; more research in the construction industry; new models of production and consumption (backed by an appropriate

tax structure); education; public}private partnerships; and more initiative from practitioners. The next few paragraphs consider the level of understanding and extent of application of sustainable construction in Singapore by reviewing some recent studies. 2.2. Sustainable construction in Singapore Studies have shown that whereas some aspects of sustainable construction are evident in the operations of construction enterprises in Singapore, the concept of sustainability is not a major issue to the nation's construction clients and practitioners (Low, 1996; Tan, 1997). It is not addressed in a deliberate manner (Ng, 1993; Ofori, 1993b). Lim (1993) found that construction site workers and residents of nearby homes experienced varying levels of annoyance with noise (from machinery such as piling machines, concrete pumps and heavy vehicles), water (from discharge of silt, cement slurry, oil-based products, and wastes) and air (dust and smoke) pollution. Lim o!ers guidelines for good practices to comply with relevant statutes and regulations, and to improve the work environment and safety. Tan (1994) studied the contribution of construction to deforestation, focusing on the use of timber formwork. She found that local contractors continued to use timber formwork and were reluctant to adopt alternatives such as metal forms, permanent formwork, prefabricated elements, and system formwork. The contractors cited the following reasons: timber is more cost-e!ective; the alternatives would be in con#ict with the structural design; they lacked the skills to use the alternatives; the alternatives had low work cycles; and timber formwork was more #exible. Indeed, Tan's cost analysis showed that only hollow core slabs were cheaper than timber formwork. She suggested ways of addressing the problem caused by the cost di!erential. Lee (1994) undertook an audit of practices on construction sites in Singapore, to assess the use of EMS, approaches towards energy conservation, and the use of `harmful or non-recyclable materialsa (p. 50). She found a high level of awareness of, and commitment of contractors to, the need to protect the environment. Some were taking measures to comply with regulations regarding pest control, noise, and air and water pollution, and taking additional initiatives such as energy conservation and recycling. However, clients were less interested. She proposed actions by clients, architects, contractors, government and the international community. Low (1996) studied the role of design in attaining sustainability on construction projects and found that the general perception in the industry was that construction was not ready for systematic environmental management. Foo (1997) found a low level of awareness of environmental auditing in the Singapore construction industry.

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Respondents were also unwilling to implement it in future because of their: perception of additional costs and limited bene"ts; lack of knowledge; and di$culty in quantifying environmental costs. She o!ers a framework and guidelines for its implementation within the industry and suggests measures to be taken at various levels, including the proposal that the government should make certi"cation to the ISO 14000 series mandatory for large contractors. In a study on the perceptions of Singapore contractors on ISO 14000, Tan (1997) found that whereas the contractors professed awareness of issues relating to sustainable construction, they were only taking relevant action where they would otherwise infringe existing statutory regulations, or attract charges or taxes. He concluded that the industry would only act to protect the environment when the client demands it. Chew (1999) showed that Singapore contractors used materials `with little regard for the environmenta (p. 73). She found that ine$ciencies in the usage of materials were common, leading to high wastage levels, even on sites run by construction "rms implementing ISO 9002 in which materials management is enshrined. She suggested that the government should provide leadership by increasing awareness of environmental protection as it had done for quality, and encouraging "rms to adopt e!ective materials management and utilize the ISO 14000 EMS. Lee (1999, p. 119) suggests that buildings should be designed, constructed and managed with the environment in mind. Her suggested measures include education to enhance environmental awareness at all levels; introduction of voluntary standards; o!ering of "nancial incentives; demonstration projects on sustainable buildings; a product certi"cation scheme for building materials, and eco-labelling; encouraging innovative technology; and developing a building assessment system for Singapore. Teo (1999) studied on-site green techniques (OGTs), concentrating on energy use, waste, and air and noise pollution. She noted that these `do not require sophisticated technology or expensive equipment2[but] result from the ingenuity and creativity of the people working on sitea (p. 17). She compared the OGT practices of local and foreign contractors, identi"ed the obstacles (project time and cost increases; poor client support; large extent of subcontracting; reliance on foreign workers; di$culty in assessing the impact of construction; and low level of environmental awareness), and recommended suitable, practical OGTs. Ling (1998) studied `the practicality of ISO 14000 in Singapore's construction industrya (p. 4) and its potential contribution to sustainable construction. She identi"ed problems facing the implementation of environmentally friendly construction, and o!ered some proposals. Several studies show that other sectors of the economy have been paying greater attention than the construction industry to the protection of the environment from the

adverse impacts of their operations. The next section considers such trends, and their motivating factors and results.

3. Trends in business policies and practices In response to trends including statutory control, intensi"ed competition, pressure from various stakeholders, social responsibility and corporate image, business enterprises, especially those in the environmentally sensitive areas such as the heavy manufacturing, oil and chemical industries, have changed their corporate policies and operating practices and procedures (Hawken, 1993). Businesses are seeking to improve their environmental performance. Stigson (1998, p. 60) reports on a `shifta characterized by `moving from considering environmental issues as peripheral to business to a holistic view of business and sustainable developmenta. He cites the following developments: moving from a focus on costs and threats to savings and opportunities; shifting from end-of-pipe pollution clean-up to pollution prevention through cleaner production and waste minimization; replacing `through-puta process methods with integrated systems approaches emphasizing materials recycling and re-use; viewing environmental and social issues as responsibilities for managers and all employees; moving from con"dentiality to greater transparency and accountability; and strengthening dialogue with several stakeholders including government, trade unions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and consumer groups. Companies recognize that long-term "nancial sustainability depends on meeting high standards of corporate responsibility; they perceive the environment as a business opportunity for improving their corporate image (Chung and Gillespie, 1998, p. 10). A study by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development concluded that good environmental performance can enhance the competitive advantage of a company; moreover, environmental issues and "nancial performance are linked: the quality of the company's environmental management is a good indicator of the overall quality of its business management (Stigson, 1998, pp. 61}62). Businesses in many sectors are acting individually or as associations; and forming partnerships with government (Cairncross, 1995). These include the voluntary publication of reports on environmental performance, for example, by the Body Shop (starting in 1992); screening of suppliers' environmental performance by UK food retailers Gateway and home improvement chain, B&Q; and industry-wide agreements and schemes including the `Responsible Care Programmea of the US chemicals industry. Anonymous (1998) gives examples of several large companies which have developed systems for measuring and monitoring their environmental

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performance, including the US chemical company Monsanto, Nortel, and the oil company Conoco. The next section discusses the concept of SCM. It "rst considers its de"nition, key aspects and implementation, and then applies it to construction.

4. Supply chain management (SCM) 4.1. Supply chain The concept of the `supply chaina provides a useful framework for analysing the construction process. Stevens (1989) describes the supply chain as the interconnected series of activities concerned with the planning and controlling of raw materials, components and "nished products from suppliers to the "nal consumer. Mabert and Venkataramanan (1998, p. 538) de"ne the supply chain as the network of facilities and activities which performs the functions of product development, procurement of materials, movement of materials between facilities, manufacturing of goods, distribution of "nished goods to customers, and after-market support. In construction, the supply chain includes all the business and other organizations which are involved in the process from the extraction of raw materials to the eventual demolition of the building, and disposal of its components. 4.2. SCM: dexnition and key aspects Supply chain management (SCM) is a relatively new "eld: Hewitt (1995) and Mabert and Venkataramanan (1998) give a brief history of the development of SCM. Larson and Rogers (1998) present a useful review of the evolution and state of the art of SCM. Various authors give di!erent de"nitions of SCM. Two may be considered: [The] e!ort involved in producing and delivering a "nal product from the supplier's supplier to the customer's customer (Kranz, 1996, p. 4). The integration of key business processes from end user through original suppliers that provides products, services, and information that add value for customers and other stakeholders (Lambert et al., 1998, p. 1) These de"nitions are particularly relevant to the construction industry as they stress the extension of the supply chain to parties beyond the immediate client, contractor and suppliers. They consider value-adding activities of `other stakeholdersa (of which there may be many in construction); and also signify a life-cycle approach. According to Hewitt (1995), SCM is a `corea or `strategica process within the overall business enterprise

architecture which serves the purpose of linking suppliers into the enterprise, and linking the enterprise to its customers. Its e!ectiveness has an immediate impact on the e$ciency and e!ectiveness of the "rm; and its success is measured by the ability of the company `to deliver the right products to customers at the right place and the right timea (p. 231). Its e$ciency is measured in terms of the reciprocal of total supply chain costs including inventory costs, and sometimes, total cycle time. (Barriers to SCM are considered below.) Tracing the evolution of SCM from a series of fragmented technical disciplines and their functional grouping into logistics, Hewitt (1995) observes that few companies have reached the stage of `integrated intra-company and inter-company supply chain managementa with the objective of attaining `maximum total business process e$ciency and e!ectivenessa (p. 234). Burgess (1998) notes that SCM is growing in popularity as a source of competitive advantage. Instead of the traditional assumption that businesses compete one-on-one, SCM takes an alternative view that supply chains compete against each other, with the customer as the only source of income for all members of the chain. SCM can o!er the "rm greater insights into opportunities and threats which the supply chain o!ers, thus informing strategy formation. Billington (1999, p. 96) notes: `Supply chain design is an art (as well as a technical discipline) and deserves consideration for its extraordinary power to create and conserve valuea. The concept of SCM has been criticized. Tompkins and Jernigan (1997) suggest that it should be replaced by demand yow leadership which connotes a pull approach to product #ow for better customer service (`demanda); a more continuous movement and integrated approach (`#owa); and teamwork, co-operation and dynamism (`leadershipa). 4.3. Features of SCM implementation SCM has been implemented in several major organizations in many sectors of the economy. Larson and Rogers (1998, p. 4) describe SCM at Eastman Kodak to `present a single face to the customer and create one set of business processes, regardless of locationa. Tibey (1999) describes how Kraft Foods redesigned its supply chain network to support its one-company strategy, and its impact on corporate results (3.5% annual volume growth in 1995}1998, 8.8% compounded annual earnings, and growth of pro"t from US$900 million in 1994 to US$3.1 billion in 1998). Mabert and Venkataraman (1998, p. 537) outline issues to consider in planning, designing and controlling the network of facilities and tasks which comprise the supply chain, using major manufacturing organizations such as the Ford Motor Company, IBM and Hewlett-Packard as examples.

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Dale et al. (1994) summarise the features of the implementation of SCM as follows: E conclusion of long-term contracts between parties; E willingness among the parties to learn more about each other's business operations; E exchange of information on business plans and operations, as well as best practices among the parties; E involvement of suppliers in the customer's product development and design processes; E commitment of the supplier to pursue continuous improvement by monitoring technological trends; E reducing the supplier base; E continuous development of supplier by the customer; E development of trust among partners, with suppliers taking full responsibility for the quality of their products, leading to the elimination of inspections of supplied products. Lambert et al. (1998) discuss implementation issues in SCM and note that managing the supply chain is a complicated task owing to the many tiers of suppliers back to the point of origin, as well as the tiers of customers to the point of consumption. They note that implementation of SCM is limited in scope: Previous literature has suggested that some or all business processes should be linked across the supply chain, from the initial source of supply to the ultimate end-customer. In our research, there were no examples of this, nor were there any in the cases described in the literature. In fact the companies studied had only integrated some selected key process links2 (p. 11). Hindrances to SCM implementation include: barriers to communication and feedback; complacency of suppliers; and suspicion of one partner about the credibility of the other(s) (Hewitt, 1995). Burgess (1998) highlights lessons for the application of SCM from the failure of the concept of business process re-engineering (BPR). She outlines similarities between the two concepts: each involves fundamental rethinking; is process based; is strategic in consideration; uses time as a measure; and is facilitated by information technology. Burgess (1998) notes that successful implementation of SCM requires: senior management commitment; broad and deep changes in the way businesses operate and in the behaviour and attitudes of all employees; setting of measurable objectives, preparation for the unexpected and arrangement of contingency plans; and recognizing and addressing resistance among employees through e!ective communication. 4.4. SCM and construction The construction industry can learn and gain from the SCM principles and practices. Bowersox et al. (1999, p. 44) suggest that `leading logistical practice can be

generalized across industries, across the supply chain, and across cultural boundariesa. Mabert and Venkataramanan (1998) endorse this view, noting that SCM is relevant to small, single-location organizations as well as large multi-site ones. Lambert et al. (1998) observe that the supply chain is not a chain of businesses with one-to-one business-tobusiness relationships but a network of multiple businesses and relationships. Thus, SCM deals with total business process excellence and is a new way of managing the business and its relationships with other members of the supply chain. The objective of SCM is to maximize competitiveness and pro"tability for the company and the supply chain network including the end customer. The integration of the supply chain should aim to boost e$ciency and e!ectiveness across all supply chain members. This aspect is most relevant to construction. SCM should be considered as essential to the performance and competitiveness of the construction enterprise considering the variety of materials, products and components it requires on each project, the range of subcontracting companies it normally engages, and the variety of consultants it works with. The construction company must make the strategic decision of considering its suppliers and subcontractors as its long-term partners with which it is working towards a common aim and aspirations, in replacement of the traditional win}lose relationship of business `partnersa with di!erent objectives (Dale et al., 1994). The traditional approach to business has several discernible elements: win}lose arrangements; a focus on negative issues; uncertainty; a minimal exchange of information; the buying of supplies of each item from many companies to maintain price `competitiona; and an atmosphere of fear, dishonesty and frustration. These generally negative elements characterize current business relationships among construction "rms and their business partners. SCM is based on an alternative business relationship with the opposite of these features. Lalonde (1998) identi"es "ve `building blocks of a solid supply chain relationshipa: sharing of information; sharing of bene"ts and burdens; multiple contacts between economic entities; cross-functional management processes; and future-oriented collaborative processes. Such an approach would revolutionize the practices and operations of construction enterprises. A key word in SCM is `integrationa, a word which is rarely appropriate to the construction process, characterized as it is by fragmentation. Vickery et al. (1999) note that SCM seeks to enhance competitive performance by closely integrating the internal functions within a company and e!ectively linking them with the external operations of suppliers and channel members. Cooper and Ellram (1993) note that the applicability of SCM lies somewhere between fully integrated "rms and independent companies operating in the chain.

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4.5. SCM in construction There have been attempts in many countries to integrate aspects of the construction process through procurement arrangements such as design-and-build, and strategic alliances among contractors and others within and outside the industry. The Japanese construction industry is well known for the `integrateda approach to projects which it adopts, with contractors and suppliers belonging to the same groups of "rms, and long-term contractor}subcontractor relationships (Bennett et al., 1987). The concept of partnering has also began to be applied in the industry. Bresnen and Marshall (1999) present case studies of client}contractor collaborations in the UK and explore `the interplay between economic and organizational factorsa and `the dynamics of power and controla (p. 177). They note that on some projects involving partnering or alliancing, there was often mistrust and con#ict, with `the continued use of quasicompetitive mechanisms and the retention of systems of controla (p. 177). London and Kenley (1999) note that the concept of SCM must be adapted to the special circumstances of the construction industry. Observing that SCM in construction has tended to focus on `the #ow of materials supply to site and the on-site work #ow, to the exclusion of the clienta (p. 100), London and Kenley (1999) revisit an issue raised by some previous and later authors (see below), the incorporation of the client into construction supply chains. Pearson (1999) considers SCM as having replaced partnering as the latest buzzword of the UK construction industry. He reports that a few UK clients (BAA, the Ministry of Defence and Tesco) and contractors (Balfour Beatty and Tarmac) use SCM. Mainly, the "rms have: drastically reduced their supplier base (by over 75% in Balfour Beatty over two years); established and nurtured relationships with suppliers; organized training programmes to inculcate a co-operative approach to problem solving; and developed systems for rating suppliers` performance on quality, speed and price. The "rms hope to derive greater discounts from the smaller number of "rms, each with a greater volume of work. They are involving suppliers in projects at an early stage, and managing them more e!ectively, for example, organizing structured development programmes for them. The "rm can reduce projectsa contingency budgets; and suppliers are able to respond and adapt to the company's shortand longer-term plans. From the discussion above, it is clear that the current approach to SCM in the construction industry is limited. The contractor}supplier(s) link(s) is a small part of the construction supply chain. Business relationships among construction enterprises in Singapore are still in the traditional mode highlighted above. The consequences are catalogued in a recent comprehensive review of the in-

dustry's practices and procedures (Construction 21 Steering Committee, 1999). Fragmentation is the norm, price, and sometimes, schedule, are the main criteria, the parties adopt adversarial positions throughout the process, communication is inadequate, and so on. The potential of SCM remains largely unexplored in Singapore construction. Can SCM help improve the environmental performance of Singapore construction enterprises? The next section discusses how companies in other sectors are using SCM to enhance their environmental performance. It then considers current environmental supply management in construction, and possible future developments.

5. 99Environmental:: purchasing 5.1. Development of **environmental++ purchasing The increasing environmental consciousness and commitment of businesses, governments, groups and individuals has inspired the development of procurement and purchasing policies incorporating environmental requirements which demonstrate their bargaining and buying power. Walton et al. (1998, p. 2) note: In business today, companies cannot ignore environmental issues. Increasing government regulation and stronger public mandates for environmental accountability have brought these issues into the executive suite, and onto strategic planning agendas. At the same time, companies are integrating their supply chain processes to lower costs and better serve customers. These two trends are not independent; companies must involve suppliers and purchasers to meet and even exceed the environmental expectations of their customers and their governments. Jamison (1996) gives an example: One in "ve of B&Q's [a UK home improvements chain] products is timber and concerns over the management of forest resources made B&Q the target of a high pro"le Friends of the Earth campaign in the late 1980s. B&Q was held directly responsible for destruction of the rainforests * yet it was not B&Q going out into the rainforests, chainsaw in hand. The impact was many steps back up the supply chain, but the responsibility was B&Q's simply because they were purchasing the products which the timber was ultimately being made into, and B&Q was expected to do something about it (Jamison, 1996, p. 24). To put it simply * B&Q's environmental performance was seen to be only as good as that of its suppliers.

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This is true of2anyone who has made a commitment to improving their environmental performance2 . To help enhance the environmental performance of its suppliers, in 1991, B&Q introduced a purchasing programme entitled `supplier environmental audita (SEA) to monitor their environmental performance and identify key environmental issues for the business (Jamison, 1996). The number of its suppliers with an environmental policy rose from 8% in January 1993 to 96% in January 1995. Stock (1992) suggests that life-cycle issues of the ultimate disposition of the materials, must be considered as constituting an integral part of the purchasing and procurement process. `Green purchasinga or `environmental purchasinga is now well covered in the Logistics literature: Hamner and del Rosario (1998) present a useful review. They note that it is an increasingly common practice which is e!ectively greening the supply chain. It is becoming a key component of SCM. Walton et al. (1998, p. 2) suggest that companies will thrive only when they act as whole systems including all stakeholders, and integrate total quality environmental management (TQEM) into their planning and operations. They note that companies must integrate other members of the supply chain into their environmental management processes which is tantamount to `greening the supply chaina. The development of supplier evaluation systems that place signi"cant weight on objective environmental criteria can play a major role in in#uencing supplier behaviour. Carter et al. (1998, p. 28) de"ne `environmental purchasinga as consisting of `purchasing's involvement in activities that include reduction, reuse, and recycling materialsa. They observe that, despite its importance, research on it is only now beginning to emerge. They note that many "rms are becoming environmentally proactive and are developing and implementing `greena strategies which preserve the environment while enhancing the "rm's e$ciency and e!ectiveness. These include developing green products and packages, conserving energy, reducing waste, recycling, and creating an environmentally sensitive corporate culture. They cite procurement practices of several corporations in Europe (such as Mercedes of Germany) and the US (such as General Mills and Dow Chemicals) and highlight signi"cant di!erences between European and US purchasing managers with regard to `environmental purchasinga. Min and Galle (1997) highlight the green purchasing programmes of Coca Cola, Du Pont, Pepsico and Procter and Gamble. In 1993, the UK Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply launched voluntary guidelines for purchasers entitled `Buying into the Environmenta (Anonymous, 1993) which are widely supported and applied. By following the seven principles the guidelines enshrine, companies

should achieve: establishment of a business case to make environmental purchasing viable and part of day-to-day operations; understanding of environmental issues a!ecting the organization and its supply chain; development of a purchasing policy which addresses environmental issues; formulation of environmental criteria for ranking suppliers; evolution of suitable methods for collecting relevant information; and establishment of agreed targets for further environmental performance improvements by suppliers. Anonymous (1995) describes the work of the Centre for Research in Strategic Purchasing and Supply (CRiSPS) which develops and adapts environmental management concepts into practical applications for purchasing managers and strategists. Lamming and Hampson (1996) expect environmental pressures to increase in the future, and suggest that an e!ective means of dealing with them must be implemented through the purchasing function. They concentrate on the supplier base of a company as the focus for supply chain environmental performance. McIntyre et al. (1998) observe that other organizations such as IBM, Nokia, BMW and Rank Xerox have focused on the opposite end of the supply chain, with recycling issues. Wu and Dunn (1995) point out that to minimize total environmental impact, it must be evaluated from the total system perspective. Holmes (1994) describes the `green purchasinga policy of the She$eld (UK) city council. The council's environmental policy includes: conserving the ecological process that sustains life; conserving biodiversity; using renewable resources; and minimizing the depletion of nonrenewable resources. Building materials are among its main purchases. Holmes observes that `being bulk purchasers local authorities can take the lead in developing the market in many of [the] alternatives to materials with negative environmental impacts, and non-renewable onesa. He advocates a partnership between purchasing o$cers, environmentalists and suppliers to develop environmentally friendly products. The Belfast city council has won several awards for its green purchasing practices (Anonymous, 1999) which `re#ects its strategic objectives of best value, civic leadership and sustainable developmenta (p. 44). Many governments have `green purchasinga policies. An example is Canada's `Going Greena Building Programme which promotes the use of innovative technologies and processes for existing and new federal facilities (Bradet, 1996). Its Code for Environmental Stewardship commits it to practice green procurement, among other things. National eco-labelling schemes support environmental procurement. They include Germany's Blue Angel started in 1978, Japan's Eco-Mark in 1989 and Canada's Environmental Choice in 1990. Holmes (1994) highlights problems facing clients implementing `green purchasinga policies: availability; definitions of environmentally friendly products; increased

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prices; marketing hype; quality and performance; and suppliers. B&Q's main procurement problems were suppliers' lack of awareness and understanding of relevant environmental issues; and lack of incentives for suppliers (Jamison, 1996). It integrated SEA with QUEST, under which suppliers are assessed against 10 criteria, 5 on quality and 5 on environmental issues. QUEST aims to assess the Quality, Ethics, Safety and Treatment of a product before it gets into its business. Walton et al. (1998) note that companies will face many challenges when trying to make suppliers an integral part of their environmental programmes, including supplier resistance and constantly changing government regulations. They must proactively manage supply chain environmental initiatives and seek higher benchmarks rather than simple compliance with government regulations. Some current strategies in environmental purchasing are presented in Table 2. 5.2. Green purchasing in construction Ofori (1999) describes examples of green purchasing in construction. Westling (1998) describes programmes in Sweden, France and the US involving the collaborative purchasing by in#uential groups of buyers, of products
Table 2 Strategies in environmental purchasing Category Product standards Activity Purchase products with environmentally friendly attributes, such as recycled materials, and those with non-toxic ingredients Purchase products that disclose their environmental attributes, such as those which have been eco-labelled. Require suppliers to disclose information about their environmental practices, pollution discharges, and so on Audit suppliers to evaluate their environmental performance Require suppliers to implement and maintain environmental management systems Require suppliers to obtain certi"cation of their environmental management systems to a recognized standard such as ISO 14000 Work with suppliers to help them reduce environmental impacts through changes in product design and materials use Implement product stewardship programmes throughout all stages of a product's life cycle. Institute training programmes for sup pliers to increase their knowledge of environmental implications of the company's, and their own activities and Inform suppliers of technological developments relating to their operations.

Behaviour standards

Collaboration

with speci"ed performance criteria in the construction and energy areas. These had led to reduction in resource use, or increase in e$ciency, of 30}50% over a short period. He advocates: development of principles for formulating requirements and testing, and contract rules especially warranties and long-term responsibilities; preparation of international performance standards; review of international rules for public-sector procurement to enable them to stimulate further innovation in sustainability; and application of mechanisms other than procurement, including eco-labelling. Eco-design competitions are increasingly common: an annual contest is held by the Singapore Institute of Architects. Such competitions can form the basis of project procurement. Stenberg and Kadefors (1999) outline a competition by a municipality in Sweden to procure ecological housing. The buildings were to be `at the cutting edge of `greeninga and were to demonstrate a range of state-of-the-art technologiesa (p. 114). The entries were evaluated as follows: architecture, 20%; energy consumption, 30%; ecological building techniques and considerations, 30%; and economy, 20%. The winning design in the eco-design competition on a condominium development in Singapore in 1996 was built as a demonstration project. Various authors urge or predict further movement towards environmental purchasing in construction. Mills et al. (1999, p. 33) note that in response to environmental pressure, `the US is moving towards the concept of `greeninga products and processesa. Ofori (1992) suggested that clients must adopt the environment as a project objective. Construction Research and Information Association (CIRIA) (1994, p. 139) urges clients' consultants to consider the extent to which the client wishes to restrict the short-list of tenderers to "rms which can demonstrate their commitment to environmentally responsible operations. CIRIA (1995, p. 6) advises clients to include past environmental track record in their criteria for selecting design consultants, and procuring contractors' services. Ciribini and Rigamonti (1998) urge clients to select, at the pre-quali"cation stage, only contractors complying with, or certi"ed to, both ISO 9000 and ISO 14000. Railtrack, the large UK client, is studying whole-life costing as a better form of procurement, and is planning to adopt sustainability indicators to assess bids from suppliers (Barrie, 1999b).

6. Discussion and recommendations The discussion so far shows that construction activity has an adverse impact on the environment. However, studies show that this impact can be e!ectively reduced and businesses in other sectors have made progress in this regard. SCM has played a key role in the e!orts of the latter to improve theie environmental performance.

Development

Sources: Hamner and del Rosario (1998); and Ofori (1999).

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In Singapore, a high level of environmental awareness in the construction industry has not been accompanied by appropriate corporate policies and procedures to address the environmental impact of construction activity.

6.2. Greening the construction supply chain in Singapore Green procurement is likely to increase in importance in Singapore construction. To enable them to meet the increasingly stringent environmental control of their operations, owner}occupier industrial establishments will include environmental performance criteria in their choice of consultants and contractors. Owing to public education campaigns, such as the annual `Clean and Green Weeka, and changes in educational curricula, developers may soon "nd it vital for their corporate survival to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability. In Singapore, the public client has, since the 1960s, used its procurement practices to encourage enterprises to adopt techniques and procedures which it considers desirable (Ofori, 1993a). For example, since July 1999, large and medium-sized contractors must be certi"ed to the ISO 9000 series before they can register to undertake public-sector projects * this should give a boost to SCM implementation in construction since ISO 9000 stresses company}supplier relationships. Tan et al. (1999) note that public clients, and developers may seek to engage only construction "rms with clearly evident sustainable construction policies and practices, or introduce contractual provisions which oblige construction companies to adopt sustainable approaches.

6.1. Potential of SCM The discussion above shows that SCM is of direct bene"t to construction enterprises. Given the features of construction, the aspect of SCM which is most relevant is its ability to help integrate the supply chain. E!orts to integrate the Singapore construction industry, such as the introduction of design-and-build (D&B), have not made much impact despite government support (including publicity, and the o!er of advisory services and "nancial incentives) (C21 Steering Committee, 1999). SCM o!ers an alternative approach for integrating the construction process which is more likely to succeed. It is a win}win business-based approach to the maintenance of relationships among enterprises which has proven potential to improve companies' overall performance including productivity, quality, safety and environmental aspects, and thus, their cost competitiveness and pro"t margin. Implementing SCM in construction will pose challenges. The construction process is more complex than manufacturing as it has several linkages with other sectors of the economy (Hillebrandt, 1984). Indeed, determining the customer of the construction enterprise is not simple. Ofori (1999) argues that, given the long-term nature of constructed products, the customer extends beyond the initial client to include all users and subsequent owners over the life of the building. From the environmental perspective, `the customer'sa consultants and contractors, must consider several other stakeholders, within and outside the country, including generations yet unborn. However, SCM o!ers possible strategic advantages to individual construction enterprises and the industry, as a whole. SCM in Singapore construction should embrace the entire supply chain rather than being focused on client} contractor or contractor}supplier relationships. This implies gradual, incremental implementation and development. Courses should be organized to generate the awareness of SCM among Singapore construction enterprises, and to provide them with expertise in the concept. Wider adoption of SCM in Singapore would require changes in the attitudes and business practices of construction practitioners. Case studies and demonstration projects in other business sectors in Singapore, or the construction industry overseas, would be useful. Moreover, in the early stages of wide SCM implementation in Singapore, case studies showing the rewards of SCM application, and pitfalls to avoid would also be useful.

Table 3 Suggestions of green procurement initiatives in Singapore construction Category Education Initiative Develop expertise in SCM within industry Train purchasing o$cers in key aspects of green procurement including performance evaluation and monitoring Increase knowledge of relevant environmental issues among construction practitioners Document successful local and overseas examples of green procurement in construction Disseminate case studies using appropriate media. Government should provide direct support through its procurement policies and procedures O!er incentives to support clean production processes, and practices Generally promote environmental responsibility among all construction agencies, enterprises and practitioners. Distil and disseminate best practices in green procurement Institute an annual competition to recognize excellence in green procurement as an adjunct to the existing award in the broad area of the environment.

Case studies

Support and promotion

Best practices and award

Source: Author.

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Action is required to increase Singapore construction practitioners' knowledge of green procurement in order to prepare the industry to implement practices which `greena the supply chain. Enhanced knowledge and widespread application of SCM would help. Other initiatives are outlined in Table 3.

7. Conclusion There is scope for the application of SCM in Singapore construction. Its focus on integration, the entire product life-cycle and the inclusion of parties involved in all stages of the production process as well as stakeholders is particularly relevant. SCM o!ers a suitable approach to the e!ort to enhance the performance of the Singapore construction industry, as it will help to reduce the fragmentation, and the win}lose short-term views which characterize relationships within the industry. SCM can also help to e!ectively green the construction supply chain in Singapore. However, several major obstacles will have to be overcome before SCM can be widely implemented in Singapore construction, including the conceptual problems of `designinga the appropriate supply chain, and practical ones of entrenched business practices and attitudes, and lack of knowledge about SCM or its bene"ts. Moreover, despite its potential, SCM will not be a panacea for all the problems of the industry. SCM should be implemented in the Singapore construction industry in its most comprehensive form (i.e., embracing all the parties involved in a project) if its full potential is to be realized. Environmental purchasing should be an integral element of the form of SCM which is applied in Singapore.

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