Alpha decay

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Alpha decay Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and thereby transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less. For example:
238 92U

90Th + 2He2+ [1]

234

which can also be written as:

238 234

U Th

An alpha particle is the same as a helium-4 nucleus, and both mass number and atomic number are the same. Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind (in nuclear fission, a number of different pairs of daughters of approximately equal size are formed). Alpha decay is the most likely cluster decay because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the helium-4 product nucleus (the alpha particle). Alpha decay, like other cluster decays, is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, alpha decay is governed by the interplay between the nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. In theory it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum, and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers 106110) of tellurium (element 52). Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is, 0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg) and a speed of 15,000 km/s. This corresponds to a speed of around 0.05 c. There is

surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy produced (see equations in the GeigerNuttall law). Because of their relatively large mass, +2 electric charge and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, so their forward motion is effectively stopped within a few centimeters of air.

Alpha source beneath a radiation detector Most of the helium produced on Earth (approximately 99% of it) is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a byproduct of natural gas production.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Uses 3 Toxicity 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] History
Alpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He2+ ions. For more details of this early work, see Alpha particle#History of discovery and use. By 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of the alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped in a potential well by the nucleus. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the then newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, it has a tiny (but nonzero) probability of "tunneling" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the

nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived from first principles a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically, and was known as the GeigerNuttall law.[2]

[edit] Uses
Americium-241, an alpha emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air between a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm. Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, for example, requires only 2.5 mm of lead shielding to protect against unwanted radiation. Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to more rapidly dissipate.

[edit] Toxicity
Being relatively heavy and positively charged, alpha particles tend to have a very short mean free path, and quickly lose kinetic energy within a short distance of their source. This results in several MeV being deposited in a relatively small volume of material. This increases the chance of cellular damage in cases of internal contamination. In general, external alpha radiation is not harmful since alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells. Even touching an alpha source is usually not harmful, though many alpha sources also are accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and alpha emission is also accompanied by gamma photon emission. If substances emitting alpha particles are ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin, then it could result in a measurable dose. The relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of alpha radiation is higher than that of beta or gamma radiation. RBE quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, for equivalent radiation exposure. The higher value for alpha radiation is generally attributable to the high linear energy transfer (LET), which is about one ionization of a chemical bond for every ngstrm of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta radiation and ionizing photons. However, another component of alpha radiation is the recoil of the parent nucleus, termed alpha recoil. Due to the conservation of momentum requiring the parent nucleus to recoil, the effect acts much like the 'kick' of a rifle butt when a bullet goes in the opposite direction. This gives a significant amount of energy to the recoiling nucleus, which also causes ionization damage. The total energy of the recoil nucleus is readily calculable, and is roughly the weight of the alpha (4 u) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 u) times the total energy of the

alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nuclei are typically heavy metals which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies,[3] this has resulted in a RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations. The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock.[4] If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles which can damage cells in the lung tissue.[5] The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from leukemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon,[6] along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden. Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 murder by radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out with polonium-210, an alpha emitter.

Alpha particle
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Alpha particle

Alpha decay

Composition:

2 protons, 2 neutrons

Particle statistics: Symbol(s): Mass:

Bosonic , 2+, He2+ 6.64465620(33)1027 kg 4.001506179127(62) u 3.727379109(93) GeV/c2[1]

Electric charge: Spin:

2e 0[2]

Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, ) consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus, which is produced in the process of alpha decay. The alpha particle can be written as He2+, 4 2+ 2He or 4 2He (as it is possible that the ion gains electrons from the environment; also, electrons are not important in nuclear chemistry). Not all high-velocity helium nuclei are considered by all authors as alpha particles. As with beta and gamma rays/particles, the name used for the particle carries some mild connotations about its production process and energy.[3] Some science authors may use doubly ionized helium nuclei (He2+) and alpha particles as interchangeable terms. Thus, alpha particles may be loosely used as a term when referring to stellar helium nuclei reactions (for example the alpha processes), and even when they occur as components of cosmic rays. However, helium nuclei produced by particle accelerators (cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and the like) are less likely to be referred to as "alpha particles" because the high energies produced by these sources highlights the striking difference in behavior of their particles from the classical alpha particles produced (and originally defined) by the process of radioactive alpha decay. Alpha particles, like helium nuclei, have a net spin of zero and (due to the mechanism of their production in nuclear decay), in the classical sense, a total energy of about 5 MeV. They are a highly ionizing form of particle radiation, and (when resulting from radioactive alpha decay) have low penetration depth. They are able to be stopped by a few centimeters of air, or by the skin. However, as noted, the helium nuclei that form 10-12% of cosmic rays are usually of much higher energy than those produced by radioactive decay, and are thus capable of being highly penetrating and able to traverse the human body and also many meters of dense solid shielding, depending on their energy.

When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their halflife or decay rate would suggest, due to the high relative biological effectiveness of alpha radiation to cause biological damage, after alpha-emitting radioisotopes enter living cells. Ingested alpha emitter radioisotopes (such as transuranics or actinides) are an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in some experiments up to 1000 times more dangerous, than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes.

Contents
[hide]

1 The alpha decay process o 1.1 Sources o 1.2 Mechanism of production o 1.3 Energy and absorption o 1.4 Biological effects 2 History of discovery and use 3 The anti-alpha particle 4 Applications 5 Alpha radiation and RAM errors 6 References 7 See also

[edit] The alpha decay process

Main article: Alpha decay [edit] Sources

When an atom emits an alpha particle, the atom's mass number decreases by four due to the loss of the four nucleons in the alpha particle. The atomic number of the atom goes down by exactly two, as a result of the loss of two protons the atom becomes a new element. Examples of this are when uranium becomes thorium, or radium becomes radon gas due to alpha decay. Alpha particles are commonly emitted by all of the larger radioactive nuclei such as uranium, thorium, actinium, and radium, as well as the transuranic elements. Unlike other types of decay, alpha decay as a process must have a minimum-size atomic nucleus that can support it. The smallest nuclei that have to date been found to be capable of alpha emission are the lightest nuclides of tellurium (element 52), with mass numbers between 106 and 110. The process of emitting an alpha sometimes leaves the nucleus in an excited state, with the emission of a gamma ray removing the excess energy. Energetic helium nuclei may be produced by cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and other particle accelerators, but they are not normally referred to as alpha particles. As noted, helium nuclei may

participate in nuclear reactions in stars, and occasionally and historically these have been referred to as alpha reactons (see triple alpha process.)[citation needed] Very high energy helium nuclei sometimes referred to as alpha particles make up about 10 to 12% of cosmic rays.
[edit] Mechanism of production

In contrast to beta decay, the fundamental interactions responsible for alpha decay are a balance between the electromagnetic force and nuclear force. Alpha decay results from the Coulomb repulsion[2] between the alpha particle and the rest of the nucleus, which both have a positive electric charge, but which is kept in check by the nuclear force. In classical physics, alpha particles do not have enough energy to escape the potential well from the strong force inside the nucleus (this well involves escaping the strong force to go up one side of the well, which is followed by the electromagnetic force causing a repulsive push-off down the other side). However, the quantum tunnelling effect allows alphas to escape even though they do not have enough energy to overcome the nuclear force. This is allowed by the wave nature of matter, which allows the alpha particle to spend some of its time in a region so far from the nucleus that the potential from the repulsive electromagnetic force has fully compensated for the attraction of the nuclear force. From this point, alpha particles can escape, and in quantum mechanics, after a certain time, they do so.
[edit] Energy and absorption

The energy of the alpha emitted is mildly dependent on the half-life for the emission process, with many orders of magnitude differences in half-life being associated with energy changes of less than 50% (see alpha decay). The energy of alpha particles emitted varies, with higher energy alpha particles being emitted from larger nuclei, but most alpha particles have energies of between 3 and 7 MeV (mega-electron-volts), corresponding to extremely long to extremely short half-lives of alpha-emitting nuclides, respectively. This energy is a substantial amount of energy for a single particle, but their high mass means alpha particles have a lower speed (with a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV; the speed is 15,000 km/s, which is 5% of the speed of light) than any other common type of radiation ( particles, neutrons, etc.)[4] Because of their charge and large mass, alpha particles are easily absorbed by materials, and they can travel only a few centimetres in air. They can be absorbed by tissue paper or the outer layers of human skin (about 40 micrometres, equivalent to a few cells deep).
[edit] Biological effects Main article: relative biological effectiveness

Because of the short range of absorption, alphas are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled, in which case they become extremely dangerous. Because of this high mass and strong absorption, if alpha-emitting radionuclides do enter the body (upon being inhaled, ingested, or injected, as with the use of Thorotrast for high-quality X-ray images prior to the 1950s), alpha radiation is the most destructive form of ionizing radiation. It is the most

strongly ionizing, and with large enough doses can cause any or all of the symptoms of radiation poisoning. It is estimated that chromosome damage from alpha particles is anywhere from 10 to 1000 times greater than that caused by an equivalent amount of gamma or beta radiation, with the average being set at 20 times. The powerful alpha emitter polonium-210 (a milligram of 210Po emits as many alpha particles per second as 4.215 grams of 226Ra) is suspected of playing a role in lung cancer and bladder cancer related to tobacco smoking.[5] 210Po was used to kill Russian dissident and ex-FSB officer Alexander V. Litvinenko in 2006.[6] Not only do alphas themselves cause damage, but approximately equal ionization is caused by the recoiling nucleus after alpha emission, and this energy may in turn be especially damaging to genetic material, since the positive cations of many soluble transuranic elements that emit alphas, are chemically attracted to the net negative charge of DNA, causing the recoiling atomic nucleus to be in close proximation to the DNA.

[edit] History of discovery and use

Alpha radiation consists of helium-4 nucleus and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma radiation is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Lead is good at absorbing gamma radiation, due to its density.

An alpha particle is deflected by a magnetic field

In the years 1899 and 1900, physicists Ernest Rutherford and Paul Villard separated radiation into three types: alpha, beta, and gamma, based on penetration of objects and ability to cause ionization. Alpha rays were defined by Rutherford as those having the lowest penetration of ordinary objects. Rutherford's work also included measurements of the ratio of an alpha particle's mass to its charge, which led him to the hypothesis that alpha particles were doubly charged helium ions (later shown to be bare helium nuclei).[7] In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds finally proved that alpha particles were indeed helium ions. To do this they allowed alpha particles to penetrate a very thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, thus capturing a large number of the hypothesized helium ions inside the tube. They then caused an electric spark inside the tube, which provided a shower of electrons that were taken up by the ions to form neutral atoms of a gas. Subsequent study of the spectra of the resulting gas showed that it was helium and that the alpha particles were indeed the hypothesized helium ions. Because alpha particles occur naturally, but can have energy high enough to participate in a nuclear reaction, study of them led to much early knowledge of nuclear physics. Rutherford used alpha particles emitted by radium bromide to infer that J. J. Thomson's Plum pudding model of the atom was fundamentally flawed. In Rutherford's gold foil experiment conducted by his students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, a narrow beam of alpha particles was established, passing through very thin (a few hundred atoms thick) gold foil. The alpha particles were detected by a zinc sulfide screen, which emits a flash of light upon an alpha particle collision. Rutherford hypothesized that, assuming the "plum pudding" model of the atom was correct, the positively charged alpha particles would be only slightly deflected, if at all, by the dispersed positive charge predicted. It was found that some of the alpha particles were deflected at much larger angles than expected (at a suggestion by Rutherford to check it) and some even bounced almost directly back. Although most of the alpha particles went straight through as expected, Rutherford commented that the few particles that were deflected was akin to shooting a fifteen-inch shell at tissue paper only to have it bounce off, again assuming the "plum pudding" theory was correct. It was determined that the atom's positive charge was concentrated in a small area in its center, making the positive charge dense enough to deflect any positively charged alpha particles that came close to what was later termed the nucleus. Note: Prior to this discovery, it was not known that alpha particles are themselves atomic nuclei, nor was the existence of protons or neutrons known. After this discovery J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model was abandoned, and Rutherford's experiment led to the Bohr model (named for Niels Bohr) and later the modern wave-mechanical model of the atom.

Energy-loss (Bragg curve) in air for typical alpha particle emitted through radioactive decay.

[edit] The anti-alpha particle

In 2011 members of the international STAR collaboration using the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory detected the antimatter partner of the helium nucleus, also known as the anti-alpha. Their result was published on April 24, 2011 in Nature[8]. The experiment used gold ions moving at nearly the speed of light and colliding head on to produce the anti particle. [9]

[edit] Applications

Most smoke detectors contain a small amount of the alpha emitter americium-241. The alpha particles ionize air between a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm. The isotope is extremely dangerous if inhaled or ingested, but the danger is minimal if the source is kept sealed. Many municipalities have established programs to collect and dispose of old smoke detectors, to keep them out of the general waste stream. Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, a source of alpha particles, requires only 2.5 mm of lead shielding to protect against unwanted radiation. Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to more rapidly dissipate. Researchers are currently trying to use the damaging nature of alpha emitting radionuclides inside the body by directing small amounts towards a tumor. The alphas damage the tumor and stop its growth while their small penetration depth prevents radiation damage of the surrounding healthy tissue. This type of cancer therapy is called unsealed source radiotherapy.

[edit] Alpha radiation and RAM errors

Main article: Soft error#Alpha particles from package decay

In computer technology, dynamic random access memory (DRAM) "soft errors" were linked to alpha particles in 1978 in Intel's DRAM chips. The discovery led to strict control of radioactive elements in the packaging of semiconductor materials, and the problem was largely considered to be solved.[10]

[edit] References
1. ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006". Rev. Mod. Phys. 80: 633730. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/codata.pdf. Direct link to value. 2. ^ a b Krane, Kenneth S. (1988). Introductory Nuclear Physics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 246269. ISBN 0-471-80553-X. 3. ^ Definition from dictionary of science Accessed Dec 7, 2010. 4. ^ N.B. Gamma rays move at the speed of light (c). Beta particles often move at a large fraction of c, and exceed 0.5 c whenever their energy is > 64 KeV, which it commonly is. Neutron velocity from nuclear reactions ranges from about 0.06 c for fission to as much as 0.17 c for fusion. 5. ^ Radford, Edward P.; Hunt, Vilma R. (1964). "Polonium-210: A Volatile Radioelement in Cigarettes". Science 143 (3603): 247249. Bibcode 1964Sci...143..247R. doi:10.1126/science.143.3603.247. PMID 14078362. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/143/3603/247. 6. ^ Radiation Poisoning Killed Ex-Russian Spy 7. ^ Hellemans, Alexander; Bryan Bunch (1988). The Timetables of Science. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 411. ISBN 0671621300. 8. ^ Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus, Nature (2011) doi:10.1038/nature10079 9. ^ http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-04-antihelium-physicists-nab-heaviest-antimatter.html Antihelium-4: Physicists nab new record for heaviest antimatter] Physorg.com, April 24, 2011 . Accessed April 2011 10. ^ May, T. C.; Woods, M. H. (1979). "Alpha-particle-induced soft errors in dynamic memories". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 26 (1): 29. doi:10.1109/T-ED.1979.19370. ISSN 00189383. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1479948.

Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-71674345-0.