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Personal characteristics as predictors of job satisfaction

An exploratory study of IT managers in a developing economy
John O. Okpara
Department of Business Administration, Division of Management, Briarcliffe College, New York, USA
Keywords Job satisfaction, Managers, Nigeria Abstract The impact of information technology (IT) on society is tremendous. Globalization of trade, the emergence of information economies, and the growth of the Internet and other global communications networks have recast the role of information systems in managing global corporations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which personal characteristics such as gender, age, education, income, and experience predict IT managers job satisfaction in Nigeria. A sample of 360 IT managers selected from business organizations in Nigeria were used for this research. The results of this study suggest that IT managers were satised with their job, co-workers, and supervision, whereas they were dissatised with their pay and the promotion system. The results of regression analyses also showed that personal characteristics were signicant predictors of job satisfaction.

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Introduction The impact of information technology (IT) on society is tremendous. Globalization of trade, the emergence of information economies, and the growth of the Internet and other global communications networks have recast the role of information systems (IS) in management (Laudon and Laudon, 2000). Today, IS provide the communicative and analytic power that rms need for conducting trade and managing businesses on a global scale. To deal with the enormous growth in IT, organizations must compete to hire and retain the best and brightest professionals. Business success in todays competitive global environment depends on IT (Shelly et al., 2001). Businesses have spent billions of dollars on development and implementation of IS applications. The development and implementation of these systems is the responsibility of IT managers and professionals. The welfare of both organizations and the individuals with whom they interact depends on the conduct of these managers. While managerial job satisfaction in general is important, the job satisfaction of IT managers is vital for business success. One of the greatest impediments to the success of a business often concerns personnel rather than information, technology, or systems (Okpara, 1996). Considering the high costs associated with replacing IT professionals, it makes sense for organizations to invest in programs designed to retain IT professionals (Mark and Sockel, 1999; Moore, 2000). One such retention program would be to identify the causes of job satisfaction and develop strategies to enhance it. Job satisfaction has been one of the most germane issues facing business organizations in Nigeria (Okpara, 1996). Given the signicant relationship observed

Information Technology & People Vol. 17 No. 3, 2004 pp. 327-338 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-3845 DOI 10.1108/09593840410554247

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between job satisfaction and work behavior, the increased satisfaction of IT managers can be a bonus to Nigerian organizations resulting in reduced absenteeism, decreased turnover, and increase in productivity. Excessive changes in turnover and absenteeism result in a waste of human power and needless loss in production and prot. An extensive review of the literature on IT and job satisfaction issues revealed that the vast majority of job satisfaction studies have been undertaken primarily in the west. Unfortunately, very little research has been done on this issue in general, and none at all on this specic topic in Nigeria. The purpose of this exploratory study, therefore, was to investigate the extent to which personal characteristics predict IT managers job satisfaction in Nigeria. In a rapidly developing economy like Nigerias, there is a need to understand the attitudes of workers in general, and specically, IT professionals. Determining the job satisfaction levels of IT managers could lead to improvements in the work place that would encourage them to remain satised with their jobs. Specically, there are several important issues that require closer examination. First, it is essential to determine whether the constructs and relationships that apply in the west also hold in a non-western context. Second, Nigeria has opened its borders to international trade and investment; therefore, it is imperative to understand the attitudes of Nigerian workers. Third, from a theoretical perspective, it is important to increase our understanding and to ll the void in the literature concerning job satisfaction in a non-western context, thus hopefully stimulating further research in this area. Finally, from a practical standpoint, it is vital to provide practitioners with valuable information that will enable them to make informed decisions about recruitment, training, promotion, and retention of IT employees. Thus, this study deals with issues that are potentially useful for both scholars and practitioners alike. Development challenges and IT in Nigeria Nigeria is a federal republic bounded by Cameroon to the east, Chad to the northeast, Niger to the north, Benin to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Nigeria is divided into 36 states and a federal capital territory. With a population of 130 million people, Nigeria is by far the most populous of African countries. The economy is dominated by the production of petroleum, which lies in large reserves below the Niger Delta (Okpara, 1996). Nigeria is facing negative consequences from its single-minded overdependence on the capital-intensive oil sector, which provides 20 percent of its GDP, 95 percent of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65 percent of budgetary revenues. The countrys gross domestic product per capita was US $840 in 2001 (The World Bank Group, 2000). In Nigeria, the use of IT has assumed increasing signicance; however, the operational effectiveness of IT applications has been far below expectations (Akinyosoye, 2000). The introduction of IT in the country has not been well coordinated with other developmental efforts such as the development of adequate supporting infrastructure, education and training of users, assessment of workers attitudes to technology, and emphasis on retention mechanisms. These issues pose enormous challenges to IT development in the country. In addition, without adequate research on IT-related issues, it is difcult to make recommendations as to how these challenges can be confronted so that Nigeria can benet from the IT revolution in its quest to maintain and sustain industrial and economic development.

Literature review and hypotheses Extensive research has been conducted concerning the relationship between job satisfaction and work-related attitudes/behaviors such as turnover, organizational commitment, and pro-organizational behaviors (Wilson, 1996). The results of the studies conducted in the west have shown that many personal variables inuence job satisfaction. For instance, researchers have found that job satisfaction varies with age for both men and women (Al-Ajmi, 2001; Bilgic, 1998; Koustelios, 1991). Okpara (1996) indicated that research investigating the form and magnitude of the relationship between age and job satisfaction has produced mixed and generally inconclusive results and that potential explanations for such results relate to the largely atheoretical nature of research in this area as well as the inconsistent application of proper statistical and methodological controls. Al-Ajmi (2001) also found a relationship between age and job satisfaction. Finally, an extensive literature review by Rhodes (1983) generally supported a positive relationship between age and overall job satisfaction. Rhodess (1983) conclusion was based on an analysis of the results of eight different studies conducted on the relationship between age and job satisfaction. Given the empirical and anecdotal evidence that indicate a positive relationship between age and job satisfaction, it was therefore proposed that: H1. Age will have a signicant positive effect on IT managers job satisfaction in Nigeria. Gender differences in job satisfaction have also been extensively researched, but no conclusive evidence has been presented with regard to the levels of satisfaction among men and women. However, results of the studies conducted concerning satisfaction (Bilgic, 1998; Hulin and Smith, 1976; Oshagbemi, 2000) showed that there is a correlation between gender and job satisfaction. For instance, Hulin and Smith (1976) surveyed 295 male workers and 163 female workers drawn from different manufacturing plants to examine gender differences in job satisfaction. The ndings of their research show that there is a relationship between male and female job satisfaction. They also found that female workers were less satised than their male counterparts. In a similar study, Bilgic (1998) found that gender was a signicant predictor of job satisfaction. The study of Singaporean accountants indicated that gender affects job satisfaction. Thus, on the whole, these studies have demonstrated that there is some association between gender and job satisfaction. Therefore, the following hypothesis results: H2. There will be differences in job satisfaction between male and female IT managers in Nigeria. Several studies have found positive relationships between education levels and job satisfaction (Al-Ajmi, 2001; Etuk, 1980; Falcone, 1991; Koustelios, 1991; Martin and Sheehan, 1989; Okpara, 1996; Rogers, 1991). For example, Bilgic (1998) conducted a study of 249 Turkish workers in different occupations and job positions. He found that employees with more education may not have many complaints about work-related issues but they may, however, be concerned with the quality of their work performance. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3. Educational level attained will have a signicant positive effect on job satisfaction of IT managers in Nigeria.

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Experience is said to be an age-related variable with a relationship to job satisfaction. It can predict an effective response to work or positive feelings toward work. For instance, in his study of the relationships of personal characteristics and job satisfaction of Turkish workers, Bilgic (1998) indicated that the contribution of experience to good feelings toward ones job is positive. He concluded by stating that people with more work experience have more respect for their jobs and can apply their experience to their job. They are more likely to experience greater job satisfaction. It is therefore proposed: H4. Number of years spent in an organization will have a signicant positive impact on IT managers job satisfaction Income has been found to be an important source of satisfaction at work. A number of studies have shown that income is related to job satisfaction (Bilgic, 1998; Etuk, 1980; Sokoya, 2000; Sweeney et al., 1990). For instance, in a study conducted by Howard and Frink (1996), they compared job satisfaction of public and private managers and found income to be related to job satisfaction. In a similar study that examined personal predictors of job satisfaction for public sector managers, Sokoya (2000), using a sample of 350 public managers who were employed in different positions, found that income was a major source of job satisfaction. Thus, it is proposed that: H5. Income will have a signicant positive impact on job satisfaction of IT managers. Research framework The conceptual framework for this study is shown in Figure 1. Based on the literature review presented earlier, certain speculative relationships among the study variables may be surmised. The studies cited in the review of the literature have indicated that personal characteristics such as age, gender, income, education, and experience affect employees job satisfaction. Thus, the research framework suggests that personal characteristics such as pay, promotion, co-workers, and the work itself affect the overall job satisfaction. Methodology Sample The sample consists of IT managers employed in the banks, manufacturing, and transportation rms represented in the A to Z Trade Directory of Nigeria. Stratied sampling technique was used to select the managers surveyed for this research. The survey was conducted in Nigeria between 14 December 2002 and 19 January 2003.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework showing the relationships of personal variables and job satisfaction

The managing directors of 40 companies were identied from the directory. The companies identied from the directory were personally visited or contacted by telephone for permission to survey their IT managers. The companies that agreed to take part in the study formed the research sample. To avoid loss and delay due to poor and unreliable nature of the Nigerian telephone and postal systems, a drop-off and pick-up method was used. This method ensured that distribution and collection procedures were systematic and controlled by the investigator. Questionnaires were given to a contact person in each of the companies identied for the survey along with a personally addressed covering letter. This person was requested to distribute the questionnaires to the selected IT managers in their rm, and to attach a large envelope (provided) to an appropriate notice board or central place. The IT managers were asked to complete the questionnaire anonymously and deposit it in the large envelope. The contact person was asked to seal the envelope and have it ready for pick-up in two weeks. Each contact person was contacted over telephone within four days of the return deadline as a reminder that someone would be coming to pick up the envelope. Of the 500 questionnaires distributed, 360 were returned (72 percent). Non-response bias was assessed by treating responses that were received for more than one week after the deadline as being the representative of non-respondents. Chi-square signicance tests were used to test for signicance difference between the rst group of respondents and the late respondents in the study. It was observed that the early and late respondents did not differ signicantly (at p , 0.05) in the answers they gave to randomly selected questions. Questionnaire To measure job satisfaction, a questionnaire comprising a slightly modied form of the job descriptive index (JDI) (Smith et al., 1969, 1985) and some demographic questions was constructed. The job elements in the study are consistent with the ndings on the measurement of job satisfaction (Clark et al., 1996; Giles and Field, 1978; Loher et al., 1985; Scarpello and Campbell, 1983; Wanous and Lawler, 1972). JDI is one of the most popular measures of job satisfaction and has been found to produce highly reliable results (Imparato, 1972). The questionnaire used in this study employed eight scales designed to measure satisfaction with respect to different components of IT managers overall job satisfaction, namely satisfaction with pay, work, promotion, supervision, co-workers, and overall job satisfaction. Validation and pilot test of the research instruments Smith et al. (1969, 1985) presented an extensive validation data of the JDI instrument. In addition, the instruments used in this study were further submitted to a panel of experts in Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States for validation. The experts were asked to review the content of the items in each of the instruments and determine whether the items were within the linguistic capabilities and understanding of IT managers in Nigeria. The panel was also asked to eliminate items or questions they found to be irrelevant to the Nigerian cultural environment and to make suggestions for the simplication of overly complex items. The experts independently and unanimously recommended the use of the instruments for this study. The panel also indicated that the instruments were good measures of the concepts identied for this study. To establish the highest degree of reliability, the jury-validated instruments

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were pre-tested on a small sample n 55 of randomly selected IT managers. The correlation of random split-halves for internal consistency of the instrument ranged from 0.70 to 0.90. Also, the step-up formula ranged from 0.85 to 0.98. Thus, these results suggested that the JDI and DQ were reliable instruments to be used in Nigeria for this study. Data analysis Statistical methods The statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 11.5 was used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics were computed to examine the level of satisfaction with specic aspects of job. A standard multiple regression analysis was performed with specic aspects of job as the dependent variables and personal characteristics as independent variables. Results Of the managers, 289 (80 percent) were male and 71 were female. This nding is relatively consistent with the Nigerian managerial environment, where women are relatively new to the managerial marketplace. With regard to age, the vast majority of the respondents were 50 years of age and under. While the majority of the respondents ranged from 25 to 55 years of age, the mean was 35 years. This nding was to be expected, as IT is relatively new to Nigeria, so the majority of the managers were young. More than half of the respondents (60 percent) held bachelors degree; 30 percent had masters degrees; and 4 percent had received doctoral degrees. Another 6 percent had other forms of education. A total of 75 percent had at least 5 years of experience in an IT-related job. A total of 40 percent were at the middle management rank, 55 percent were rst line managers (supervisors), and another 5 percent were in top management positions. The means and standard deviations of IT managers with specic aspects of their job are shown in Table I. The descriptive statistics and correlation of job satisfaction (pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision, and work) and personal characteristics (age, gender, education, experience, and income) are shown in Table I. IT managers appear to be satised mainly with their work, supervision, and co-workers; they were less satised with their present pay and the promotion system. To determine which personal variables predicted different facets of job satisfaction and overall job satisfaction, a total of ve regression runs were performed for overall satisfaction as well as for satisfaction with pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision, and work. The multiple regression analysis results are summarized in Table II.
Variable Mean 10.5 4.2 4.6 9.8 12.8 3.2 SD 2.7 1.5 1.5 2.4 2.9 1.2

332

Table I. Means and standard deviations of the JDI and general (JIG) variables (N 360)

Work on present job Present pay Promotion Supervision Co-workers JIG

Variable Job satisfaction (pay) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.62; F 49.20) Job satisfaction (promotion) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.44; F 55.10) Job satisfaction (supervision) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.64; F 66.10) Job satisfaction (co-workers) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.70; F 68.34) Job satisfaction (work) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.56; F 61.30) Notes: *p , 0.05, and **p , 0.01

b
0.354 0.461 0.353 0.347 0.416

r 0.55 0.57 0.59 0.65 0.60

p-value* 0.005** 0.007** 0.001** 0.000** 0.016**

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0.426 0.412 0.445 0.516 0.561

0.74 0.60 0.56 0.65 0.55

0.006** 0.040* 0.001** 0.005** 0.032*

0.354 0.319 0.411 0.418 0.423

0.70 0.55 0.50 0.65 0.59

0.004** 0.024* 0.000** 0.008** 0.022*

0.371 0.655 0.453 0.438 0.515

0.55 0.60 0.62 0.65 0.68

0.026* 0.002** 0.005** 0.005** 0.006**

0.550 0.442 0.623 0.654 0.558

0.55 0.57 0.65 0.59 0.60

0.049* 0.002** 0.045* 0.002** 0.035*

Table II. Results of regression analysis

The results indicate that all the hypotheses stated for this study are supportive. As shown in Table II, age, gender, income, education, and experience combined contributed signicantly to satisfaction with pay R 2 0:62; indicating that 62 percent of the variance in pay satisfaction could be accounted for by age, gender, income, education, and experience. The variables of age, gender, income, education, and experience in model (2) (R 2 0:44; F 66:10) indicated that 64 percent of the variance in promotion satisfaction was explained by the variables of age, gender, income, education, experience, and managerial rank. In model (3), the variables of age, gender, income, education, experience, and managerial rank combined contributed signicantly to satisfaction with supervision (R 2 0:64; F 66:34). This result shows that these variables explained about 64 percent of the variance with supervision.

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Table II reveals that variables of age, gender, income, education, and experience, in model (4) (R 2 0:70; F 68:34) explained 70 percent of the variance in satisfaction with co-workers. The variables of age, gender, income, education, and experience contributed most to the variance in satisfaction with work itself in model (5) (R 2 0:56; F 61:30), indicating that 56 percent of the variables age, gender, income, education, and experience contributed to satisfaction with work itself. To determine the predictors of job satisfaction, a separate regression analysis was performed. The variables of age, gender, income, education, and experience in model (6) (R 2 0:57; F 52:20) explained 57 percent of the variance in overall job satisfaction. These ndings suggest that personal characteristics are important variables that inuence job satisfaction of IT managers in the organizations surveyed for this study (Table III). Discussion The main nding of this study was that job satisfaction could be predicted from personal variables, but not all variables contributed to the same degree of satisfaction. As in earlier studies (Bilgic, 1998; Brief and Aldag, 1975; Weaver, 1977), the ndings of this study did not reveal clear gender differences in overall job satisfaction. However, gender was an important predictor variable. Contrary to the ndings of the earlier studies conducted in the west, the results of the present study show that there were signicant gender differences related to satisfaction with pay, promotion, and supervision. This nding may be attributed to the higher educational level of women in the technology sector and their raised expectations because of their status. In addition, women who are IT managers may expect to earn more money in exchange for the cost of abandoning their traditional roles. It was found that gender differences prevailed even after the effect of education and experience were controlled. Another reason for the observed gender pay gap might be attributed to the cultural context of the country, which accords traditional homemaker status to women. Compared with the earlier studies conducted in the west and other countries (Al-Ajmi, 2001; Bilgic, 1998), the gender differences observed were greater in this study. Future research is needed to examine why the gender pay gap is higher among IT managers in Nigeria. Age was found to affect the level of job satisfaction. This nding is similar to some earlier ndings (Al-Ajmi, 2001; Etuk, 1980; Koustelios, 1991; Sokoya, 2000), but differs from those of Bilgic (1998). A logical explanation for this might be that the turnover rate among younger managers may be high. The tendency is for younger managers to consider themselves more mobile and to seek greener pastures, perhaps in other countries, since IT managers are of great demand. This scenario suggests that
Variable Job satisfaction (overall) Age Gender Income Education Experience (R 2 0.57; F 52.20) Notes: *p , 0.05, and **p , 0.01

b
0.489 0.519 0.478 0.599 0.567

r 0.60 0.64 0.66 0.69 0.71

p-value* 0.002** 0.049* 0.016* 0.022* 0.005**

Table III. Results of multiple regression analysis on overall job satisfaction

eventually organizations identied for this study and the technology sector in Nigeria will have a shortage of young, skilled IT managers. This is not peculiar to Nigeria; this is happening on a broader scale globally. The fact that older managers and those with longer tenure in the work place have higher levels of job satisfaction than younger workers and those with shorter tenure may also suggest that the latter groups are more susceptible to the economic turmoil that the country has recently been experiencing. It stands to reason that in times of economic downturn and uncertainty, the rst casualties in the workforce will be those recently hired, who tend to be the younger employees. Low levels of job satisfaction among this group may also be explained more in terms of the job context than the personal characteristics. However, more cross-cultural research is also needed to clarify this issue. A number of researchers have found a positive relationship between education and job satisfaction, whereas others have found negative relationships (Bilgic, 1998; Rogers, 1991; Sokoya, 2000). Results of this research are in conict with the results of the studies identied above. Findings of this study indicated that education was a signicant predictor of job satisfaction. The participants with more education seemed to be more concerned with performance and productivity issues and tend to have fewer negative feelings toward their work. In other words, IT managers with more education may not have as many complaints about issues related to work; they may be more concerned with the quality of their work performance. Several researchers have pointed out that job satisfaction is related to income, but no conclusive evidence has been found for this relationship in Nigeria (Fashina, 1984). In the present study, income was the best predictor of job satisfaction. This is consistent with the earlier ndings (Etuk, 1980; Okpara, 1996); as the level of income increases so does the level of job satisfaction. Conversely, those that have low levels of income are less satised with their jobs. While there are conicting results on the importance of money to the Nigerian worker (Fashina, 1984), a strong case can be made for the signicance of income in determining the level of job satisfaction. The continuous exodus of managers to the west is primarily related to the differences in the level of income. Many of these managers are willing to leave the country for riskier but potentially more nancially rewarding employment in the west. The impending shortage of managerial personnel in the IT sector does not bode well for the long term economic growth and sustainable development of the country. Total years of experience also affects the areas of job satisfaction and overall job satisfaction. The longer the time spent in the organization, the more satised the managers were with their jobs. This may be an indication that once the process of acculturation is over, managers settle into their jobs, have an increased organizational commitment, and seem to like their jobs (Farkas and Tetrick, 1989). On the other hand, this may be an indication of complacency, suggesting that the longer the time spent in the organization, the more managers tend to be satised with the status quo. If the latter is the case, then a satised manager is not necessarily a productive manager. Rotating managers to different jobs is likely to reduce the tendency to complacency and also has the added benet of task variety, which has been thought to relate positively to job satisfaction (Neumann, 1993). Although this nding is consistent with the earlier studies, the predictive value of this research is much higher than the earlier studies conducted in the west and other developing countries.

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Conclusion This study explored the inuence of personal characteristics of IT managers in Nigeria. It investigated the relationship between the specic aspects of job satisfaction and personal characteristics of IT managers in selected business organizations. Results suggest that IT managers were satised mainly with their job and co-workers, whereas they were dissatised with their pay, promotional opportunities, and supervision. An important contribution of this research is that it sheds light on the issue of job satisfaction. The present results demonstrate that instruments with high reliability and validity originating in the west can be adopted and used in a non-western culture. However, there is still an urgent need to develop a scale that measures the unique personal characteristics of workers in non-western cultures. The ndings of this study have shown that personal characteristics are stronger predictors of job satisfaction than ndings reported in the west and other countries. The results of this study could be used to remove job dissatisfaction and enhance job satisfaction of managers. It is obvious that the present study sets the stage for researchers to be able to empirically identify the effects of job satisfaction of IT managers in non-western cultures. While this study has focused on the personal predictors of job satisfaction, the model used for the analysis suggests that there are other variables (job and organizational characteristics) that may be better predictors of job satisfaction. Further research should be conducted in order to identify other factors that could contribute to IT managers job satisfaction. The impact of culture on IT employees level of job satisfaction should be examined in future studies.
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Howard, J. and Frink, D. (1996), The effects of organizational restructure on employee satisfaction, Group and Organizational Management, Vol. 21, pp. 278-303. Hulin, C. and Smith, P. (1976), Sex differences in job satisfaction, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 48, pp. 88-92. Imparato, N. (1972), Relationship between Porters need satisfaction: questionnaire and the job descriptive index, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 56 No. 5, pp. 397-405. Koustelios, A. (1991), The relationships of organizational cultures and job satisfaction in three selected industries in Greece, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Manchester, Manchester. Laudon, K.C. and Laudon, J.P. (2000), Management Information Systems: Organization and Technology in the Network Enterprise, 6th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Loher, B.T., Noe, R.A., Moeller, N.L. and Fitzgerald, M.P. (1985), A meta-analysis of the relation of job characteristics to job satisfaction, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 70 No. 2, pp. 280-9. Mark, B. and Sockel, H. (1999), A conrmatory factor analysis of IS employee motivation and retention, Information and Management, Vol. 38, pp. 265-76. Martin, J.K. and Sheehan, C.L. (1989), Education and job satisfaction: the inuence of gender, wage, earning status, and job values, Work and Occupation: An International Sociological Journal, Vol. 16, pp. 184-9. Moore, J.E. (2000), On the road to turnover: an examination of work exhaustion in technology professionals, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 24, pp. 141-68. Neumann, E. (1993), Organizational predictors of expatriate job satisfaction, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 61-81. Okpara, J.O. (1996), An examination of the relationship of motivation needs, cultural factors, and job satisfaction among managers in selected business enterprises in Nigeria, unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, New York, NY. Oshagbemi, T. (2000), Correlates of pay satisfaction in higher education, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 31-9. Rhodes, S. (1983), Age-related differences in work attitudes and behavior: a review and conceptual analysis, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 2, pp. 328-67. Rogers, R. (1991), The effects of educational level on correctional ofcer job satisfaction, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 19, pp. 123-37. Scarpello, V. and Campbell, J.P. (1983), Job satisfaction: are the parts there?, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 36 No. 3, pp. 577-600. Shelly, G.B., Cahman, T.J. and Rosenblatt, H.J. (2001), Systems analysis and design, Course Technology, 4th ed., A Division of Thomas Learning, Boston, MA. Smith, P.C., Kendall, L.M. and Hulin, C.L. (1985), The Revised Job Descriptive Index, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL. Smith, P., Kendall, L. and Hullin, C. (1969), The Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement, Rand-McNally, Chicago, IL. Sokoya, S.K. (2000), Personal predictors of job satisfaction for the public sector manager: implications for management practice and development in a developing economy, Journal of Business in Developing Nations, available at: www.rh.edu/Ismt/jbdnv40.htm (accessed 5 June 2002).

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Sweeney, P.D., McFarin, D.B. and Inderrieden, E.J. (1990), Using relative deprivation theory to explain satisfaction with income and pay level: a multistudy examination, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 33, pp. 423-36. Wanous, J.P. and Lawler, E.D. III (1972), Measurement and meaning of job satisfaction, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 56 No. 2, pp. 95-105. Weaver, C.N. (1977), Relationships among pay, race, sex, occupational prestige, supervision, work autonomy and job satisfaction in a national sample, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 30, pp. 437-45. Wilson, P. (1996), Job satisfaction: a review of the literature, available at: Geocities.com/Paris/ Caafe/5839/writings/satisfaction.html (accessed 14 December 2001). The World Bank Group (2000), Nigeria Data Prole World Development Indicators Database, July 2000. Further reading Goh, C.T., Koh, H.C. and Low, C.K. (1991), Gender effects on the job satisfaction of accountants in Singapore, Work and Stress, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 341-8. Wilson, D.C. and Rosenfeld, R.H. (1990), Managing Organizations, McGraw-Hill, London.