Environmental Studies BIO DIVERSITY

Introduction: Biological diversity is abbreviated as Bio - Diversity. Bio - diversity is an Index of national wealth. Nearly 65% of national wealth is getting from all these bio diversity products. Bio means Living Organisms and diversity means Variation. The total term biodiversity refers Variability and Variations among living organisms. Diversity starts from Unicellular Fungi, Protozoa to multi cellular Plants and Animal Species. The term Bio diversity was first coined by Walter Rosen in 1980. Definition: As per IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources ) bio diversity is The sum of Genes, Species and Eco Systems in a region. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. Bio diversity includes the different types of animals and different types of plants and other species. Different ways in which species interact with their environment. Ways species live together. Types of Bio Diversity: Bio diversity covers a wide range of concepts and can be examined at different levels. a) Genetic Diversity b) Species Diversity c) Eco System Diversity a) Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity is the variation of genes within species. Genes are the basic units of all life on earth. Genetic diversity is responsible for both similarities and the differences between organisms. The variation may be in size, shape, resistance against diseases, pests, insects etc. b) Species Diversity: Species are the basic and most important units in modern systems for classifying living organisms. The variations between two species, the species may be plant, animal and micro organisms. The classification between two different species in a eco system called as Species Diversity . c) Eco System Diversity: Variation between two eco systems terrestrial and aquatic eco system called as Eco System Diversity. d) Land Scape Diversity: It refers to size & distribution of several eco systems. It is a special type of diversity.

Functions of Bio Diversity:

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Environmental Studies

It is the source of species on which the human complete depends for food, fuel, shelter and medicine. It maintains environmental quality. It depends on the biosphere, which in turn leads to the stability in climate, water, soil, air and the over all health of biosphere. Measurement of Bio Diversity: Bio diversity is usually measured in three levels a) Alpha () Diversity b) Beat () Diversity c) Gamma () Diversity a) Alpha () Diversity: It refers to number of species in a single community and can be used to compare the number species in different eco systems. It refers Maximum number of Species in an eco system. b) Beat () Diversity: It refers the important plant & animal species present in the eco system. c) Gamma () Diversity: It refers to the species turn over rate in a single area of particular area and their demand in international market. Bio Geo Graphical Classification of India: India is the seventh largest country in the world and Asias second largest nation with an area of 328 million ha. For administration purpose, India is divided into 28 states and 7 Union Territories. Physically the massive country is divided into four relatively welldefined regions. a) b) c) d) a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) Trans Himalayan Region The Gangetic Plain Deccan Plateau Islands These four major regions are again sub divided into ten important regions basing upon the bio diversity. Trans Himalayan Region Himalayan Zone Desert (North West Desert) Semi Arid Region Western Ghats Deccan Penisula Gangetic Plain North East India The Islands (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) Coastal Regions (East Coast & West Coast)

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Environmental Studies Indias Major Bio Geo Graphic Regions Habitats: S.No 1 2 Bio Geo Graphic Zone Trans Himalayan Zone Himalayan Biotic Province Upper Region North West Himalayas, West Himalayas, Central Himalayas, East Himalayas Kutch Thar Ladakh Central India Gujarath Rajwara Malabar Coast Western Ghat Mountains Deccan Plateu South Central Plateu Eastern Plateu Chotta Nagpur Central High Lands Upper Gangetic Plain Lower Gangetic Plain Brahmaputra Valley North Eastern Hills Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands Lakshadweep Islands West Coast East Coast Total Area Km) 1,86,200 6,900 7,20,000 1,23,000 83,000 45,000 1,80,000 NA 1,07,600 4,34,400 59,000 99,000 3,78,000 3,41,000 1,98,000 2,17,000 2,87,000 2,06,400 1,53,000 65,200 1,06,200 6397 1930 180 6500 6500

(Sq.

3 4 5 6

Desert Semi Arid Western Ghats Deccan Penisula

7 8 9 10

Gangetic Plain North East India Islands Coasts

Value of Bio Diversity: The value of bio diversity in terms of its ecological services, commercial utility, social and aesthetic value is enormous. Some times we realize and appreciate the values of the organism only after it is lost from this earth. Very small, insignificant, useless looking organism may play a crucial role in the ecological balance of the eco system. The multiple uses of bio diversity between classified by Mc. Nelly et al in 1990. a) Consumptive Use Value b) Productive Use Value c) Social Value d) Ethical Value e) Aesthetic Value f) Option Value g) Eco System Service Value

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Environmental Studies

a) Consumptive Use Value:

These are direct use values where the bio diversity product can be harvested and consumed directly. Ex: Fuel, Food, Drugs, Fiber etc Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as Food. About 80,000 edible plant species have been reported from wild. About 90% of food crops have been domesticated from wild and tropical plants. Drugs & Medicines: About 75% of the worlds population depends upon plants, plant products and animals for preparation of various drugs & medicines. Ex: Pencilin is derived from a fungus called Pencillium. Tetracyclin is derived from a Bacterium called as Tetracycilinium. Quinine the is used in the cure for Malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree. Recently Vinblastin& Vinasprin two anti cancer drugs, have been obtained from Periwinkle plant (Catharanthus) posses Anti Cancer alkaloids. Fuel: The fossil fuels Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized bio diversity by individuals are not normally marketed but are directly consumed by tribal and local villagers.

b) Productive Use Values:

It is assigned to products that are derived from wildlife and sold in commercial markets both national & international markets. These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk form musk deer, silk from silk worm, wool from sheep, fir from many animals, lac from lac insects etc. Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of bio diversity. Ex: The paper and pulp industry, silk industry, textile industry, leather industry and pearl industry etc. developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are the richest bio diversity centers and the countries smuggled wildlife products and marketed in large quantities to some rich western countries and also to china and Hong kong where export of Cat skins and Snake skins fetches a bomming business.

c) Social Values:
These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulasi, Neem, Peepal, Mango, Lotus etc. the leaves, fruits (or) Flowers of these plants are used in worship (or) the plant itself is worshipped. Many animals like Cows, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl etc also have significant place in our psycho spiritual arena and thus hold special social importance.

d) Ethical Values:
It is also some times known as Existance Value. It involves ethical issues like all life must be preserved. It is based on the concept of Live & Let Live. We are not deriving any thing direct from Kangaroo, Zebra , Giraffe, but we all strongly feel that these species should exist in nature.

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e) Aesthetic Value:
Great aesthetic value is attached to bio diversity. Ex: Eco Tourism It is related to visit of placed related to environmental aspects.

f) Option Value:
These values include the potentials of bio diversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored. The option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where a variety of flora and fauna (or) specially some endemic, rare (or) endangered species exist. g) Eco System Service Values: It refers to the services provided by eco systems like prevention of soil- erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, pollutant absorption etc. Global Bio Diversity: India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests, its wetlands and in its marine areas. India has great many scientific institutes and university departments interested in various aspects of bio diversity. India A Mega Diversity Nation The 13 Biosphere Reserves found in India area a) Nilgiri Reserve at Tamil Nadu b) Nanda Devi Reserve at Uttaranchal c) Nokrek Reserve at Meghalaya d) Manas Reserve at Assam e) Sundherbhan Reserve at West Bengal f) Gulf of Manner Reserve g) Great Nicobar Reserve at Nicobar Islands h) Similipal Reserve at Orissa i) Dibrusai Khowa Reserve at Assam j) Dihang Dibans Reserve at Arunachala Pradesh k) Pachmaki Reserve at Madhya Pradesh l) Kanchenjanga Reserve at Sikkim m) Agasthiaya Malai Reserve at Kerala

Number of Living Species (World Resource Institute): S.No Taxonomic Group Number K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

Environmental Studies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bacteria & Cyano Bacteria Protozoan Algae Fungi Higher Plants Insects Fish & Sharks Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals 5000 31,000 27,000 45,000 2,50,000 7,50,000 22,000 4,000 5,000 9,000 4,000

Bio Diversity at National Level: Every country is characterized by its own bio diversity depending mainly on its climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall 6% of the global species are found in India. The total number of living species identified in our country is 1, 50,000. Out of a total of 2 5 bio diversity hot spots in the world. India posses two, one in the Eastern Himalayan regions and one in the Western Ghats. India is also one of the 12 mega bio diversity countries in the world. Plant Species in India and the world S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Taxa Bacteria Algae Fungi Lichens Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosphermes Plant Species India 850 6500 14,500 2000 2850 1100 64 17,500 World 4000 40,000 77,200 17,000 16,000 13,000 750 2,50,000

Animals in India: Total animal species recorded in the world is 11,96,903 and in India 874. Fauna of India: S.No Layer Animals No. of Species

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Environmental Studies 1 2 3 4 5 Bio Diversity at Local Level: Based upon their spatial distribution bio diversity is divided into 3 types. a) Diversity b) Diversity c) Diversity a) Diversity: It refers number of species in a particular area. b) Diversity: It refers the important plant species and animal species in a particular area. c) Diversity: Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes 390 1232 456 209 2,546

Gamma diversity refers the number of species in national and international markets. India as a Mega Diversity Nation: The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India (2000) report, 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora & fauna. India is reported as Mega Diversified nation, have 16,500 19,400 taxa of flowering plants, which is approximately 7% of all decrypted species in the world of these nearly 107 species are aquatic. The country has also recorded Group Wise Species Distribution: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 Plant Species Bacteria Fungi Algae Number of Species 850 23,000 2500 Animals Species Mollusca 5042 Arthropods 57,525 Fish & 2546 Amphibians Reptiles Birds 428 1228

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Environmental Studies 6 Mammals 372

The living Species of India are classified into 4 important categories. Namely a) Endangered Species b) Endemic Species c) Extinct Species d) Rare Species Endangered Species of India: The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the Red Data Book (RDB) which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals. The red data book symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are endangered and if not protected likely to become extinct in near future. In India, nearly 450 plant species and more the 300 animal species have been identified in the category of endangered. Endangered Species: Species which is ready to extinct or which number is drastically reduced is called a Endangered Species. Endangered Reptiles, Birds, Mammals and Plants: a) Reptiles: Green Sea Turtle, Tortoise, Python b) Birds: Great Indian Bustard, Peacock, Great Indian Hornbill, White Crane c) Mammals: Indian Wolf, Red Fox, Leopard, Tiger, Desert Cat, Golden Cat d) Plants: Ravolfia Serpentina (Medicinal Plant), Santalum (Sandal Wood Tree)

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Endemic Species: Species which are restricted to a particular area is called Endemic Species. This is known as Endemism. K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

Environmental Studies Ex: Kangaroo is restricted to Australia, Polar bears are restricted to Antarctic region.

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Extinct Species: Species which are already extinct in environment is called Extinct Species. Ex: Dodo, Passenger Pigeon

Rare Species: Species that is present in all parts of the world, but the number will be less. Vulnerable Species: Species population will be declined due to habitat loss. Endemism (or) Endemic Species: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as Endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to India. Endangered Animal Species of the World: S. No Common Name 1. Ass, Indian Wild 2. Rhinoceros, Great Indian 3. Tiger Hot Spots of Bio Diversity: Areas which exhibit high species rich ness as well as high species endemism are turned as hot spots of bio diversity. The term Hot Spots was introduced by Myers in 1998. There are 25 hot spots are present at global, out of which two hot spots are present in India. Hot Spots of India: Scientific Name Eques Hemionus Khur Rhinoceros Unicornis Pantheria Tigris

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a) Eastern Himalayas: The eastern Himalayas extend from Sikkim to Upper Assam , bounded on the north by Tibet and on the south by Bengal. This region is more humid than the western Himalayas and has a distinct variety of flora. This Eastern Himalayas are well recognized because of their richness in the ancient flowering plants and the area is recognized as Cradle of Speciation. It is regarded that the eastern Himalayas consists of about 9000 plant species out of which about 39% are endemic plants I,e., 3500, about 55 flowering plants endemic to this area are recognized as rare. This area also rich in plants of economic significance such as Banana, Citrus, Rice, Ginger, chilli, Sugar Cane and Jute. This Himalayan region is regarded as the center of origin and diversification of five palms of commercial importance namely, coconut, arecanut, palmyra palm, sugar palm and wild datepalm. The Taxol plant (Taxus Wallichiana) is sparely distributed in the region and has come under Red Data Book category due to its over exploitation for extraction of a drug effectively used against cancer. This area is also rich center for avian diversity. It consists of more than 60% of the Indian birds are recorded in the north east. This region also has two endemic genera of Lizards and 35 endemic reptiles including two turtles. b) Western Ghats: These Western Ghats are parallel to the western coastal region. They are a range extending north south from the mouth of Tapti to Kanya Kumari. This portion originally covered an area of about 1,82,500 Sq. Km. The western slopes of this ghat section generally experience heavy rain fall, but eastern slope of this section has lesser annual precipitation and in a drier condition than the western fact. The western ghats region is considered as one of the most important bio geo graphic zones of India, as it is one of the richest centers of endemism. Due to varied topography and micro climatic regimes, some areas within the region are considered to be active zones of speciation. About 1/3rd of all the flowering plant species in India are found in this region. Definition:

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Most remarkable places (or) areas on the earth called as Hot - Spots. About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are present in these hot spots. Reasons For Loss of Bio Diversity: Degradation (or) Destruction of habitat due to deforestation. Hunting of wild animals and plants. Unplanned Urbanization. Uncontrolled Urbanization. Shifting Cultivation. Pollution & Poisoning of eco systems. Smuggling. Soil Erosion. Forest Fires, droughts, diseases, and cyclones. Increase of green house gases & global warming. Improper use of agricultural chemicals and pesticides. Over Grazing. Threats to Bio Diversity: Extinction of elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. During evolution, species have died out and have been replaced by other. According to E.O. Wilson estimation, the extinction of are 10,000 per annum (or) 27 days. Major Causes: a) Loss of Habitat b) Poaching c) Man Wildlife Conflict a) Loss of Habitat: Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of bio diversity loss. Billions of hectares of forests and grass lands are degraded due to agricultural practices. The natural forests and grass lands were the natural homes of thousands of species, which perished due to loss of their natural habitat.

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Environmental Studies b) Poaching:

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Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i,e, poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like Furs, Hides, Tusks, Live Specimens and Herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues. c) Man Wildlife Conflicts: In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the 5 year by elephants. In relation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants. The man elephant conflicts in this region has arisen because of massive damage done by the elephants to the farmers cotton and sugar cane crops.

Breakdown of the Human Activities that lead to Threatening of Biodiversity: Sl.No.

1.
2. 3. 4.

Activity Habitat alteration Hunting for commercial products Introduction of alien and domestic species Hunting for sport Pest and predator control Hunting for food Pet trade Superstitions beliefs Pollution \

Percentage, %
30

21 16 12 7
6 5 2 1

5.
6. 7. 8. 9.

Important National Parks in India: S.No 1 2 3 Name of the National Park Kazi Ranga National Park Nanda Devi National Park Sundhar Bhan National Park Site / Location Assam Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

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Environmental Studies 4 5 6 7 Priyar National Park Gir National Park Bandipur National Park Kanha National Park Kerala Gujarat Karnataka Madhya Pradesh

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Some Important Wildlife Sanctuaries: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 Name of Sanctuary Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Rollapadu Wild life Sanctuary Sulthanpur Wildlife Sanctuary Ghana Bird Sanctuary Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Site / Location Assam Andhra Pradesh Haryana Rajasthan Gujarat

Crocodile Conservation: Crocodiles have been threateneded as their skin is used for making leather articles. This led to the near extinction of crocodiles in the world in the 1960s in India. A crocodile breeding conservation programme was initiated in 1975 to protect the remaining population of crocodiles in their natural habitat and by creating breeding centers. Project Elephant: Project elephant was launched in 1992 to ensure the long term survival of a viable population of elephants in their natural habitats in North and North Eastern India and South India. It is being implemented in 12 states. In spite of this, our elephant herds are at threat as their habitat is shrinking and their migration routes are disrupted by human actions. Two important Sanctuaries meant for preservation of coastal eco systems are the Chilka Lake in Orissa and Point Calimere in Tamil Nadu. Wildlife Sanctuaries & National Parks of India: There are 589 protected areas in India, of which 89 are national parks and 500 are wildlife sanctuaries. They include a variety of eco systems and habitats. Some have been created in order to protect highly endangered species of wild plants and animals found no where else in the world. The Great Himalayan Park is the largest sanctuary in the eco system and is one of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard. There are several sanctuaries in the terai region; the Kazi Ranga National Park is the most famous which ahs elephant, gaur, wildboar, swamp deer and hog deer in large numbers as well as tigers & leopards. The Dachigam Sanctuary is the only place where the rare Hangul or Kashmir stag is found. Conservation of Bio Diversity: There are two types of basic approaches to the wildlife conservation. a) In Situ Conservation b) Ex- Situ Conservation a) In Situ Conservation: K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

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Which includes conservation of plants and animals in their native eco systems (or) even in man made eco system. This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora and not the domesticated plants and animals. It is also called as In Situ Conservation. Ex: National Parks, Sanctuaries etc b) Ex Situ Conservation: It is called as Off Site Conservation. This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens. Off situ conservation means conservation of species away from the situ under human supervision. Difference Between National Park & Sanctuary: National Park: National park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. Sanctuary: Sanctuaries are also protected areas where killing, hunting , shooting is prohibited expect under the control of highest authority. Seed Banks: There are more than 100 seed banks in the world and they hold more than four million seeds maintained at low temperatures and low humidity levels. The majority of the banks are in the industrialized countries or indirectly controlled by them. The bank store a vary large amount plant genetic material in a small space. The seeds are supposed to be safe from habitat destruction, climate changes and general destruction. Botanical Gardens: There are over 1,600 botanical gardens in the world, holding about four million plants. They cover about 80,000 species or 30% of all known species. The large one is Kew Gardens in England, which has 25,000 species. When Britain was an imperial power, large numbers of plant species were taken from the colonies to the Kew Gardens. Convention on Biological Diversity: After five years of international negotiations, the convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) was approved in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio and it came into force in 1993. as of October 2004, 188 countries are parties to the convention India ratified it in 1994.

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Main Goals of the Convention: Conservation of bio diversity The sustainable use of the components of bio diversity Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. Food & Fodder Resources: FOOD RESOURCES Introduction: Food is the chief essential materials which the body needs for its well being. These essential materials are called Nutrients. Good food is indispensable for health at all stages of life and for satisfactory growth during infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. October 16th is declared s World Food Day. The global economy is mainly depend on food extraction and ability to derive useful products from natural eco system. Today 15% of total world population is mainly suffering with food problems, they have less than the minimum calorific intake and nutritional requirements needed to sustain a healthy productive working life. World Food Summit: At the world food summit in 1996, the FAO estimated that 60% of the extra food required in the future must come from irrigated agriculture. Main Food Resources: The main food resources include Wheat, Rice, Maize, Potato, Barley, Sugar Cane, Pulses, Sorghum and more than 20 vegetables, fruits, Milk, Meat, Fish and other Sea foods. Amongst these rice, wheat and maize are the major grains about 1500 million metric tons are producing each year. Meat & Milk: Meat & Milk are mainly consumed by more developed nations of north America, Europe & Japan. Fish and sea food contribute about 70 million tons of high quality proteins to the worlds diet. Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO): According to FAO of United Nations estimate that the average minimum calorific intake on a global scale is 2,500 Cal / Day and it also estimates that about 840 million people remain chronically hungry, nearly 800 people in the developing world. Under Nourished: People receiving less than 90% of these minimum dietary calories are called Under nourished. If it is less than 80% they are said to be Seriously Nourished. Malnutrition: Deficiency (or) lack of nutrients often leads to Malnutrition. Impacts of Malnutrition: S. No 1 2 3 Deficiency Iron Iodine Vitamin - A Health Effect Anaemia Goiter / Thyroid Blindness No of Cases 350 Million 150 Million 6 Million

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Green Revolution: Farmers can produce more food either by farming more land (or) getting higher yields per unit area from existing land called Green Revolution.

The process involves three steps: Developing and planting mono culture of selective breed (or) genetically engineered high yielding varieties of rice -, whet and Corn. Lavishing bio fertilizers, pesticides and water on crop to produce high yields. Often increasing the intensity & frequency of cropping. This approach drastically increased crop yields in most developed countries between 1950 1970. This period is called as First Revolution Period. Food Production Indian Scenario: Types of Food Production: There are two major types of food production. a) Industrialized Agriculture b) Traditional Agriculture a) Industrialized Agriculture: uses large amount of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers and pesticides to produce huge quantities of one crop. b) Traditional Agriculture: can be classified as subsidence & Intensive i) Traditional Subsidence Agriculture: It produces enough crops or live stock for a farm family survival and in good years, a surplus to sell or put a side for hard times. ii) Traditional Intensive Agriculture: Farmers increase their inputs of human and draft labour, fertilizers and water to get a higher yield per area of cultivated land to produce enough food. Land Use: The total land area used for agricultural production is currently 170 million hectares. AN additional 12 million hectares are used for animal husbandry. Fertilizer Consumption: From past three decades, consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium fertilizer has grown at 9.5% annually, it making India the fourth largest fertilizer consumer in the world. According to latest data the fertilizer consumption in India is 69.66 Kg / ha. Pesticide Consumption: The consumption of pesticides is also increased from 1980s. Common types of pesticides are a) Insecticides b) Nematocides c) Rodenticides A major pest control revolution began in 1935, when Entomologist Paul Muller discovered DDT. (Dichloro Biphenyl Trichloro Ethane). About 2.5 million tons of pesticides are using each year.
World Food Problems:

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Population is growing every year and so the demand of food is also increasing constantly. During the last 50 years the world food production has increased almost three times, but at the same time, the population growth rapidly increased. Especially less Developed Countries (LDC). From past two decades, every year 40 million people are dieing due to malnutritional problems. Between 1950 & 1990, world grain production almost tripled and per capita production rose by about 36%, helping reduce global hunger and malnutrition. During the same period, the amount of food traced in the world market quadrupled. Major factors leading to this slowdown in the growth of per capita grain production are d) population Growth e) increasing Affluence, which increases the demand for food f) degradation and loss of cropland, mostly because erosion and to a lesser extent in irrigation since 1980 g) a 10% decline in global fertilizer use between 1989 & 1997. Impacts of Over Grazing and Agriculture: Overgrazing: Reduction in the diversity of plant species. Reduction in the growth of vegetation. Increased soil erosion. Land degradation. Loss of useful species. Dominant of plant species that are relatively undesirable to the cattle. Effects of Agriculture: The major problems are arised due to the modern agricultural practices are related to fertilizers, pesticides, water logging and salination. Besides water, sunshine, CO2, plants need small quantities of inorganic elements for their growth. The most important elements required by plants are Nitrogen, Magnesium, and Sulphur. Adding these chemicals in fertilizers stimulates growth of plant species. Uses: They can be easier to store, handle, apply and transport than most natural fertilizers. Low pathogenic contamination. Problems: Excess amounts of fertilizer enter in soil decreases quality of soil, it also harmful to micro organisms present in soil. These are pollutes the aquatic systems near by the agricultural lands, Decreases quality of water resources. Fertilizer Related Problems: 1. Micro Nutrient Imbalance 2. Nitrate Pollution 3. Eutrophication K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

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Micro Nutrient Imbalance: Farmers used nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are essential nutrients. Farmers usually use these fertilizers indiscriminately to boost up crop growth. Excessive use of fertilizers cause micro nutrient imbalance. Nitrate Pollution: It is an important fertilizer helpful for plants growth. The concentration of nitrogen exceeds 25 mg / L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard called Blue Baby Disease or Blue Baby Disease or Methaemoglobinemia. Increased nitrogen concentration leads to death, this problem arised in many countries like Denmark, Germany & Nether land. Eutrophication: Excessive use of phosphorus & nitrogen in agricultural fields leads to another problem, which is not related to soil, but related to water bodies. Increased algal growth, these algal blooms effects aquatic food chains. The algal species quickly complete their life cycle and die, there by adding a lot of dead organic matter. Pesticides: A large amount of pesticides are used to ensure crop yield production. Pesticide is a common term for insecticides, Rodenticides, fungicides, herbicides etc. The major agricultural pests are insects (feed on mainly leaves & stems of plants), Nematodes (feed on roots and other plant tissues), weeds (flowering plants), Vertebrates (mainly birds & rodents that feed on fruit & grain). These are chemicals used to kill (or) control the population of unwanted fungi, plants and animals often called as pests. Uses of Pesticides: To control weeds. For aesthetic reasons, lawn care, garden flower and golf courses. To maximize crop or live stock yields. To reduce post harvest losses to rodents, fungus etc. To improve appearance of crops or live stock. For disease control For preservation and maintenance of buildings, clothing, furniture etc. Classification of Pesticides: a) Persistent Pesticides b) Non Persistent Pesticides a) Persistent Pesticides: Once applied are effective for a long time.

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b) Non Persistent Pesticides: Tends to accumulated in soil (or) bodies of animals in food chains. When pesticides enter the food chain, their concentration increases as food chain increases. The production of synthetic pesticides are started around 1939, at present more than 10,000 pesticides are present. First Generation of Pesticides: The first generation of pesticides include chemicals like Sulphur, Arsenic, Plum bum, Mercury to kill the pests. Second Generation of Pesticides: DDT is the second generation of pesticides discovered by Paul Muller in 1939. Effects: Effects on other beneficial plants. Highly toxic compounds. Bio magnification: Many of the pesticides are non biodegradable and keep on accumulating in the food chain. This process is called as Bio - Magnification. Short Term Effects Long Term Effects Short Term Effects: Short term effects are called as Acute Effects. Ex: Vomiting, Drowsiness Long Term Effects: Long term effects are called as Chronic Effects. Ex: Cancer, Mental Disorders etc. Over use Poor selectivity of compounds Toxicity and slow breakdown Pesticide resistance and pest resurgence. Tendency to be concentrated by food web. Misuse or unsafe methods of application. Creation on new pests due to the killing of beneficial predators that previously kept a number of pests under control. Water Logging: The problem arises due to high water table (or) excess water to accumulate under ground. Due to this situation,, the crop yield production decreases (or) very poor.

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Impacts of Overgrazing& Modern Agriculture Practices:

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Biotic Resources or Living Resources:

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FOREST RESOURCES Introduction: Forest resources are important natural resources on this earth and covering the earth as Think Green Blanket. Forest resources are providing not only the commercial various products but also provides various ecological services, which are vital for survival of life. About 23% of the total land area in India is covered by forests. Forests are biotic components that include trees, shrubs and woody vegetation. The term Forest is derived from Latin word Foris which means Out Skirts or Out side. Forest is a plant community, predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, occupying an extensive area of land. About 1/3rd of the land surface is covered with forest. Forest also influence local, regional and global climate. On a hot day, a tree may extract 5 tons of water from the soil and transpire it into the atmosphere to natural rain cloud seeding. The role of forests in environmental purification was realized after the Earth Summit/ Rio - Summit of 1992.

PRESENT STATUS OF INDIAN FORESTS:

Land Use: India is the 7th largest area and second largest human population (with more than 1 billion) in the world with an area of 328.73 Million ha of land, out of which 306.05 Million ha of land is using as per Forest Survey of India report. India has ranked 2 nd position in human population with more than 1 billion.
WORLD FOREST COVER:

According to the State of World Forests the total World Forest Cover is 26.6%, World 26.6% Asia 16.4% Africa 17.7% Japan 66.8% (Maximum Forest Cover) Indonesia 60.6% Europe 41.3% India 19.27% Pakistan 2.3% (Least Forest Cover) According to the report of Forest Survey of India (FSI), now the present forest cover of India is 20.64%, out of which Very Dense Forest Occupying Moderately Dense Forests Open Forest Mangrove Forests 1.56% 10.32% 8.76% 0.14%

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Among all the states of India, Madhya Pradesh having maximum forest cover of 11.27%, followed by Aruna chala Pradesh 10.03%, Orissa 7.3%, Maharastra 6.9% and Andhra Pradesh 6.55%.

TYPES OF FOREST RESOURCES:

Depending upon the climate conditions forests may be classified as Coniferous Forests Temperate Deciduous Forests Temperate Evergreen Forests Tropical Rain Forests Sub Tropical Rain Forests Tropical Seasonal Forests Coniferous Forests: Cold regions with high rain fall Strongly seasonal climatic conditions with long winters and fairly short summers Ex: Adjacent to the Tundra region Temperate Deciduous Forests: These are characterized by moderate climatic conditions Annual rainfall of 75 150 cm and Temperature of 10 200C Broad leaved deciduous forests Ex: Forests are in North America and Europe Temperate Evergreen Forests: These are characterized by Warm Dry Winters and Cool Moist Winters The common animals that are found in this region are Brush Rabbits, Deers, Wood Rats and Lizards. Tropical Rain Forests: These forests occur near the equator in central & South America, Central & Western Africa, South East Asia etc. These forests are among the most diverse communities on the earth. Both humidity & temperature are high & constant The annual rainfall exceeds 200 225 cm in general & is evenly distributed throughout the year. The common animals that are found in this region are Monkeys, Rabbits, Bats, Frogs, Lizards etc. Sub Tropical Rain Forests: These are the regions of fairly high rainfall but the temperature differences between winter & summer are less marked in Florida. K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

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. Tropical Seasonal Forests: The total rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet & dry periods. These forests are found in South East Asia, Central & South America, India etc.
USES / SERVICES / FUNCIONS / VALUES OF FOREST RESOURCES:

Important uses of forest resources are Commercial Uses Ecological Uses Other Uses Commercial Uses: Forest resources are producing a large number of commercial products like Timber, Fire wood, Pulp wood, resins, gums, latex, lac, rubber etc which are having the great demand in the international markets. The total worth of the all commercial products are more than 300$ billion dollars per annum, but now a days all these forest resources are destroying for agricultural, mining, construction of houses, buildings, industries, dams, road & railway lines etc. Timber: The chief economic product of a forest is timber. It is used to make furniture, implements and as building materials. Fuel: Wood is used as a source of energy mainly for cooking. During destructive distillation of wood, coal gas, charcoal, ammonia gas, carbon and coke are produced. Food: Fruits, leaves, roots of plants and meat of forest animals are food for human beings, particularly the tribal in the forest. Paper: Bamboo and wood are used to manufacture different types of paper. Forest Products: Honey, Wax, Gum, Medicines, drugs, spices, insecticides, horns and ivory are provided by forest plants and animals. Bamboo is widely used for making houses in villages. It is also used to make ropes, mats, cots and baskets. Reeds are used to weave baskets and mats. Ecological Uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about Rs 30,000, it provides environmental services worth nearly 10,000 The important ecological uses are Production of Oxygen Reducing Global warming Water storage Wildlife Habitat Soil Conservation Pollution Moderators Production of Oxygen: Plant species are produces (or) releases pure Oxygen (or) fresh air into the environment which is so vital for survival of life. K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS

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Reducing Global Warming: Plant species absorbs CO2 as raw material in the photo synthesis process for preparation of food materials. This CO2 acting as important global warming gas (or) green house gas thus increases the temperature of earth surface. Water Storage: Forest areas attract heavy rainfall. The thick canopies of the forests retain moisture for many days and the water drips sown slowly into the forest floor. The water percolates into the soil and replenishes the reservoir of ground water. Wildlife Habitat: Forest provides shelter for birds, reptiles, mammals and insects. Plant species are acting as Home for millions of wildlife species. Tropical forests alone acting as home for nearly 7 million species. Soil Conservation: Plant species are tightly bind (or) hold the soil particles in their root system and protect the soil from erosion process. Forests prevent soil erosion by binding the soil with the roots of trees. Removal of trees loosens the soil. This causes landslides and water run off which can also lead to flash floods and reduces green house effect. Pollution Moderators: Plant species are absorbs not only the CO2 gas but it also absorbs various gases like SOX, NOX etc. Other Uses: Provides clean water Provides home from to unique plants and animals Source of economic growth Provides clean air Provides recreational opportunities Climate control: Transpiration, which is the loss of water vapour from the leaves of terrestrial plants into the atmosphere, controls the atmospheric balance including rainfall and cooling of the atmosphere. Provision of Employment: Forests provide employment to millions of people throughout the world.

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Functions of Forest Resources: The important functions of forest resources are a) Watershed Protection b) Atmospheric Regulation c) Erosion Control d) Land Bank e) Land Use a) Watershed Protection: Reducing the rate of surface run off Preventing flash floods and soil erosion Producing prolonged gradual run off and thus safe guarding against drought b) Atmospheric Regulation: Absorption of solar heat during evapotranspiration Maintaining CO2 levels for plants growth Maintaining the local climatic conditions c) Erosion Control: Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away) d) Land Bank: Food: Gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest Fodder for cattle Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking & heating Timber for household articles and construction
DEFORESTATION:

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The term Deforestation refers Drastic elimination of forest resources (or) Cutting of trees (or) Loss of forest cover. In this process the forest is completely converting into agricultural area then this area is converting into deserts. The total forest cover of the world was 7000 Million ha in 1900, which was reduced to 2890 Million ha in 1975, then fell down just to2300 Million ha. The rate of deforestation is very less in temperate countries but it is very high in tropical countries. Deforestation is a continuous process. In India about 1.3m hectares of forest land has been lost. The per capita availability of forest in India is 0.08 hectares per person, which is much lower that the world average of 0.8 hectares. Major Causes of Deforestation: The major causes of deforestation are (b) Population Explosion (c) Demand of Wood for Industries (d) Mining Activities (e) Overgrazing (f) Construction of Roads & Railway Lines (g) Fires (h) Developmental activities like Dams (i) agriculture (a) Population Explosion: Due to the over population of human being requirement of timber, fuel, paper wood etc has been increased. Man has cleared large areas of forests for agriculture, mining, for construction of industries etc, to provide dwellings, agricultural land and roads, forests are destroyed. Felling of trees provides a source of income for billions of people throughout the world and forest products are useful in many ways. (b) Demand of Wood Increases: Wood is used for several industrial processes such as making of boxes, crates, packing cases, furniture, match boxes, paper, ply wood etc. (c) Mining Activities: Mining operations have a serious impact on forest resources. Large scale deforestation has been reported in Dehradun due to indiscriminate cutting of forest resources. Mining operations and dams damage and affect the valuable forest land. Dams also damage downstream eco system. In Brazil the grand Carajas project has taken over about 900000Km2 of forest to provide cheap raw material for the world market. (d) Construction of Roads: Construction of roads along mountains is also a cause of forest degradation. (e) Overgrazing:

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Overgrazing of forests by live stock has resulted in large scale degradation of forest resources. (f) Fire: It is the worst enemy of forest. It destroys total forest area and also causes large scale damage to animal life. (g) Developmental Activities: Dams, reservoirs, hydro electric projects submerge forest areas. These projects displace large number of tribal people and cause great damage to the forests. Effects of Deforestation: The major effects of deforestation are (a) Effects of Climate: Global Warming Hot Climate Rainfall Pattern Decreases Increase the content of toxic gases in atmosphere. (b) Effects on Bio Diversity: Loss of Medicinal Plants Extinction of Animal Species Loss of Timber & Fuel Wood (c) Effects on Resources: Loss of Land Resources Loss of Fertility of Soil Soil Erosion (d) Effects on Economy: Decreases the countrys economy Increase the demand of industrial products (d) Effects on Food Materials: Loss of Food Products Loss of Flesh & Meat due to the Extinction of Animal Species Other Effects includes: Expansion of Desert Area Migration of Local Tribal People Loss of Fertile Land Decreases the fertility of soil Economic Loss Decreases the quality of Environment Ecological Imbalance Disturbance of Food Chain Destruction of valuable sink for environmental pollutants. Humid regions change to deserts.

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(a) Mining Activities: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub surface mining. More than 80,000 ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and over lying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. Decreases the quality of air Decreases the quality of water Decreases the quality of environment Air Pollution Water Pollution (Surface & Ground Water Bodies) Noise Pollution Decreases the fertility of soil Decreases the Ground water table Soil Disintrigation, Alteration of social relationships. Loss of flora & Fauna Soil Erosion Occupational Health Hazards to miners (b) Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc, also road construction for making approach to trees causes further damage to the forests. Wood removal in 2005 is estimated to be 1.3 m3 in India. Decreases the quality of air Decreases the quality of water Decreases the quality of environment Air Pollution Water Pollution (Surface & Ground Water Bodies) Noise Pollution Decreases the fertility of soil Decreases the Ground water table Loss of flora & Fauna Soil Erosion

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Dams and their effects on Forests & Local people: India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharastra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250), Madhya Pradesh (more than 130). Big dams and river valley projects have multi purpose uses and have been referred to as Temples of Modern India. However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests. India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharastra (more than 600), followed by Gujarath (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri Damon River Bhagirathiin Uttarakhand and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakranagal damon river Satluj in Himachala Pradesh. Effects of Dams: Degradation of catchment area Loss of Flora & Fauna Increased Water Borne Diseases Sub merges the low lying areas when the water is released from the dams Displacement of Local Tribal People. Importance of Forest Resources: Afford protection to wild life against strong cold & heat Afford protection against adverse impacts of solar radiations Help in maintaining the balance between CO2 & O2 in environment Tent to increase the water holding capacity of soil Reduces soil erosion Decreases temperature Increases rainfall Increases crop yield protection

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K. Syamala Devi, Asst. Prof, GNITS