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LIGHTNING ARRESTERS DEFINITION and HOW IT WORKS/ OPERATES TUTORIAL A Tutorial About Lightning Arrester There are two

basic voltage surge that may cause damage to the system and its corresponding equipment and apparatus. These are: 1. Switching Surge 2. Lightning Surge Switching Surge - These are voltage abnormalities that are caused by changes in the operating state of the power system, that involves switching (literally) of breakers, disconnect switches, and other switch gears. It happens as trapped energy are released during the event. Lightning Surge - These are voltage abnormalities caused by the phenomenon of lightning. Damaged may be experienced through direct stroke or hit, or by induced voltages. Lightning are harmful, and runs in millions of voltages, which makes the equipment vulnerable without protection. The risk of having your equipment exposed to both of these abnormalities can be greatly reduced with the application of surge arresters. Not to be confused, surge arresters refers to devices which could protect from the aforementioned abnormalities. Lightning arresters on the other hand are specifically named protection device, designed more for lightning protection, but in itself is capable enough to protect it from switching surge. Below are selected article links to help you understand further what is a lightning arrester and how lightning arrester works:

LIGHTNING AND.... SURGE PROTECTION


Opto Isolation, Transformer Isolation, Surge Protection Hi - here's some technical information for your perusal.

Tutorial by Kenneth Schneider PhD

Telebyte USA
Lightning has long fascinated the technical community. Ben Franklin studied lightning's electrical nature over two centuries ago and Charles R Steinmetz generated artificial lightning in his General Electric laboratory in the 1920's. As someone concerned with premises data communications you need to worry about lightning. Here I will elaborate on why, where and when you should worry about lightning. I'll then discuss how to get protection from it.

6.1 WHY WORRY ABOUT LIGHTNING?


It is unfortunate, but a fact of life, that computers, computerrelated products and process control equipment found in premises data communications environments can be damaged by high-voltage surges and spikes. Such power surges and spikes are most often caused by lightning strikes. However, there are occasions when the surges and spikes result from any one of a variety of other causes. These causes may include direct contact with power/lightning circuits, static buildup on cables and components, high energy transients coupled into equipment from cables in close proximity, potential differences between grounds to which different equipments are connected, miswired systems and even human equipment users who have accumulated large static electricity charge build-ups on their clothing. In fact, electrostatic discharges from a person can produce peak Voltages up to 15 kV with currents of tens of Amperes in less than 10 microseconds. A manufacturing environment is particularly susceptible to such surges because of the presence of motors and other high voltage equipment. The essential point to remember is, the effects of surges due to these other sources are no different than those due to lightning. Hence, protection from one will also protect from the other. When a lightning-induced power surge is coupled into your computer equipment any one of a number of harmful events may occur. Semiconductors are prevalent in such equipment. A lightning induced surge will almost always surpass the voltage rating of these devices causing them to fail. Specifically, lightning induced surges usually alter the electrical characteristics of semiconductor devices so that they no longer function effectively. In a few cases, a surge may destroy the semiconductor device. These are called "hard failures." Computer equipment having a hard failure will no longer function at all. It must be repaired with the resulting expense of "downtime" or the expense of a standby unit to take its place. In several instances, a lightning-derived surge may destroy the printed traces in the printed circuit boards of the computer equipment also resulting in hard failures. Along with the voltage source, lightning can cause a current surge and a resultant induced magnetic field. If the computer contains a magnetic disk then this interfering magnetic field might overwrite and destroy data stored in the disk. Furthermore, the aberrant magnetic field may energize the disk head when it should be quiescent. To you, the user, such behavior will be viewed as the "disk crashing." Some computer equipment may have magnetic relays. The same aberrant magnetic fields which cause disk crashes may activate relays when they shouldn't be activated, causing unpredictable, unacceptable performance. Finally, there is the effect of lightning on program logic controllers (PLCS) which are found in the manufacturing environment. Many of these PLCs use programs stored in ROMS. A lightning-induced surge can alter the contents of the ROM causing aberrant operation by the PLC.

So these are some of the unhappy things which happen when a computer experiences lightning. But you may say, "Come on, equipment hit by lightning, that's like winning the lottery. It has never happened and I doubt that it ever will." This is a typical reaction and unfortunately it is based on ignorance. True, people may never, or rarely, experience, direct lightning strikes on exposed, in-building cable feeding into their equipment. However, it is not uncommon to find computer equipment being fed by buried cable. In this environment, a lightning strike, even several miles away, can induce voltage/current surges which travel through the ground and induce surges along the cable, ultimately causing equipment failure. The equipment user is undoubtedly aware of these failures but usually does not relate them to the occurrence of lightning during thunderstorm activity since the user does not experience a direct strike. In a way, such induced surges are analogous to chronic high blood pressure in a person; they are "silent killers." In the manufacturing environment, long cable runs are often found connecting sensors, PLCs and computers. These cables are particularly vulnerable to induced surges.

6.2 SHOULD YOU WORRY ABOUT LIGHTNING? This question primarily relates to the geographical location of computer equipment end-users. When other interfering phenomena which can cause a deterioration of performance is considered, it matters little where the equipment is geographically located. When do you have to worry during a thunderstorm? Typically, thunderstorms are characterized as intense individual rain cells or showers embedded in a broad area of light rain. These intense cells are only over a fixed location for a few minutes. They are on average, several miles in each direction. In the continental United States thunderstorm cells move from west to east along a squall line as shown in Figure 17. This squall line is about 1230 miles in width and up to 1,250 miles long. The speed at which the thunderstorm cell moves is generally 30 knots (approximately 34.4 statute miles per hour).

6.4 EQUIPMENT PROTECTION Coming right down to it, a lot can be done as far as protection is concerned. However, it is best to begin by describing the magnitude of the threat from which you need protection. The first stroke of lightning during a thunderstorm can produce peak currents ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 Amperes with rise times of 1 microsecond. It is hard to conceive of, let alone protect against, such enormous magnitudes. Fortunately, such threats only apply to direct hits on overhead lines. Hopefully, this is a rare phenomenon. More common is the induced surge on a buried cable. In one test, lightning-induced voltages caused by strokes in ground flashes at distances of about 5 km were measured at both ends of a 448 meter long, unenergized power distribution line.

Typical test results are illustrated in Figure 19. Notice that the maximum-induced surge exceeds 80 Volts peak-to-peak. This is more than enough to destroy semiconductor devices and computer related equipment. Yet, 80 Volts is well within the range of affordable protection. Conceptually, lightning protection devices are switches to ground. Once a threatening surge is detected, a lightning protection device grounds the incoming signal connection point of the equipment being protected. Thus, redirecting the threatening surge on a path-of-least resistance (impedance) to ground where it is absorbed. Any lightning protection device must be composed of two "subsystems," a switch which is essentially some type of switching circuitry and a good ground connection-to allow dissipation of the surge energy. The switch, of course, dominates the design and the cost. Yet, the need for a good ground connection can not be emphasized enough. Computer equipment has been damaged by lightning, not because of the absence of a protection device, but because inadequate attention was paid to grounding the device properly. The basic elements used as protective switches are: gas tubes, metal oxide varistors and silicon avalanche diodes (transorbs). Each has certain advantages and disadvantages. Because they can withstand many kilovolts and hundreds of Amperes, gas tubes have traditionally been used to suppress lightning surges on telecommunications lines. This is just what is needed to protect against a direct strike. Because gas tubes have a relatively slow response time, this slowness lets enough energy to pass to destroy typical solid state circuits. Metal oxide varistors (MOVS) provide an improvement over the response time problem of gas tubes. But, operational life is a drawback. MOVs protection characteristic decays and fails completely when subjected to prolonged over voltages. Silicon avalanche diodes have proven to be the most effective means of protecting computer equipment against over voltage transients. Silicon avalanche diodes are able to withstand thousands of high voltage, high current and transient surges without failure. While they can not deal with the surge peaks that gas tubes can, silicon avalanche diodes do provide the fastest response time. Thus, depending upon the principal threat being protected against, devices can be found employing gas tubes, MOVS, or silicon avalanche diodes. This may be awkward, since the threat is never really known in advance. Ideally, the protection device selected should be robust, using all three basic circuit breaker elements. The architecture of such as device is illustrated in Figure 20. This indicates triple stage protection and incorporates gas tubes, MOVs and silicon avalanche diodes as well as various coupling components and a good ground. With the architecture shown in Figure 20 a lightning strike surge will travel, along the line until it reaches a gas tube. The gas tube dumps extremely high amounts of surge energy directly to earth ground. However, the surge rises very rapidly and the gas tube needs several microseconds to fire.

As a consequence, a delay element is used to slow the propagation of the leading edge wavefront, thereby maximizing the effect of the gas tube. For a 90 Volt gas tube, the rapid rise of the surge will result in its firing at about 650 Volts. The delayed surge pulse, now of reduced amplitude, is impressed on the avalanche diode which responds in about one nanosecond or less and can dissipate 1,500 Watts while limiting the voltage to 18 Volts for EIA-232 circuits. This 18 Volt level is then resistively coupled to the MOV which clamps to 27 Volts. The MOV is additional protection if the avalanche diode capability is exceeded. As previously mentioned, the connection to earth ground can not be over emphasized. The best earth ground is undoubtedly a cold water pipe. However, other pipes and building power grounds can also be used. While cold water pipes are good candidates you should even be careful here. A plumber may replace sections of corroded metal pipe with plastic. This would render the pipe useless as a ground.

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TRANSMISSION and DISTRIBUTION LINES LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT USING SPECIAL METHODS IEEE Std 1243-1997 Guide of Special Methods of Improving Lightning Performance

Transmission and Distribution line's lightning performance can be improved by several special methods that have been used with some success. This article will give a brief review of the best known of these special methods. Designers should recognize, however, that industry experience has usually been limited to a few applications, and more experience is being accumulated. Additional shield wires Since the mid 1910s, it has been recognized that OHGWs on a transmission line reduce the lightning voltage created across the insulators. This reduction comes about in the three following ways: a) By intercepting strokes that would otherwise hit the phase conductors b) By draining off part of the stroke current that would otherwise ow through the footing impedance c) By increasing the common-mode coupling of voltage surges on the shield wires to the phase conductors, causing the insulator voltage at the tower to be reduced Only the first of these effects requires the grounded wire to be above the phase conductors. One or more shield wires under the phase conductors will not intercept lightning strokes, but they may improve coupling and reduce insulator lightning voltages almost as effectively as if they were above the phase conductors.

The large improvement is caused mainly by the increase in coupling coefficient from shield wires to phases rather than in the small reduction in total shield-wire surge impedance.

Guy wires on transmission towers In some cases, towers are uprated by putting new or additional guy wires from the tower to rock or soil anchors. This treatment should also improve lightning performance in two ways. First, each new guy anchor will behave as an additional ground electrode. The anchors may be grouted with low-resistivity material such as concrete, and bonded to any existing counterpoise or structure, to maximize the benefitt. Second, the guy wires will mitigate the tower surge response. Four widely separated guy wires may reduce the impedance of a tower from 100 W to 50 W. This factor alone may reduce the outage rate of a tall line by 30%. Ground wire on separate structures OHGWs may be supported by separate outboard towers or poles instead of being mounted on the same structure that supports the phase conductors. This arrangement may give extreme negative shielding angles, which minimize induction losses and provide excellent security from shielding failures. Tower height and wind loading may also be reduced.

While an expensive option, OHGWs on separate structures may result in excellent lightning performance. Connections from the OHGWs to towers, if required for ac fault-current management, should be designed to have a high impedance to lightning through long interconnection length to minimize risk of back flashover. Line surge arresters Surge arresters at every insulator location (line arresters) present an alternative to the OHGWs both for new construction and for improvements to older unshielded lines when improved lightning performance is required. For special applications such as river crossings and on one circuit of doublecircuit lines, properly applied line arresters may also provide specific benefits such as reduced double-circuit outage rate. Line arresters have been successfully used on many transmission lines. Excellent results were reported on a line that crossed mountain ridges of high ground resistivity (usually rock) and high lightning exposure, leading to frequent lightning flashovers and insulator damage.

Unbalanced insulation on double-circuit lines Unbalanced insulation on double-circuit lines, first applied by Kawai, is a deliberate effort to force most of the flashovers onto one circuit so that the other circuit will experience few flashovers, if any. When the weaker circuit flashes over, its phase conductors are suddenly connected to the tower by the flashover path, thereby making them momentarily underbuilt shield wires until the breaker opens. Insulator voltages on the unfaulted circuits are reduced by draining away some stroke current into the phase surge impedance. Common-mode voltage coupling is also enhanced, decreasing the normal-mode voltage appearing across the insulation. The lowest circuits have the lowest surge impedances to ground. They will also offer the greatest improvement in coupling, and would logically be selected as the weaker circuits. return the total flashover rate to acceptable levels. Active air terminals In some cases, older lines were constructed with shielding angles that are now considered to be poor. Line shielding may be somewhat improved by increasing the proportion of strikes that hit the tower. This has traditionally been done through the addition of lightning masts at existing towers, although other products are now offered commercially. At this time, there is little full-scale evidence that either supports or contradicts the additional effectiveness of these devices. Any projection will increase the effective tower height and the resulting lightning incidence, which leads to more back flashovers. However, an advantageous trade-off may sometimes be made. Rizk describes the two important physical conditions for positive leader inception from a structure or conductor. These conditions are basically determined by structure or by wire height above ground. Under negative leader space charge, small details of the structure surface would appear to have only minor effects on the lightning incidence.

SAMPLE SPECIFICATION OF SURGE ARRESTER Specification Sample Tutorial for 72.5 kV Surge Arrester

Surge Arresters w Corona Rings Below is a sample of a specification of Surge Arrester. Some of the basic parameter are covered. You may use it as a guide in selection and specifying Surge Arresters for your specific needs. Take note that not everything is covered on the specs. Use it only as a guide. SURGE ARRESTERS Brand: Brand of Choice Class : Station Class Installation: Outdoor Type Voltage Rating (kV rms) : 60 MCOV Rating (kV rms) : 48 Front-of-Wave Protective Level (kV crest): 175 Maximum Discharge Voltage (kV crest) : - 1.5 KA 125 Switching Surge Protective Level (kV crest) @ 500 A : 117 Creepage Distance : 68 in. Insulation Withstand Voltage : - 1.2/50 Impulse (kV Crest) 358 - 60Hz dry 60 sec (kV rms) 200 Rated Arrester Discharge Energy >9 kJ/KV of MCOV Conductive Material : Metal Oxide Housing : Silicon Rubber/Polymer Line Teminal Connection: NEMA Four-hole Pad Ground Terminal Connection: NEMA Four-hole Pad Mounting Arrangement : Mounting Base Located on Bottom (Standard Mounting)

ENERGY HANDLING CAPABILITY OF SURGE ARRESTERS TUTORIAL What is Energy Handling Capability of Surge Arresters

Photo Courtesy of http://www.classiclightningprotection.com/index.html

Metal oxide arresters protect the equipment from high voltage surges by absorbing the energy from the surge. Hence, the energy handling capability (or also called "energy absorption capability" or "energy withstand capability") is an important consideration in the design and application of metal oxide arresters. Most manufacturers publish energy capability values of arresters. However, there are no specified tests either in IEEE/ANSI, or IEC standards. Hence, there is confusion in using these important application parameters. Both IEEE and IEC are contemplating writing standardized tests for the arrester energy handling capability. When metal oxide arresters are energized, valve elements of the arrester will absorb energy which results in a temperature increase of the valve elements. Under normal operating conditions (i.e. absence of overvoltage) there is a balance between the heat generated by the valve elements and the heat dissipated by the arrester through conduction, convection and radiation such that a stable operating condition is maintained. Overvoltage events disturb this stable condition by causing the valve elements to absorb increased levels of energy for some limited amount of time. The subsequent response of the arrester depends greatly on the magnitude and rate of energy input and on the specific design of the arrester. For simple applications where overvoltages are well defined, the resulting energy absorbed by the arrester can be determined by calculation (use arrester minimum voltage characteristics for energy calculation).

If the temperature rise of the valve elements due to energy absorption is too high, the arrester can be driven into a state of thermal runaway, a condition in which heat generated exceeds heat dissipated, resulting in further increase in valve element temperature. It is possible for temperature to reach a high enough level to cause damage to the valve element material, leading to an electrical breakdown and failure of the arrester. If the energy density is sufficiently high or if the distribution of energy density within the valve element is non-uniform to cause locally high temperature gradients, thermomechanical damage in the form of valve element cracking or puncture may occur. This is possible even if the overall temperature rise of the valve elements would not have been high enough to drive the arrester into thermal runaway. The energy handling capability of metal oxide arresters is often expressed in terms of kilojoules per kV of arrester MCOV or per kV of arrester rating (duty cycle). First, the users must be aware to compare the right parameters, since kJ/kV MCOV can be 25% higher than kJ/kV of duty-cycle rating. Some manufacturers also publish the kJ/kV values that are applicable for single shot energy discharge, and another (higher) value for multi-shot (usually three) discharges within one-minute period. Spacing between the shots gives time for the heat to distribute throughout the disk. The energy handling capability is dependent on the specific form (magnitude, wave shape and duration) of the current discharged through the arrester, hence it cannot be expressed by a single value of kJ/kV. Arrester energy ratings are typically specified by the manufacturers based on transmission line discharge (switching surge) tests. Manufacturers should be consulted for specific types of discharges that the published kJ/kV values apply. The energy capability of a MOSA is also dependent on the operating voltage present subsequent to the discharge current. The arrester can potentially absorb more energy than it's rating, without going into thermal instability if the post event voltage is less than MCOV. Published arrester energy withstand data do not provide the necessary information to assess the influence of post-event voltage on arrester energy capability.

EFFECT OF SHIELD WIRES ON TRANSMISSION LINES SHILED WIRES TUTORIALS AND DOWNLOAD LINKS

Shield wires or shielding are wires used in high voltage power transmission lines to protect the cable insulation and also people and equipment. They are used primarily for protection from direct hit of lightning, and its corresponding surges. When a stroke terminates on the phase conductor (Figure 1a), most of the current will discharge to ground through the nearest line arrester. Adjacent arresters will discharge some of the energy, limited by the span inductance. The sharing is most effective on the tail of the surge, which is the portion of greatest energy content. If the struck pole or tower ground resistance is reduced due to soil ionization, the energy sharing is less effective. An overhead shield wire is designed to intercept most lightning strokes that would otherwise hit the phase conductors. Most of the current will discharge through the tower and pole grounds, with relatively little current flowing through any line arresters. This reduces the energy duty on the line arresters. Some lightning strokes may terminate directly terminate on a phase conductor, but these should have low current magnitudes (5 to 20 kA) according to the present theory of shielding. Therefore, line arresters may be applied to shielded lines to improve the back flashover performance, with little concern for energy duty on the arresters.

Lightning Protection Performance Assessment of Shielding Failure for EHV Transmission Lines The operation results show that the shielding failure is the main cause of lightning accidents of EHV transmission lines in North China. The shielding failure performances of six 500kV transmission lines are evaluated by the Electric Geometry Method (EGM) in this paper. Read more... Magnetic Field Cancellation (Active Shielding) Our active magnetic shielding systems are used primarily for reducing powerline magnetic fields. They are effective for both overhead and underground lines. Within a defined area, the magnetic field can often be reduced to a very low level. Read more...

Optimal Design of Active Shielding for Power Lines This paper analyzes the design of cost effective active loop field shielding for power lines. In this paper, a mathematical model is developed. Read more...

TRANSMISSION LINE ARRESTER STANDARD GUIDELINES


Line Arrester Standards Line arresters are not specifically addressed in C62.11-1999, although the arresters used in these applications are part of the standard. Most of the test requirements that apply to line arresters are based on station requirements or distribution class requirements.

When specifying line arresters, it should be noted that the following points are inherent to C62.111999.

1. Lightning energy handling capability can be a major factor in selecting line arresters depending on their application. The requirement of lightning related energy is typically much more significant for lines than stations. Although present standards do contain some lightning-related tests, there is not presently an accepted test to quantify the lightning energy handling capability of surge arresters. Published energy handling capability of arresters is typically based on switching-related tests.

2. Heavy-duty distribution arresters may be subjected to more severe lightning-related tests than station class or intermediate class arresters. Although it is common belief that arrester lightning energy capabilities increase from heavy-duty distribution to intermediate to station, the present standards do not necessarily prove this through testing.

3. The 100-kA test for heavy-duty distribution arresters should not be confused with an arrester surviving a 100-kA lightning stroke. First, the 100-kA test is a 4 x 10 ms wave that has much less energy than a typical 100-kA lightning stroke. Second, the 100-kA tests allow up to 5 minutes before the arrester is connected to MCOV to prove thermal stability.

4. Short-circuit tests permit polymer arresters to fall apart as long as the pieces fall within specific areas. The tests allow 2 minutes before the arrester must self-extinguish. These allowances in the present standards may not be acceptable for certain areas on a line right-of-way.

LIGHTNING FLASHOVERS ON OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES


Lightning flashovers are segregated into three main types, for stroke locations on a phase conductor, on an overhead shield wire, or to nearby ground.

SHIELDING FAILURE FLASHOVERS Shielding failure flashovers events result from a lightning stroke terminating directly on a phase conductor. For shielded lines, these events should be very infrequent and of very low stroke current magnitude.

For unshielded lines (i.e., static less lines), these events will be much more common and will involve the full distribution of lightning stroke current magnitudes. Arresters can be used to address shielding failure flashovers by applying the arresters on the exposed phases.

The arresters must be installed at every tower or pole to be effective at preventing shielding failure flashovers. For unshielded line applications, arrester energy requirements must be adequately addressed since the stroke currents and durations they will be exposed to are harsher than in shielded line applications.

BACK FLASHOVERS Back flashovers, events result from a lightning stroke terminating on the ground system (i.e., shield wires, tower tops, and pole tops) causing a potential across the insulation that causes a flashover to occur.

The surge traveling on the shield wire will cause surge voltages to be induced in the phase conductors. The magnitude of the induced voltage is a function of the current magnitude, resistance, and geometry.

Stroke currents exceeding a critical current value will develop sufficient voltage between the structure and the phase conductor to cause an insulator flashover. The phase with the poorest coupling to the shield wire will be the most highly stressed and therefore most likely to flash over. Local grounding conditions have a major impact on back flashover performance.

Arresters can be used to address these types of outages by placing them on the least coupled phases (e.g., bottom phases) or in high footing resistance areas. For applications in high footing resistance areas, it is important to apply the arresters not only in the areas of high footing resistances, but also one or two structures away from the high footing resistance areas.

INDUCED VOLTAGE FLASHOVERS Induced voltage flashovers events result from nearby lightning strokes inducing voltages on line conductors. Because the induced overvoltages measured on distribution lines rarely exceed 300 kV, it is common belief that this phenomenon has little effect at transmission voltage levels. However, the induced voltages tend to increase with line height.

There may be some structures used at 34.5 kV through 69 kV (sometimes referred to as subtransmission voltages) that could be susceptible to induced voltage flashovers from nearby lightning strokes.

For lines that are susceptible to induced voltage flashovers, arresters at relatively wide spacing may be used to minimize the effects of these events.

SURGE ARRESTERS APPLICATION IN TRANSMISSION and DISTRIBUTION LINES


SURGE ARRESTER DEFINITION

Surge Arresters are used to limit voltage surges on an electrical system to level that it can be controlled. It is designed and connected between a conductor of an electrical system and ground to limit the magnitude of transient over voltages on equipment.

Surge Arresters Surge Arresters are the most commonly used add-on equipment for over voltage protection. It very helpful in limiting over voltage on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current, prevent continued flow of follow current to ground, and is capable of repeating these functions as specified.

WHAT EXACTLY DOES A SURGE ARRESTER DO?

1. Surge Arresters does not absorb the lightning. 2. Surge Arresters does not stop the lightning. 3. Surge Arresters divert the lightning to ground. 4. Surge Arresters clamp (limit) the voltage produced by lightning. 5. Surge Arresters equipment electrically in parallel with it.

HOW DOES SURGE ARRESTERS WORK?

At the heart of all arresters is Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV). The MOV disk is a semiconductor that is sensitive to voltage. At normal voltage, the MOV disk is an insulator and will not conduct current. But at higher (extreme) voltage caused by lightning or any surges, it becomes a conductor.

The usual construction of a typical surge arrester consists of disks of zinc oxide material sized in cross-sectional area to provide desired energy discharge capability, and in axial length proportional to the voltage capability. The disks are then placed in porcelain enclosures to provide physical support and heat removal, and sealed for isolation from contamination in the electrical environment.

TYPES OF SURGE ARRESTERS

There are four basic types of surge arresters defined by industry standards. The surge arrester type selected for the application depends on the equipment being protected and what level of protection is required.

Secondary Type Available in ratings up to 650 Volts, and are used to protect equipment at the utilization voltage level.

Distribution Type Typically used for the protection of equipment on power distribution circuits. They are available in ratings up to 42 kV. This type of surge arrester is further defined by normal and heavy duty.

Intermediate Type Available in ratings up to 144 kV. This type of surge arrester offers improved protective characteristics and durability. They are generally used for protection of smaller substations, or medium class power equipment.

Station Type Surge Arresters

Station Type Available in ratings up to 466 kV. This type of surge arrester offers the best performance among the four. They are typically used to protect substation equipment, rotating machines, or other applications where premium protection is required.

POWER SYSTEM SURGE SUPRESSION BASIC INFORMATION What Is Surge Supression? How Surge Supressor Works? Transient overvoltages can arise from a number of sources. Power disturbances result from lightning strokes or switching operations on transmission and distribution lines. Switching of power factor correction capacitors for voltage control is a major cause of switching transients. All utility lines are designed for a certain basic insulation level (BIL) that defines the maximum surge voltage that will not damage the utility equipment but which may be passed on to the customer. Some consideration should be given to the supply system BIL in highpower electronics with direct exposure to medium-voltage utility lines. Such information is generally available from the utility representative. The standard test waveform for establishing BIL capability is a voltage that rises to the instantaneous BIL value in 1.2 s and decays to half that value in another 50 s. Other sources of transient overvoltages may lie within power electronics equipment itself. Interrupting contactor coils has already been mentioned. Diode and SCR reverse recovery current transients can also propagate within equipment. Arcing loads may require shielding of control circuits. In general, a solid grounding system will minimize problems. Apparatus for surge protection covers the range from the little discs in 120-V power strips for computers to the giant lightning arresters on 765-kV transmission lines. Many types now utilize the nonlinear characteristics of MOVs. These ZnO ceramic elements have a low leakage current as the applied voltage is increased until a threshold is reached at which the current will increase rapidly for higher voltages. The operating voltage is controlled by the thickness of the ceramic disk and the processing. MOVs may be stacked in series for higher voltages and in parallel for higher currents. Lightning arresters are classified by their current rating at a given clamping voltage. Stationclass arresters can handle the highest currents and are the type used by utilities on transmission and subtransmission lines. Intermediate-class arresters have a lesser clamping ability and are used on substations and some power electronics that are directly connected to a substation. The lowest clamping currents are in distribution-class arresters that are used on distribution feeders and the smaller power electronics equipment. The cost, of course, is related to the clamping current. Arresters are rated for their clamping voltage by class and for their maximum continuous operating voltage, MCOV. They are typically connected line-to-ground. Lightning arresters are often used to protect dry-type transformers in power electronic equipment, because such transformers may have a lower BIL rating

than the supply switchgear. In 15-kV-class equipment, for example, the switchgear may be rated for 95 or 110 kV BIL, whereas the transformer may be rated for only 60 kV. As a design rule, MOVs used for the protection of power electronics will limit peak voltage transients to 2 1/2 times their maximum continuous rated rms voltage. They may be connected either line-to-line or line-to-ground in three-phase circuits. Line-to-line connections limit switching voltage transients best but do not protect against common- mode (all three lines to ground) transients. On the other hand, the line-to-ground connection that protects against common-mode transients does not do as good a job on applied line transients. For optimum protection in equipments with exposure to severe lightning or switching transients, both may be appropriate. The volt-ampere curves for a MOV should be checked to be sure the device can sink sufficient current at the maximum tolerable circuit voltage to handle the expected transient energies. This current will be a function of the MOV size, and a wide range of diameters is available to handle nearly any design need. Small units are supplied with wire leads, whereas the larger units are packaged in molded cases with mounting feet and screw terminals for connections. Another device in the protection arsenal is the surge capacitor. Transient voltages with fast rise times, high dv/dt, may not distribute the voltage evenly among the turns on a transformer or motor winding. This effect arises because of the turn-to-turn and turn-toground capacitance distributions in the winding. Surge capacitors can be used to slow the dv/dt and minimize the overvoltages on the winding ends. These are generally in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 F for medium-voltage service. Some care should be exercised when these are used with SCR circuits because of the possibility of serious overvoltages from ringing. Damping resistors may be required.

TRANSMISSION LINES BUNDLED CONDUCTORS Why Use Bundle Conductors on Transmission Lines? A bundle conductor is a conductor made up of two or more (sub-conductors, and is used as one phase conductor. Bundle conductors are also called duplex, triplex, etc., conductors, referring to the number of sub-conductors and are sometimes referred to as grouped or multiple conductors. Considerable work on bundle conductors has been done by the engineers of Siemens Schuckertwerkez who concluded that bundle conductors were not economical at 220 kv, but for rated voltages of 400 kv or more, are the best solution for overhead transmission. Rusck and Rathsman state that the increase in transmitting capacity justifies economically the use of two conductor bundles on 220-kv lines. The advantages of bundle conductors are higher disruptive voltage with conductors of reasonable dimensions, reduced surge impedance and consequent higher power capacity, and less rapid increase of corona loss and RI with increased voltage. These advantages must be weighed against increased circuit cost, increased charging kva if it cannot be utilized, and such other considerations as the large amount of power which would be carried by one circuit. It is possible with a two-conductor bundle composed of conductors of practical size to obtain electrical characteristics, excepting corona, equivalent to a single conductor up to eight inches in diameter. Theoretically there is an optimum sub-conductor separation for bundle conductors that will give minimum crest gradient on the surface of a sub-conductor and hence high- disruptive voltage. For a two-conductor bundle, the separation is not very critical, and it is advantageous to use a larger separation than the optimum which balances the reduced corona performance and slightly increased circuit cost against the advantage of reduced reactance. Because of the effect of the sub-conductors on each other, the gradient at the surface of a sub conductor is not uniform. It varies in a cosinusoidal manner from a maximum at a point on the outside surface on the line-of-centers, to a minimum at the corresponding point on the inside surface. This effect modifies the corona performance of a bundle conductor such that its corona starting point corresponds to the voltage that would be expected from calculations, but the rate of increase of corona with increased voltage is less than for a single conductor.

HOW TO DESIGN TRANMISSION LINES Engineering Basics


Basic installation and design practice when designing a transmission line.

Once the route and length of a transmission or distribution line has been decided upon and the correct conductor size and type selected to carry the system load safely and economically, there are still several mechanical considerations which will have an effect on installation practices and may influence the final choice of conductor.

The line designer must consider such factors as tower and pole locations and heights, span lengths, conductor tension and sags, ground clearances, etc. Technically, this means that he must have detailed knowledge of conductor sag-tension characteristics as a function of span length, temperature, and weight loading. Much of this information is applied by wire and cable manufacturers in the form of tables and graphs that are to be used by the line designer.

Supplementing these, the line designer prepares other graphs, tables, templates, etc., that are related to a specific installation. Thus, there are two distinct types of study: (1) That which is ordinarily performed by the engineers of the wire and cable manufacturers, and (2) that which is performed by the line-design engineer to utilize the manufacturer supplied information to best advantage.

An overhead conductor suspended between insulator supports assumes the shape of a catenary curve provided the conductor is of uniform weight per ft. Usually it is convenient, without significant error, to regard the curve as a parabola.? A family of such curves exists for a given conductor and span.

The mid-point sag depends on tension in the conductor; the greater the tension the less the sag. To distinguish between span length and conductor length, the latter is usually designated arc length.

Anything that increases arc length after initial stringing increases the sag. Factors that may bring this about are ( 1 ) thermal expansion of the conductor because of increase of temperature above that during stringing, (2) increase of conductor apparent weight because of wind and/ or ice load, (3) creep gradually lengthening the conductor wires as a result of tension being applied over a period of many years, (4) stressing of wires beyond their elastic limits.

Though it might appear that sag-tension problems relating to these subjects could be solved in a simple manner, there are interrelated factors that must be taken into account. For example, ACSR has components that have differing stress-strain characteristics, differing coefficients of thermal expansion, and they normally undergo differing unit tensile stresses.

Thus, it is evident that proper selection of span length and sags for a given profile and conductor in order to minimize installation and operational costs requires a high order of engineering skill. However, for many applications, the required sag-tension analysis has been made by others, and the results are available in tables and graphs supplied by wire and cable manufacturers for all commercially offered conductors. Only a moderate amount of additional work is necessary to utilize them for specific applications.

AMERALIK SPAN - LONGEST SINGLE SPAN IN TRANSMISSION LINES

The longest single span in a transmission line in the world is found in Greeanland. We've already talked about the longest transmission line in terms of circuit kilometers on this blog entry. This is for the distinction in a single span. Read more

LONGEST SINGLE SPAN IN A TRANSMISSION LINE


AMERALIK SPAN - LONGEST SINGLE SPAN IN TRANSMISSION LINES

The longest single span in a transmission line in the world is found in Greeanland. We've already talked about the longest transmission line in terms of circuit kilometers on this blog entry. This is for the distinction in a single span.
Ameralik Span. This is what it is called. It is a 132 kV powerline from Nuuk to Buksefjord Hydroelectric Power Plant over Ameralik fjord with a span of 5376 meters. It was built in 1993 by a Norwegian company Statnett. It is part of a single-circuit 132 kV powerline running from Buksefjord hydroelectric power plant to Nuuk.

It is made up of of 4 steel conductors with a diametre of 40 mm. One of the conductor acts as a backup. It is unique in the sense that each of the conductor has its own tower. Each tower at its

North End, is estimated to have an elevation of 444. Its other end (South End) is estimated at 1013 metres above sea level.

Some of the photos of this amazing accomplishment:

FERRANTI EFFECT BASIC INFORMATION What Is Ferranti Effect? Ferranti Effect is an electrical engineering phenomenon, wherein there is a rise in voltage occurring at the end of a long transmission line when its load is disconnected. We usually observed that the sending voltage is greater than the receiving end voltage. From the equation: Vs = Vr + (current x impedance), the receiving voltage is lower since it is the difference of the Voltage Sending and the voltage drop. The operative words here are, long transmission lines and disconnected load. Under no load conditions, theoretically, Vs=Vr. Furthermore, one classification of transmission lines is according to its length or circuit km. In long transmission lines, you are going to take into consideration the effect of capacitance and the charging current of the lines. Due to the voltage drop across the line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages, capacitance and inductance is responsible to produce this phenomenon. For more about the Ferranti Effect, you may click on these free links/pdf LINK 1 LINK 2 Radiation effects on power transistors (Ferranti semiconductors ; 1)

TRANSMISSION LINE STRUCTURES STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS BASIC INFORMATION What Are The Transmission Line Structures Strength Requirements? Structure Types the following descriptions of structure types shall apply to the provisions for strength requirements: Suspension Structure A structure where the phase conductors and static wires are attached through the use of suspension insulators and hardware or, in the case of the static wire, with a clamp not capable of resisting the full design tension of the wire. Strain Structure A structure where the phase conductors and static wires are attached to the structure by use of dead-end insulators and hardware but where the ability of the structure to resist a condition where all wires are broken on one side under full loading is not required or desired. Typically, strain structures would be used where the line deflection angle is 45 degrees or less. Structures subject to strain structure requirement shall be as identified by the Utility. Dead-end Structure - A structure where the phase conductors and static wires are attached to the structure by use of dead-end insulators and hardware and where the ability of the structure to resist a condition where all wires are broken on one side under full loading is required or desired. Typically, dead-end structures would be used where the line deflection angle is greater than 45 degrees. Structures subject to dead-end structure requirement shall be as identified by the Utility. Line Termination Structure A structure where the phase conductors and static wires are to be installed on one side only for the purpose of terminating the line, usually at a substation or switchyard. This permanent dead-end condition is assumed in the application of all applicable loading conditions.

HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES BASIC INFORMATION What Is A High Voltage Transmission Line? High-voltage and extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines interconnect power plants and loads, and form an electric network. This system contains 500-kV, 345-kV, 230-kV, and 115kV lines. T Presently, synchronous ties (AC lines) interconnect all networks in the eastern U.S. and Canada. Synchronous ties also (AC lines) interconnect all networks in the western U.S. and Canada. Several nonsynchronous ties (DC lines) connect the East and the West. These interconnections increase the reliability of the electric supply systems. In the U.S., the nominal voltage of the high-voltage lines is between 100 kV and 230 kV. The voltage of the extra-high-voltage lines is above 230 kV and below 800 kV. The voltage of an ultra-high-voltage line is above 800 kV. The maximum length of highvoltage lines is around 200 miles.

Extra-high-voltage transmission lines generally supply energy up to 400500 miles without intermediate switching and var support. Transmission lines are terminated at the bus of a substation. The physical arrangement of most extra-high-voltage (EHV) lines is similar. The figure below shows the major components of an EHV, which are: 1. Tower: The figure shows a lattice, steel tower. 2. Insulator: V strings hold four bundled conductors in each phase. 3. Conductor: Each conductor is stranded, steel reinforced aluminum cable.

4. Foundation and grounding: Steel-reinforced concrete foundation and grounding electrodes placed in the ground. 5. Shield conductors: Two grounded shield conductors protect the phase conductors from lightning. At lower voltages the appearance of lines can be improved by using more aesthetically pleasing steel tubular towers. Steel tubular towers are made out of a tapered steel tube equipped with banded arms. The arms hold the insulators and the conductors. Figure 4.6 shows typical 230-kV steel tubular and lattice double-circuit towers.

TRANSMISSION LINES WOOD POLES PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES What Are The Transmission Lines Wood Poles Preservation Techniques?

Preservative Treatment. Pole decay is due to a fungus which requires air, moisture, warmth, and food for its subsistence; the wood of the pole constitutes its food. The conditions most favorable to the growth of the fungus are found at the ground line. The preservative has toxic or antiseptic properties which make the wood either poisonous or unfit food for the fungus. Preservatives and preserving methods conforming to the standards of the American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA)85 should be used in the treatment of poles. There are many wood preservatives, including those using poisonous salts such as copper, mercury, zinc, and arsenic compounds. However, only two are included in AWPA recommendations for poles, Standard C-4-74-C: 1. Coal-tar creosote, AWPA Standard P1-65 2. A 5% solution of pentachlorophenol in a petroleum distillate, AWPA Standard P8 (commonly called penta) By AWPA Standard M1-70, pentachlorophenol is not recommended for use in coastal waters. Coastal waters are defined as salty waters. One other preservative is increasing in popularity. This is AWPA Standard P11-70, a creosote-pentachlorophenol mixture in which pentachlorophenol is not less than 2% of the mixture. All of these preservatives are applied by the following methods: 1. The open-tank method, applied to cedar poles, consists in boiling the butts of the poles in a tank of creosote oil, after which the oil is allowed to cool or the poles are transferred to a cold tank of oil. The duration of the hot and cold treatment, usually 8 h or more, depends on several factors, the most important of which is the degree of seasoning. The treatment is based on the fact that the wood cells expand with heat and on cooling draw the creosote into the wood under atmospheric pressure. The sapwood of unseasoned poles has annular rings of a nearly impervious fiber which prevent penetration of the oil. In seasoning, this fiber dries and breaks open. To ensure penetration of the greater part of the sapwood, which is usually less than 1 in in depth, an incision process has been developed and is almost universally used. Narrow cuts, parallel with the wood fibers, are made to a depth of about 1/2 in at frequent intervals around the circumference of the pole for a distance above and below the ground line. Complete penetration is obtained to a depth somewhat greater than the depth of the incisions even on unseasoned poles. 2. Pressure treatment is applied to pine and fir. The poles, on a truck, are run into a steel cylinder and subjected to a steam treatment for a period of several hours at a temperature which will not damage the wood cells, usually specified at not more than 259 F (126 C). The pressure is then removed and a vacuum applied. The steam treatment opens up the wood cells and allows the preservative to penetrate. The length of time required for the steam and vacuum

treatment depends on the condition of the wood, the amount of oil that is to be injected, and the depth of penetration desired. From this point in the process, one of two methods may be followed. The full-cell, or Bethel, process allows all the preservative injected to remain in the wood. This process is generally used for piling and underwater work when it is desired to exclude water from the wood and to resist the attack of marine borers. The empty-cell process draws off excess oil and secures protection from decay by the coating of oil left on the walls of the wood cells. The empty-cell process is adequate and preferable for usual structures and is used almost exclusively for poles and arms. The empty-cell treatment is obtained by either the Rueping or the Lowry process. The Rueping process seems to be in more general use, although the Lowry process is equally successful. In the Rueping process, following the steam treatment, an air pressure is applied. While still under pressure, hot oil is forced into the cylinder. The oil is held under this pressure and maintained at a temperature of about 200 F (93.5 C) by steam coils within the cylinder, for a period of several hours. Upon removing the oil and reducing the pressure, the compressed air within the wood cells forces out the surplus oil. The amount of oil retained depends on the pressures applied and the time of treatment, although it is possible to remove only a part of the oil that has been injected. The Lowry process is similar to the Rueping process except that no compressed air is used. After the preservative has been forced into the wood under pressure, a high vacuum is quickly created, causing a sudden expansion of the air within the wood cells and thus driving out surplus preservative.

PERMANENT ELONGATION AT EVERYDAY TENSIONS (CREEP) IN TRANSMISSION LINES BASIC INFORMATION What Is Creep In Transmission Lines? Creep is Permanent Elongation at Everyday Tensions. Conductors permanently elongate under tension even if the tension level never exceeds everyday levels. This permanent elongation caused by everyday tension levels is called creep. Creep can be determined by long-term laboratory creep tests. The results of the tests are used to generate creep-versus-time curves. On the stress-strain graphs, creep curves are often shown for 6-month, 1-year, and 10-year periods. Figure 14-27 shows these typical creep curves for a 37-strand 250- to 1033.5-kcmil AAC. In Fig. 14-27, assume that the conductor tension remains constant at the initial stress of 4450 lb/in2.

At the intersection of this stress level and the initial elongation curve, 6-month, 1-year, and 10-year creep curves, the conductor elongation from the initial elongation of 0.062% increases to 0.11%, 0.12%, and 0.15%, respectively. Because of creep elongation, the resulting final sags are greater and the conductor tension is less than the initial values.

Creep elongation in aluminum conductors is quite predictable as a function of time and obeys a simple exponential relationship. Thus, the permanent elongation due to creep at everyday tension can be found for any period of time after initial installation. Creep elongation of copper and steel strands is much less and is normally ignored. Permanent increase in conductor length due to heavy load occurrences cannot be predicted at the time a line is built. The reason for this unpredictability is that the occurrence of heavy ice and wind loads is

random. A heavy ice storm may occur the day after the line is built or may never occur over the life of the line.

TRANSMISSION LINES DISTANCE RELAY BASIC INFORMATION What Is Transmission Lines Distance Relay? Distance relays respond to the voltage and current, i.e., the impedance, at the relay location. The impedance per mile is fairly constant so these relays respond to the distance between the relay location and the fault location. As the power systems become more complex and the fault current varies with changes in generation and system configuration, directional overcurrent relays become difficult to apply and to set for all contingencies, whereas the distance relay setting is constant for a wide variety of changes external to the protected line. There are three general distance relay types as shown in Fig. 9.32. Each is distinguished by its application and its operating characteristic.

Impedance Relay The impedance relay has a circular characteristic centered at the origin of the R-X diagram. It is nondirectional and is used primarily as a fault detector. Admittance Relay The admittance relay is the most commonly used distance relay. It is the tripping relay in pilot schemes and as the backup relay in step distance schemes. Its characteristic passes through the origin of the R-X diagram and is therefore directional. In the electromechanical design it is circular, and in the solid state design, it can be shaped to correspond to the transmission line impedance. Reactance Relay The reactance relay is a straight-line characteristic that responds only to the reactance of the protected line. It is nondirectional and is used to supplement the admittance relay as a tripping relay to make the overall protection independent of resistance. It is particularly useful on short lines where the fault arc resistance is the same order of magnitude as the line length. Figure 9.33 shows a three-zone step distance relaying scheme that provides instantaneous protection over 8090% of the protected line section (Zone 1) and time-delayed protection over the remainder of the line (Zone 2) plus backup protection

over the adjacent line section. Zone 3 also provides backup protection for adjacent lines sections.

In a three-phase power system, 10 types of faults are possible: three single phase-toground, three phase-to-phase, three double phase-to-ground, and one three-phase fault. It is essential that the relays provided have the same setting regardless of the type of fault. This is possible if the relays are connected to respond to delta voltages and currents. The delta quantities are defined as the difference between any two phase quantities, for example, Ea Eb is the delta quantity between phases a and b. In general, for a multiphase fault between phases x and y, Ex-Ey/ Ix-Iy = IZ

where x and y can be a, b, or c and Z1 is the positive sequence impedance between the relay location and the fault. For ground distance relays, the faulted phase voltage, and a compensated faulted phase current must be used. Ex / ( Ix+mI0) = Z1

where m is a constant depending on the line impedances, and I0 is the zero sequence current in the transmission line. A full complement of relays consists of three phase distance relays and three ground distance relays. This is the preferred protective scheme for high voltage and extra high voltage systems.

Pilot Protection As can be seen from Fig. 9.33, step distance protection does not offer instantaneous clearing of faults over 100% of the line segment. In most cases this is unacceptable due to system stability considerations. To cover the 1020% of the line not covered by Zone 1, the

information regarding the location of the fault is transmitted from each terminal to the other terminal(s). A communication channel is used for this transmission. These pilot channels can be over power line carrier, microwave, fiberoptic, or wire pilot. Although the underlying principles are the same regardless of the pilot channel, there are specific design details that are imposed by this choice. Power line carrier uses the protected line itself as the channel, superimposing a high frequency signal on top of the 60 Hz power frequency. Since the line being protected is also the medium used to actuate the protective devices, a blocking signal is used. This means that a trip will occur at both ends of the line unless a signal is received from the remote end. Microwave or fiberoptic channels are independent of the transmission line being protected so a tripping signal can be used. Wire pilot channels are limited by the impedance of the copper wire and are used at lower voltages where the distance between the terminals is not great, usually less than 10 miles.

Directional Comparison The most common pilot relaying scheme in the U.S. is the directional comparison blocking scheme, using power line carrier. The fundamental principle upon which this scheme is based utilizes the fact that, at a given terminal, the direction of a fault either forward or backward is easily determined by a directional relay. By transmitting this information to the remote end, and by applying appropriate logic, both ends can determine whether a fault is within the protected line or external to it. Since the power line itself is used as the communication medium, a blocking signal is used. Transfer Tripping If the communication channel is independent of the power line, a tripping scheme is a viable protection scheme. Using the same directional relay logic to determine the location of a fault, a tripping signal is sent to the remote end. To increase security, there are several variations possible. A direct tripping signal can be sent, or additional underreaching or overreaching directional relays can be used to supervise the tripping function and increase security. An underreaching relay sees less than 100% of the protected line, i.e., Zone 1. An overreaching relay sees beyond the protected line such as Zone 2 or 3. Phase Comparison Phase comparison is a differential scheme that compares the phase angle between the currents at the ends of the line. If the currents are essentially in phase, there is no fault in

the protected section. If these currents are essentially 180o out of phase, there is a fault within the line section. Any communication link can be used. Pilot Wire Pilot wire relaying is a form of differential line protection similar to phase comparison, except that the phase currents are compared over a pair of metallic wires. The pilot channel is often a rented circuit from the local telephone company. However, as the telephone companies are replacing their wired facilities with microwave or fiberoptics, this protection must be closely monitored.

TRANSMISSION LINES POLES SELECTION BASIC INFORMATION How To Select Transmission Line Poles? Selecting the Pole The ability of a pole to be self-supporting depends on the class of the pole and the load it must carry (ignoring for the present the characteristic of the soil). Classes of Poles All wood poles are divided into classes based on thickness and circumference. One system uses five classes: 5, 4, 2, 0, and 00, ranging from moderately thin (class 5) to extra heavy (class 00). Knowing the load, it is possible then to select the proper class of pole for each location and degree of loading. If the number of units of loading is greater than the number of units the pole can support by itself, either the pole must be guyed or the conductors slackened to reduce the tension. Heavier-class Poles Poles one class heavier than the class specified by the tables should be used for each of the following purposes: 1. Junction poles 2. Poles supporting alley or side arms 3. Poles supporting line disconnects (except in-line types) or fuse cutouts In addition, a pole of at least class 4 should be specified for deadend poles, angle poles, and transformer (or capacitor, regulator, or other equipment) poles. Extra Heavy-class Poles Class 0 and class 00 poles are special oversize poles and are used primarily in the following situations: 1. In place of sidewalk guys, the most expensive guys to install 2. At an angle in the line in place of the combination of a span guy with a stub pole and sidewalk guy on the opposite side of the road 3. At T intersections, where normally a sidewalk guy or a span guy with a stub pole would be used 4. Where guying permission or rights cannot be obtained 5. To satisfy consumer complaints, by replacing an existing or proposed anchor guy. Selecting the Guy Wire When the loading exceeds the strength of a pole, the pole should be guyed. The physical location of the pole in the field will determine what type of guy should be used: anchor, span, head, or sidewalk type. Guy protectors should be installed on all anchor guys accessible to the public. When a pole line changes direction and the turn angle is less than 60, the corner, or pivot, pole may be guyed with a single guy bisecting the angle. At angles greater than 60, the pole should be guyed against the

stress in each direction. Selecting the Anchor Anchors come in many types and sizes, each designed for certain soil and guying conditions. While each will do its specific job better than another design of anchor, most find use under more than one set of conditions.

SIZES OF TRANSMISSION LINE CONDUCTORS BASIC INFORMATION What Are The Sizes of Transmission Line Conductors? Conductor Sizes Since it is impractical to manufacture an infinite number of wire sizes, standards have been adopted for an orderly and simple arrangement of such sizes for manufacturers and users. The American Wire Gauge (AWG), formerly known as the Browne and Sharpe Gauge (B&S), is the standard generally employed in this country and where American practices prevail. In defining conductor sizes, the circular mil (cmil) is usually used as the unit of measurement. It is the area of a circle having a diameter of 0.001 in, which works out to be 0.7854 106 in2. In the metric system, these figures are a diameter of 0.0254 mm and an area of 506.71 106 mm2. Wire sizes are given in gauge numbers, which, for distribution system purposes, range from a minimum of no. 12 to a maximum of no. 0000 (or 4/0) for solid-type conductors. Solid wire is not usually made in sizes larger than 4/0, and stranded wire for sizes larger than no. 2 is generally used. Above the 4/0 size, conductors are generally given in circular mils (cmil) or in thousands of circular mils (cmil 103); stranded conductors for distribution purposes usually range from a minimum of no. 6 to a maximum of 1,000,000 cmil (or 1000 cmil 103) and may consist of two classes of strandings. These wire sizes and their dimensions are given in Table 9-2.

Gauge numbers may be determined from the formula: 0.3249 Diameter, in =

1.123n or 105,500 Cross-sectional area, cmil = 1,261n where n is the gauge number (no. 0 = 0; no. 00 = 1; no. 000 = 2; no. 0000 = 3).

It will be noted that the diameter of the wire doubles approximately every sixth size (e.g., no. 2 has twice the diameter of no. 8), and the cross-sectional area therefore doubles every third size and is 4 times as great every sixth size (e.g., no. 2 has twice the area of no. 5 and 4 times that of no. 8). The diameter of stranded wire is approximately 15 percent greater than the diameter of a solid wire of the same cross-sectional area. The gauge numbers and wire designations apply to conductors of all materials. Usually, however, the equivalent wire sizes are denoted for the several materials in comparison to copper (e.g., 4/0 aluminum is equivalent to 2/0 copper). These are indicated in the tables for such conductors.

TRANSMISSION LINES CONDUCTOR TENSION LIMITS BASIC What Are The Tension Limits Of Transmission Lines Conductors? Conductor Tension Limits The NESC recommends limits on the tension of bare overhead conductors as a percentage of the conductors rated breaking strength. The tension limits are: 60% under maximum ice and wind load, 33.3% initial unloaded (when installed) at 60F, and 25% final unloaded (after maximum loading has occurred) at 60F. It is common, however, for lower unloaded tension limits to be used. Except in areas experiencing severe ice loading, it is not unusual to find tension limits of 60% maximum, 25% unloaded initial, and 15% unloaded final. This set of specifications could easily result in an actual maximum tension on the order of only 35 to 40%, an initial tension of 20% and a final unloaded tension level of 15%. In this case, the 15% tension limit is said to govern. Transmission-line conductors are normally not covered with ice, and winds on the conductor are usually much lower than those used in maximum load calculations. Under such everyday conditions, tension limits are specified to limit aeolian vibration to safe levels. Even with everyday lower tension levels of 15 to 20%, it is assumed that vibration control devices will be used in those sections of the line that are subject to severe vibration. Aeolian vibration levels, and thus appropriate unloaded tension limits, vary with the type of conductor, the terrain, span length, and the use of dampers. Special conductors, such as ACSS, SDC, and VR, exhibit high self-damping properties and may be installed to the full code limits, if desired.

INSULATOR WASHING OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES How To Wash Insulators Of High Voltage Transmission Lines? Insulator Washing Another common practice is to utilize helicopters for insulator washing. Again, this is a method that allows for the line to remain energized during the process. The helicopter carries a water tank that is refilled at a staging area near the work location. A hose and nozzle are attached to a structure on the helicopter and are operated by a qualified line worker who directs the water spray and adequately cleans the insulator string. Again, with the ease of access afforded by the helicopter, the speed of this operation can result in a typical three-phase tower being cleaned in a few minutes. Inspections Helicopters are invaluable for tower line and structure inspections. Due to the ease of the practice and the large number of inspections that can be accomplished, utilities have increased the amount of maintenance inspections being done, thus promoting system reliability. Helicopters typically carry qualified line workers who utilize stabilizing binoculars to visually inspect the transmission tower for signs of rusting or weakness and the transmission hardware and conductor for damage and potential failure. Infrared inspections and photographic imaging can also be accomplished from the helicopter, either by mounting the cameras on the helicopter or through direct use by the crew. During these inspections, the helicopter provides a comfortable situation for accomplishing the necessary recording of specific information, tower locations, etc. In addition, inspections from helicopters are required following a catastrophic event or system failure. It is the only logical method of quickly inspecting a transmission system for the exact location and extent of damage. Helicopter Method Considerations The ability to safely position a helicopter and worker at the actual work site is the most critical consideration when deciding if a helicopter method can be utilized for construction or maintenance. The terrain and weather conditions are obvious factors, as well as the physical spacing needed to position the helicopter and worker in the proximity required for the work method. If live-line work methods are to be utilized, the minimum approach distance required for energized line work must be calculated very carefully for every situation. The geometry of each work structure, the geometry of the individual helicopter, and the positioning of the helicopter and worker for the specific work method must be analyzed. There are calculations that are available to analyze the approach distances (IEEE Task Force 15.07.05.05, 1999).

When choosing between construction and maintenance work methods, the safety of the line workers is the first consideration. Depending on circumstances, a helicopter method may be the safest work method. Terrain has always been a primary reason for choosing helicopters to assist with projects since the ability to drive to each work site may not be possible. However, helicopters may still be the easiest and most economic alternative when the terrain is open and flat, especially when there are many individual tower locations that will be contacted. Although helicopters may seem to be expensive on a per person basis, the ability to quickly position workers and easily move material can drastically reduce costs. When live-line methods can be utilized, the positioning of workers, material, and equipment becomes comparatively easier. Finally, if the safe use of the helicopter allows the transmission systems to remain energized throughout the project, the helicopter may be the only possible alternative. Since the transmission system is a major link in the competitive energy markets, transmission operation will have reliability performance measures which must be achieved. Purchasing replacement energy through alternate transmission paths, as was done in the regulated world, is no longer an option. Transmission system managers are required to keep systems operational and will be fined if high levels of performance are not attained. The option of deenergizing systems for maintenance practices may be too costly in the deregulated world.

THE FIRST GAS INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES A Brief History On Gas Insulated Transmission Lines The gas-insulated transmission line (GIL) was invented in 1974 to connect the electrical generator of a hydro pump storage plant in Schluchsee, Germany. The GIL went into service in 1975 and has remained in service without interruption since then, delivering peak energy into the southwestern 420 kV network in Germany. With 700 m of system length running through a tunnel in the mountain, this GIL is still the longest application at this voltage level in the world. Today, at high-voltage levels ranging from 135 to 550 kV, a total of more than 100 km of GILs have been installed worldwide in a variety of applications, e.g., inside high-voltage substations or power plants or in areas with severe environmental conditions. Typical applications of GIL today include links within power plants to connect high-voltage transformers with high-voltage switchgear, links within cavern power plants to connect high-voltage transformers in the cavern with overhead lines on the outside, links to connect gas-insulated substations (GIS) with overhead lines, and service as a bus duct within gasinsulated substations. The applications are carried out under a wide range of climate conditions, from lowtemperature applications in Canada, to the high ambient temperatures of Saudi Arabia or Singapore, to the severe conditions in Europe or in South Africa. The GIL transmission system is independent of environmental conditions because the highvoltage system is completely sealed inside a metallic enclosure. The GIL technology has proved its technical reliability in more than 2500 km years of operation without a major failure. This high system reliability is due to the simplicity of the transmission system, where only aluminum pipes for conductor and enclosure are used, and the insulating medium is a gas that resists aging. The high cost of GILs has restricted their use to special applications. However, with the second generation GIL, a total cost reduction of 50% has made the GIL economical enough for application over long distances. The breakthrough in cost reduction is achieved by using highly standardized GIL units combined with the efficiencies of automated orbital-welding machines and modern pipeline laying methods. This considerably reduces the time required to lay the GIL, and angle units can be avoided by using the elastic bending of the aluminum pipes to follow the contours of the landscape or the tunnel. This breakthrough in cost and the use of N2/SF6 gas mixtures have made possible what is now called second-generation GIL, and it is a very interesting transmission system for highpower transmission over long distances, especially if high power ratings are needed.

The second-generation GIL was first built for eos (energie ouest suisse) at the PALEXPO exhibition area, close to the Geneva Airport in Switzerland. Since January 2001, this GIL has been in operation as part of the overhead line connecting France with Switzerland.

The success of this project has demonstrated that the new laying techniques are suitable for building very long GIL transmission links of 100 kilometers or more within an acceptable time schedule.

GAS INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES BASIC INFORMATION What Is Gas Insulated Transmission Line? The gas-insulated transmission line (GIL) is a system for the transmission of electricity at high power ratings over long distances. In cases where overhead lines are not possible, the GIL is a viable technical solution to bring the power transmitted by an overhead line underground without a reduction of power transmission capacity. As a gas-insulated system, the GIL has the advantage of electrical behavior similar to that of an overhead line, which is important to the operation of the complete network. Because of the large cross section of the conductor, the GIL has low electrical losses compared with other transmission systems (overhead lines and cables). This reduces the operating and transmission costs, and it contributes to reduction of global warming because less power needs to be generated. Safety of personnel in the vicinity of a GIL is very high because the solid metallic enclosure provides reliable protection. Even in the rare case of an internal failure, the metallic enclosure is strong enough to withstand damage. This allows the use of GILs in street and railway tunnels and under bridges with public traffic. No flammable materials are used to build a GIL. The use of GILs in traffic tunnels makes the tunnels more economical and can solve some environmental problems. If GIL is added to a traffic tunnel, the costcan be shared between the electric power supply company and the owner of the traffic part (train, vehicles). The environmental advantage is that no additional overhead line needs to be built parallel to the tunnel. Because of the low capacitive load of the GIL, long lengths of 100 km and more can be built. Where overhead lines are not suitable due to environmental factors or where they would spoil a particular landscape, the GIL is a viable alternative because it is invisible and does not disturb the landscape. The GIL consists of three single-phase encapsulated aluminum tubes that can be directly buried in the ground or laid in a tunnel. The outer aluminum enclosure is at ground potential. The interior, the annular space between the conductor pipe and the enclosure, is filled with a mixture of gas, mainly nitrogen (80%) with some SF6 (20%) to provide electrical insulation. A reverse current, more than 99% of the conductor current value, is induced in the enclosure. Because of this reverse current, the outer magnetic field is very low. GIL combines reliability with high transmission capacity, low losses, and low emission of magnetic fields. Because it is laid in the ground, GIL also satisfies the requirements for power transmission lines without any visual impact on the environment or the landscape. Of course, the system can also be used to supply power to meet the high energy demands of conurbations and their surroundings. The directly buried GIL combines the advantage of

underground laying with a transmission capacity equivalent to that of an overhead power line [13].

FACTORS AFFECTING POWER TRANSMISSION LINE STRUCTURE SELECTION What Are The Factors Affecting The Selection Of Power Transmission Lines Structures? There are usually many factors that impact on the selection of the structure type for use in an OHTL. Some of the more significant are briefly identified below. Erection Technique: It is obvious that different structure types require different erection techniques. As an example, steel lattice towers consist of hundreds of individual members that must be bolted together, assembled, and erected onto the four previously installed foundations. A tapered steel pole, on the other hand, is likely to be produced in a single piece and erected directly on its previously installed foundation in one hoist. The lattice tower requires a large amount of labor to accomplish the considerable number of bolted joints, whereas the pole requires the installation of a few nuts applied to the foundation anchor bolts plus a few to install the crossarms. The steel pole requires a large-capacity crane with a high reach which would probably not be needed for the tower. Therefore, labor needs to be balanced against the need for large, special equipment and the sites accessibility for such equipment. Public Concerns: Probably the most difficult factors to deal with arise as a result of the concerns of the general public living, working, or coming in proximity to the line. It is common practice to hold public hearings as part of the approval process for a new line. Such public hearings offer a platform for neighbors to express individual concerns that generally must be satisfactorily addressed before the required permit will be issued. A few comments demonstrate this problem. The general public usually perceives transmission structures as eyesores and distractions in the local landscape. To combat this, an industry study was made in the late 1960s (Dreyfuss, 1968) sponsored by the Edison Electric Institute and accomplished by Henry Dreyfuss, the internationally recognized industrial designer. While the guidelines did not overcome all the objections, they did provide a means of satisfying certain very highly controversial installations (Pohlman and Harris, 1971). Parents of small children and safety engineers often raise the issue of lattice masts, towers, and guys, constituting an attractive challenge to determined climbers, particularly youngsters. Inspection, Assessment, and Maintenance: Depending on the owning utility, it is likely their in-house practices will influence the selection of the structure type for use in a specific line location. Inspections and assessment are usually made by human inspectors who use diagnostic technologies to augment their personal senses of sight and touch. The nature and location of the symptoms of critical interest are such that they can be most effectively examined from specific perspectives. Inspectors must work from the most advantageous location when making inspections.

Methods can include observations from ground or fly-by patrol, climbing, bucket trucks, or helicopters. Likewise, there are certain maintenance activities that are known or believed to be required for particular structure types. The equipment necessary to maintain the structure should be taken into consideration during the structure type selection process to assure there will be no unexpected conflict between maintenance needs and r-o-w restrictions. Future Upgrading or Uprating: Because of the difficulty of procuring r-o-ws and obtaining the necessary permits to build new lines, many utilities improve their future options by selecting structure types for current line projects that will permit future upgrading and=or uprating initiatives.

HIGH VOLTAGE POWER TRANSMISSION LINES CORONA DISCHARGE EFFECTS What Are The Effects of Corona Discharge on High Voltage Power Transmission Lines? Impact of corona discharges on the design of high-voltage lines has been recognized since the early days of electric power transmission when the corona losses were the limiting factor. Even today, corona losses remain critical for HV lines below 300 kV. With the development of EHV lines operating at voltages between 300 and 800 kV, electromagnetic interferences become the designing parameters. For UHV lines operating at voltages above 800 kV, the audible noise appears to gain in importance over the other two parameters. The physical mechanisms of these effectscorona losses, electromagnetic interference, and audible noiseand their current evaluation methods are discussed below. Corona Losses The movement of ions of both polarities generated by corona discharges, and subjected to the applied field around the line conductors, is the main source of energy loss. For AC lines, the movement of the ion space charges is limited to the immediate vicinity of the line conductors, corresponding to their maximum displacement during one half-cycle, typically a few tens of centimeters, before the voltage changes polarity and reverses the ionic movement. For direct current (DC) lines, the ion displacement covers the whole distance separating the line conductors, and between the conductors and the ground. Corona losses are generally described in terms of the energy losses per kilometer of the line. They are generally negligible under fair-weather conditions but can reach values of several hundreds of kilowatts per kilometer of line during foul weather. Direct measurement of corona losses is relatively complex, but foul-weather losses can be readily evaluated in test cages under artificial rain conditions, which yield the highest energy loss. The results are expressed in terms of the generated loss W, a characteristic of the conductor to produce corona losses under given operating conditions. Electromagnetic Interference Electromagnetic interference is associated with streamer discharges that inject current pulses into the conductor. These pulses of steep front and short duration have a high harmonic content, reaching the tens of megahertz range. A tremendous research effort was devoted to the subject during the years 19501980 in an effort to evaluate the electromagnetic interference from HV lines. The most comprehensive contributions were made by Moreau and Gary (1972a,b) of E lectricite de France, who introduced the concept of the excitation function, G(v), which characterizes the ability of a line conductor to generate electromagnetic interference under the given operating conditions.

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OVERHEAD AC POWER TRANSMISSION LINES INFORMATION AC Power Lines Overhead transmission of electric power remains one of the most important elements of todays electric power system. Transmission systems deliver power from generating plants to industrial sites and to substations from which distribution systems supply residential and commercial service. Those transmission systems also interconnect electric utilities, permitting power exchange when it is of economic advantage and to assist one another when generating plants are out of service because of damage or routine repairs. Total investment in transmission and substations is approximately 10% of the investment in generation. Since the beginning of the electrical industry, research has been directed toward higher and higher voltages for transmission. As systems have grown, higher-voltage systems have rarely displaced existing systems, but have instead overlayed them. Economics have typically dictated that an overlay voltage should be between 2 and 3 times the voltage of the system it is reinforcing. Thus, it is common to see, for example, one system using lines rated 115, 230, and 500 kilovolts (kV). The highest ac voltage in commercial use is 765 kV although 1100 kV lines have seen limited use in Japan and Russia. Research and test lines have explored voltages as high as 1500 kV, but it is unlikely that, in the foreseeable future, use will be made of voltages higher than those already in service. This plateau in growth is due to a corresponding plateau in the size of generators and power plants, more homogeneity in the geographic pattern of power plants and loads, and adverse public reaction to overhead lines. Recognizing this plateau, some focus has been placed on making intermediate voltage lines more compact. Important advances in design of transmission structures as well as in the components used in line construction, particularly insulators, were made during the mid-1980s to mid-1990s. Current research promises some further improvements in lines of existing voltage including uprating and now designs for HVDC. The fundamental purpose of the electric utility transmission system is to transmit power from generating units to the distribution system that ultimately supplies the loads. This objective is served by transmission lines that connect the generators into the transmission network, interconnect various areas of the transmission network, interconnect one electric utility with another, or deliver the electrical power from various areas within the transmission network to the distribution substations. Transmission system design is the selection of the necessary lines and equipment which will deliver the required power and quality of service for the lowest overall average cost over the service life. The system must also be capable of expansion with minimum changes to existing facilities.

Electrical design of ac systems involves (1) power flow requirements; (2) system stability and dynamic performance; (3) selection of voltage level; (4) voltage and reactive power flow control; (5) conductor selection; (6) losses; (7) corona-related performance (radio, audible, and television noise); (8) electromagnetic field effects; (9) insulation and overvoltage design; (10) switching arrangements; (11) circuit-breaker duties; and (12) protective relaying. Mechanical design includes (1) sag and tension calculations; (2) conductor composition; (3) conductor spacing (minimum spacing to be determined under electrical design); (4) types of insulators; and (5) selection of conductor hardware. Structural design includes (1) selection of the type of structures to be used; (2) mechanical loading calculations; (3) foundations; and (4) guys and anchors. Miscellaneous features of transmission-line design are (1) line location; (2) acquisition of right of-way; (3) profiling; (4) locating structures; (5) inductive coordination (considers line location and electrical calculations); (6) means of communication; and (7) seismic factors.

POWER TRANSMISSION LINES SWITCHING TUTORIALS Power Transmission Lines Switching Operation Processes Surges associated with switching transmission lines (overhead, SF6, or cable) include those that are generated by line energizing, reclosing (three phase and single phase operations), fault initiation, line dropping (deenergizing), fault clearing, etc. During an energizing operation, for example, closing a circuit breaker at the instant of crest system voltage results in a 1 pu surge traveling down the transmission line and being reflected at the remote, open terminal. The reflection interacts with the incoming wave on the phase under consideration as well as with the traveling waves on adjacent phases. At the same time, the waves are being attenuated and modified by losses. Consequently, it is difficult to accurately predict the resultant waveshapes without employing sophisticated simulation tools such as a transient network analyzer (TNA) or digital programs such as the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP). Transmission line overvoltages can also be influenced by the presence of other equipment connected to the transmission lineshunt reactors, series or shunt capacitors, static var systems, surge arresters, etc. These devices interact with the traveling waves on the line in ways that can either reduce or increase the severity of the overvoltages being generated. When considering transmission line switching operations, it can be important to distinguish between energizing and reclosing operations, and the distinction is made on the basis of whether the lines inherent capacitance retains a trapped charge at the time of line closing (reclosing operation) or whether no trapped charge exists (an energizing operation). The distinction is important as the magnitude of the switching surge overvoltage can be considerably higher when a trapped charge is present; with higher magnitudes, insulation is exposed to increased stress, and devices such as surge arresters will, by necessity, absorb more energy when limiting the higher magnitudes. Two forms of trapped charges can existDC and oscillating. A trapped charge on a line with no other equipment attached to the line exists as a DC trapped charge, and the charge can persist for some minutes before dissipating (Beehler, 1964). However, if a transformer (power or wound potential transformer) is connected to the line, the charge will decay rapidly (usually in less than 0.5 sec) by discharging through the saturating branch of the transformer (Marks, 1969). If a shunt reactor is connected to the line, the trapped charge takes on an oscillatory waveshape due to the interaction between the line capacitance and the reactor inductance. This form of trapped charge decays relatively rapidly depending on the Q of the reactor, with the charge being reduced by as much as 50% within 0.5 seconds.

The power system configuration behind the switch or circuit breaker used to energize or reclose the transmission line also affects the overvoltage characteristics (shape and magnitude) as the traveling wave interactions occurring at the junction of the transmission line and the system (i.e., at the circuit breaker) as well as reflections and interactions with equipment out in the system are important. In general, a stronger system (higher short circuit level) results in somewhat lower surge magnitudes than a weaker system, although there are exceptions. Consequently, when performing simulations to predict overvoltages, it is usually important to examine a variety of system configurations (e.g., a line out of service or contingencies) that might be possible and credible. Single phase switching as well as three phase switching operations may also need to be considered. On EHV transmission lines, for example, most faults (approximately 90%) are single phase in nature, and opening and reclosing only the faulted phase rather than all three phases, reduces system stresses. Typically, the over voltages associated with single phase switching have a lower magnitude than those that occur with three phase switching (Koschik et al., 1978). Switching surge over voltages produced by line switching are statistical in naturethat is, due to the way that circuit breaker poles randomly close (excluding specially modified switchgear designed to close on or near voltage zero), the instant of electrical closing may occur at the crest of the system voltage, at voltage zero, or somewhere in between. Consequently, the magnitude of the switching surge varies with each switching event. For a given system configuration and switching operation, the surge voltage magnitude at the open end of the transmission line might be 1.2 pu for one closing event and 2.8 pu for the next ( Johnson et al., 1964; Hedman et al., 1964), and this statistical variation can have a significantly impact on insulation design.

HIGH VOLTAGE POWER TRANSMISSION LINES CORONA DISCHARGE EFFECTS What Are The Effects of Corona Discharge on High Voltage Power Transmission Lines? Impact of corona discharges on the design of high-voltage lines has been recognized since the early days of electric power transmission when the corona losses were the limiting factor. Even today, corona losses remain critical for HV lines below 300 kV. With the development of EHV lines operating at voltages between 300 and 800 kV, electromagnetic interferences become the designing parameters. For UHV lines operating at voltages above 800 kV, the audible noise appears to gain in importance over the other two parameters. The physical mechanisms of these effectscorona losses, electromagnetic interference, and audible noiseand their current evaluation methods are discussed below. Corona Losses The movement of ions of both polarities generated by corona discharges, and subjected to the applied field around the line conductors, is the main source of energy loss. For AC lines, the movement of the ion space charges is limited to the immediate vicinity of the line conductors, corresponding to their maximum displacement during one half-cycle, typically a few tens of centimeters, before the voltage changes polarity and reverses the ionic movement. For direct current (DC) lines, the ion displacement covers the whole distance separating the line conductors, and between the conductors and the ground. Corona losses are generally described in terms of the energy losses per kilometer of the line. They are generally negligible under fair-weather conditions but can reach values of several hundreds of kilowatts per kilometer of line during foul weather. Direct measurement of corona losses is relatively complex, but foul-weather losses can be readily evaluated in test cages under artificial rain conditions, which yield the highest energy loss. The results are expressed in terms of the generated loss W, a characteristic of the conductor to produce corona losses under given operating conditions. Electromagnetic Interference Electromagnetic interference is associated with streamer discharges that inject current pulses into the conductor. These pulses of steep front and short duration have a high harmonic content, reaching the tens of megahertz range. A tremendous research effort was devoted to the subject during the years 19501980 in an effort to evaluate the electromagnetic interference from HV lines. The most comprehensive contributions were made by Moreau and Gary (1972a,b) of E lectricite de France, who introduced the concept of the excitation function, G(v), which characterizes the ability of a line conductor to generate electromagnetic interference under the given operating conditions.

Audible Noise The high temperature in the discharge channel produced by the streamer creates a corresponding increase in the local air pressure. Consequently, a pulsating sound wave is generated from the discharge site, propagates through the surrounding ambient air, and is perfectly audible in the immediate vicinity of the HV lines. The typical octave-band frequency spectra of line corona contain discrete components corresponding to the second and higher harmonics of the line voltage superimposed on a relatively broadband noise, extending well into the ultrasonic range (Ianna et al., 1974). The octave-band measurements show a sharp drop at frequencies over 20 kHz, due principally to the limited frequency response of the microphone and associated sound-level meter. Similar to the case of electromagnetic interference, the ability of the line conductors to produce audible noise is characterized by the generated acoustic power density A, defined as the acoustic power produced per unit length of the line conductor under specific operating conditions.

TRANSMISSION LINE ARRESTER STANDARD GUIDELINES


Line Arrester Standards Line arresters are not specifically addressed in C62.11-1999, although the arresters used in these applications are part of the standard. Most of the test requirements that apply to line arresters are based on station requirements or distribution class requirements.

When specifying line arresters, it should be noted that the following points are inherent to C62.111999.

1. Lightning energy handling capability can be a major factor in selecting line arresters depending on their application. The requirement of lightning related energy is typically much more significant for lines than stations. Although present standards do contain some lightning-related tests, there is not presently an accepted test to quantify the lightning energy handling capability of surge arresters. Published energy handling capability of arresters is typically based on switching-related tests.

2. Heavy-duty distribution arresters may be subjected to more severe lightning-related tests than station class or intermediate class arresters. Although it is common belief that arrester lightning energy capabilities increase from heavy-duty distribution to intermediate to station, the present standards do not necessarily prove this through testing.

3. The 100-kA test for heavy-duty distribution arresters should not be confused with an arrester surviving a 100-kA lightning stroke. First, the 100-kA test is a 4 x 10 ms wave that has much less energy than a typical 100-kA lightning stroke. Second, the 100-kA tests allow up to 5 minutes before the arrester is connected to MCOV to prove thermal stability.

4. Short-circuit tests permit polymer arresters to fall apart as long as the pieces fall within specific areas. The tests allow 2 minutes before the arrester must self-extinguish. These allowances in the present standards may not be acceptable for certain areas on a line right-of-way.

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