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one to expect. The reason is that under steady or very slow varying load, the overstressed material can adjust itself plastically, so that the stress is transferred to adjacent, less severely stressed parts. This condition, however, holds true only for ductile materials. For brittle materials stress concentration is always serious. Many breakdowns in modern high speed machinery may be explained by stress concentration.
The term axle may be applied to the bar on which a wheel is mounted, or to the transverse member used to connect opposite wheels of a vehicle. In general, axles are subjected to transverse loads and are stressed principally in bending. A railway car axle is a representative example. Shafts may be subjected to torsional, bending, or axial loads, or to a many combination of these loads. If the load is torsional, the principal stresses induced is shear; if bending, the principal stresses are tension and compression. Shafts are generally made a ductile materials. Keys. The function of a key is to prevent relative motion between two machine members. In its more general application, a key consists of a square or rectangular bar of steel inserted half in a shaft and half in the keyed on member, such as a gear or pulley. Keys have been standardized and are generally proportioned to the shaft diameter. Since they are relatively inexpensive and are easily replaced, keys are frequently designed to fail when subjected to unexpected overloads, so that the other more expensive machine members are protected. Couplings. Commercial shafts are limited in length by manufacturing and shipping requirements, so that is necessary to join sections of long transmission shafts couplings. Couplings are also required to connect the shaft of a driving machine to a separately built driven unit. Permanent couplings are simply called couplings, while those which may be readily engaged to transmit power, or disengaged when desired, are called clutches. Brakes. Like clutches, depend upon the friction between two surfaces for their action, the difference being that clutches are used to keep the driving and driven members moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving capacity of any brake depends upon the pressure between the braking surfaces, the coefficient of friction, and the heat radiating capacity of the brake. The heat radiating capacity is important since, during the operating of the brake, the contact surfaces are sliding over each other, and the work of friction generates a large amount of heat that must be dissipated to avoid overheating the brake and burning the facing material. Springs. The problem of spring design is the application of the principle that a load applied to any member will produce a proportionate deformation. In most machine members, the deformation must be kept low. In a spring, the reverse effect is desired, and the deformation must be relatively large, the spring being a machine member built to have a high degree of resilience. Springs are used as cushions to absorb shock, as i machine supports, on automobile frames, and in airplane lending gear; as a source of power by storing up energy that is later delivered as driving power, as in clocks, trigger mechanisms, etc. ; and to maintain contact between machine members by exerting a direct force, as in clutches and brakes. Springs are also use as load measuring devices, as in spring balances, power dynamo meters, and in instruments such as gauges, meters, and engine indicators.
17. GEARING
Transmission gearing. The word gearing may be used as a general term for all machine elements used in transmitting motion. Belts, friction pulleys, and other types of 3
power transmission that depend upon friction are subject to slippage and hence do not transmit a definite and invariable speed ratio. Chains and gear are used when positive drives are necessary, and where the center distances relatively short, toothed gears are preferred. Spur gears. This is the type of gear most commonly used to connect parallel shafts, which then rotate in opposite directions. They may be straight-tooth with the teeth parallel to the axes or helical with the teeth forming helices. In practice the name spur gear is given only to cylindrical gears profile from end to end. Helical gears. In helical gears, the teeth are cut in the form of a helix about the axis of rotation, one gear having a right-hand helix, and the mating gear having a left-hand helix. When straight-tooth spur gears begin to engage, the contact theoretically extends across the entire tooth on a line parallel to the axis of rotation. This sudden application of load produces high impact stresses and excessive noise at high speeds. When helical gears begin to mesh, contact occurs only at the point of the leading edge of the tooth, gradually extending along a diagonal line across the tooth as the gears rotate. The gradual engagement and load application reduce the noise and the dynamic stress so that helical gears may be operated at higher speeds and can sustain greater tangential loads than straight-tooth spur gears of the same size. Bevel gears. All gears previously discussed have had teeth cut or cast on cylindrical pitch surfaces. When the shafts intersect, the pitch surfaces are conical, and the gears are called bevel gears. The shafts intersect at any angle, and the bevel gears may have external or internal contact, and they may have straight or spiral teeth. Unless otherwise toothed and to have the axes intersecting at right angles. Worm gears. The maximum gear ratio advisable with helical gearing is about 10:1. For larger ratios, a gear may be train or double reduction should be used, or a worm and worm gear may be used (Fig.8). Worm and gear sets with ratios from 10:1 up to 100:1 are regularly employed, and ratios as high as 500:1 have been used. The worm and worm wheel, a type of screw gears, is a special case of helical gearing with nonparallel axes, the axes being at right angles. The worm may be cut with a single, double, triple, or quadruple thread. Efficiency of gears. It is generally assumed that the friction loss in gear teeth depends on the tooth profile, pitch-line velocity, surface finish, and lubrication. However, when there is sufficient lubrication to prevent overheating and scoring, the friction appears to be practically independent of the velocity. The finish of the tooth surface is the most important factor in the efficiency of 98 per cent or more. When lubrication is poor, the efficiency may drop as low as 95 per cent. The power loss in the supporting bearings must be considered in addition to the loss in the teeth themselves. Lubrication. To obtain the maximum life, the gears must be supplied with a generous supply of the proper lubricant. The lubricant must maintain an oil film between the teeth and must also carry away the heat of friction, especially from the pinion, which, having more contacts per minute tends to heat faster than the larger gear. The lubricant must be thin enough that penetrate the space between teeth and heavy enough that the pressure will not break the oil film. Oil should be kept clean, since grit and metal dust carried in suspension in the oil will cause abrasive action on the tooth surface. With proper lubrication and correct alignment of the bearings, a good pair of gears will have an indefinite life.
18. BEARINGS
Bearing classification: A bearing is a machine part which supports a moving element and confines its motion. The most important as well as the most common applications of bearings are those in which the relative motion between the members is either a sliding action guided in a straight line as between a planer table and its bed; or the motion is rotation, as in case of a shaft with its axis held in a fixed position by journal bearings, and end wise movement prevented by thrust bearings. A journal bearing is one which forms a sleeve around a shaft and supports a load at right angles to the shaft axis. The journal is that part of the shaft which rotates in the bearing. A thrust bearing is one which takes a thrust load in the direction of the axis of the shaft. When worn, the bearing may be restored to its original condition by replacing the liner. The piston pin bearing in an automobile connecting rod is a familiar example of this type of bearing. For ordinary work, light loads, and moderate speeds, unlined cast iron bearings may be used. Ball and roller bearings. Bearings for rotating members may be still further classified into two groups according to the type of support and the relative motion involved. Thus we have plain bearings, in which the shaft journal is supported directly by the bearing surface with which it is in sliding contact, except for the film or lubricant. Another group is ball and roller bearings, in which the journal is separated from the bearing support by balls and rollers. The surface in this case are principally in rolling contact. Ball bearings were developed along with the bicycle toward the end of the last century; roller bearings appeared even later; yet today these machine elements are of tremendous importance. Characteristics of ball and roller bearings. While ball and roller bearings are commonly known as anti friction bearings, and have certain advantages in reducing friction, they have other properties of as great importance. Dependability in service is perhaps their outstanding characteristic. They are less exacting with respect to lubrication than plain bearings. If well filled with grease and protected from dirt and moisture, they will run from three months to a year without attention; they need only additional lubricant. Another characteristic of anti friction bearings is their ability to support heavy overloads for a considerable period of time without sudden failure. There is no extremely great superiority from a standpoint of low operating friction of ball and roller bearings over plain bearings, provided the latter are perfectly lubricated. With imperfect lubrication, however, which is the case for many plain bearings, a considerable reduction in friction is obtained by the use of ball or roller bearings. Lubricants. Since there is relative motion between the contact surfaces, a certain amount of power must be absorbed in overcoming friction; and, if the surfaces actually touch, there will be more or less rapid wear. It is necessary to provide a lubricant to reduce the friction and to eliminate the wear as much as possible. A lubricant is any substance that will form a film between the rubbing surfaces, preventing, to some degree, the actual contact of the surfaces. Oils and greases are the most common lubricants, although water is used in thrust bearings and in bearings of some vertical water wheels where oil lubrication tends to corrode the bearings, water lubricated bearings are usually made of rubber.
A few solids (such as graphite, mica, soapstone, talc and other greasy nonabrasive materials) are used as bearing lubricants. When properly used, they fill the cavities, smooth out the irregularities in the surfaces, and reduce the friction and wear below that produced between dry surfaces.
heating and air- conditioning of buildings; for cooling and drying different materials and products; for cooling internal-combustion engines; for dust exhaust; for conveying light materials; and for induced and forced draft for steam boilers. In a fan the change in fluid density is so small that the gas is regarded as incompressible. A fan develops a relatively low pressure difference of the order of a few inches of water to less than one pound per square inch. As a contrast, in an air or gas compressor the density change is appreciable; the pressure developed by the compressor is measured in pounds per square inch instead of inches of water.
makes the air very hot, and the heat is sufficient to ignite the true fuel when it is injected. No electric spark is used in the true diesel, but modified forms of diesel engines use spark ignition.