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1
a
= 1 and
1
a
a = 1.
(D) a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca 8a, b, c 2 R.
11
12 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
Some Properties of R
Theorem (2). If z, a 2 R 3 z + a = a, then z = 0.
(i.e., the number 0 guaranteed by (A3) is unique.)
Proof. By (A4), 9 a 2 R 3 a + (a) = 0.
Then
z
=
A3
z + 0 = z +
a + (a)
=
A2
(z + a) + (a)
= a + (a) = 0.
(a) + b
=
A2
a + (a)
+ b =
A4
0 + b =
A3
b,
so (a) + b is a solution.
For uniqueness, suppose y is any solution of the equation, i.e., a +y = b. Then
y
=
A3
0 + y
=
A4
(a) + a
+ y
=
A2
(a) + (a + y)
= (a) + b
(a) + (b)
< b +
(a) + (b)
()
a + (a)
+ (b) < b +
(b) + (a)
()
0 + (b) <
b + (b)
+ (a) ()
b < 0 + (a) () b < a () a > b
1
x
> 0 ()
1
x
(x
3
1) > 0 ()
_
1
x
> 0 and x
3
1 > 0
_
or
_
1
x
< 0 and x
3
1 < 0
_
()
_
x > 0 and x
3
> 1
_
or
_
x < 0 and x
3
< 1
_
()
_
x > 0 and x > 1
_
or
_
x < 0 and x < 1
_
()
x > 1 or x < 0.
_
|a| + |b|
_
= |a| |b| a + b |a| + |b| =)
|a + b| |a| + |b|
by Theorem 2.2.2(c)
2.2. ABSOLUTE VALUE AND THE REAL LINE 19
Corollary (2.2.4). If a, b 2 R, then
(a)
|a| |b|
|a b|
(b) |a b| |a| + |b|
Note. These are also referred to as triangle inequalities.
Proof. [We use a smuggling technique.]
(a)
|a| = |a b + b| |a b| + |b| =)
|a| |b| |a b|.
|b| = |b a + a| |b a| + |a| =)
|b| |a| |b a| =)
|a b| |a| |b|.
Thus
|a b| |a| |b| |a b| =)
|a| |b|
|a b|
by Theorem 2.2.2.(c)
(b) Just replace b by (b) in the triangle inequality.
Corollary (2.2.5). 8a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
2 R,
|a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
| |a
1
| + |a
2
| + + |a
n
|.
20 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
Problem (Page 34 #8a). Find all x 2 R 3 |x 1| > |x + 1|.
Solution.
First, considering the values of x that make one of the absolute values 0,
x < 1 or 1 x < 1 or x 1.
If x < 1,
|x 1| > |x + 1| =)x + 1 > x 1 =)1 > 1,
so x is a solution.
If 1 x < 1,
|x 1| > |x + 1| =)x + 1 > x + 1 =)0 > 2x =)x < 0,
so 1 x < 0 are solutions.
If x > 1,
|x 1| > |x + 1| =)x 1 > x + 1 =)1 > 1,
which is impossible.
Therefore, {x : x < 0} is the solution set.
Recall. |a b| give the distance from a to b on the number line.
Definition (2.2.7). Let a 2 R and > 0. Then the -neighborhood of a
is the set
V
(a) = {x 2 R : |x a| < }.
Corollary.
x 2 V
2 S 3 u < s
.
(Property I) Let ; 6= S R. w = inf S ()
(1) w is a l.b. for S;
(2) 8 > 0, 9 s
2 S 3 w + > s
.
Proof. (of Property S)
(=)) Assume u = sup S. Then, by denition, u is an u.b. for S.
Let > 0 be given. Then u < u, so by Lemma 2.3.3
9 s
0
2 S 3 u < s
0
. Let s
= s
0
.
((=) (1) u is an u.b. for S =)s u 8s 2 S.
(2) Suppose v < u.
Let = u v. Then
9 s
2 S 3 u (u v) < s
=)v < s
. Let s
0
= s
=)v < s
0
.
Then u = sup S by Lemma 2.3.3.
2.3. THE COMPLETENESS PROPERTY OF R 25
Example.
(1) If ; 6= S R is a nite set,
sup S is the largest element of S and
inf S is the least element of S.
(2) S =
_
x 2 R : 2 < x 5
_
.
(a) sup S = 5 2 S.
Proof.
(1) 8x 2 S, x 5 =)5 is an u.b. of S.
(2) Let > 0 be given. 5 < 5 2 S. Let s
= 5.
Then 5 = sup S by Property S.
(b) inf S = 2 / 2 S.
Proof.
(1) 8 x 2 S, 2 < x =)2 x =)2 is a l.b. of S.
(2) Let > 0 be given.
If > 3, 2 + > 2 + 3 = 5 2 S, so let s
= 5.
If 3,
2 < 2 +
2
2 +
3
2
=
7
2
5, so 2 +
2
2 S.
Then 2 + > 2 +
2
2 S, so let s
= 2 +
2
.
Thus 2 = inf S by Property I.
Axiom (Completeness Property of R or Supremum Property of R).
Every non-empty set of real numbers that has an upper bound also has a
supremum in R.
Note. Thus R is a complete ordered eld, while Q is not.
26 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
Theorem (Inmum Property of R).
Every nonempty set of real numbers that is bounded below has an inmum
in R.
Proof. Suppose ; 6= S R is bounded below. Then
; 6= S
0
=
_
s : s 2 S
_
is bounded above. This is true since
w a lower bound of S =)w s 8s 2 S =)
s w 8s 2 S =)w is an upper bound of S
0
.
By the Completeness Property, u = sup S
0
exists. We claim u = inf S.
(1) u = sup S
0
=)s u 8s 2 S =)u s 8s 2 S =)
u is a lower bound of S.
(2) Let > 0 be given. By Property S, 9 (s
) 2 S
0
, where s
2 S,
3 u < s
=)u + > s
.
Thus u = inf S = sup
_
s : s 2 S
_
.
2.3. THE COMPLETENESS PROPERTY OF R 27
Problem (Page 38 #4). Let S
4
=
1
(1)
n
n
: n 2 N
_
.
Find inf S
4
and sup S
4
.
Solution.
We showed earlier that 0 is a lower bound of S
4
and 2 is an upper bound since
0 1
(1)
n
n
2 8n 2 N.
Now S4 =
2,
1
2
,
4
3
,
3
4
,
6
5
,
5
6
,
8
7
,
7
8
, . . .
_
.
We claim inf S
4
=
1
2
.
(1) If n is odd,
1
(1)
n
n
= 1
1
n
= 1 +
1
n
=
n + 1
n
> 1 >
1
2
.
If n is even,
1
2
n 1, so
1
(1)
n
n
= 1
1
n
=
n 1
n
n
1
2
n
n
=
1
2
n
n
=
1
2
.
Thus
1
2
is a lower bound for S
4
.
(2) Given > 0,
1
2
2 S
4
and
1
2
+ >
1
2
, so choose s
=
1
2
.
By Property I,
1
2
= inf S
4
.
[Finding and proving sup S
4
is Homework]
Homework
Page 38 #2, 4 (prove sup S
4
=?), 7.
28 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
2.4. Applications of the Supremum Property
Two questions
Is there a largest natural number?
Is N bounded above in R?
Theorem (2.4.3 Archimedean Property). If x 2 R, then 9 n
x
2 N 3
x < n
x
.
Proof. Suppose n x 8n 2 N. [We are using contraction.]
Then x is an u.b. of N, so
N has a supremum. Let u = sup N.
By Property S, 9m 2 N 3 u 1 < m.
Then u < m+ 1 2 N,
contradicting that u is an upper bound of N.
Thus 9 n
x
2 N 3 x < n
x
.
Note. The next 3 corollaries can also be referred to as Archimedean.
Corollary (2.4.4). If S =
_
1
n
: n 2 N
_
, inf S = 0.
Proof. Clearly, 0 is a lower bound of S, so inf S exists.
Let w = inf S, so w 0.
8 > 0, 9 n 2 N 3
1
< n (Archimedean) =)
1
n
< . Thus
0 w
1
n
< =)
w = 0 by Theorem 2.1.9. Thus inf S = 0.
2.4. APPLICATIONS OF THE SUPREMUM PROPERTY 29
Corollary (2.4.5). If t > 0, then 9 n
t
2 N 3 0 <
1
n
t
< t.
Proof. Since inf
_
1
n
: n 2 N
_
= 0 and t > 0,
t is not a lower bound of inf
_
1
n
: n 2 N
_
, so
9 n
t
2 N 3 0 <
1
n
t
< t.
Corollary (2.4.6). If y > 0, then 9 n
y
2 N 3 n
y
1 y < n
y
.
Proof. Let E
y
= {m 2 N : y < m}.
By the Archimedean property, E
y
6= ;.
By Well-Ordering, E
y
has a least element, say n
y
.
Then n
y
1 62 E
y
, so
n
y
1 y < n
y
.
30 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
Theorem (Density Theorem). If x, y 2 R 3 x < y, then 9 r 2
Q 3 x < r < y.
Proof. WLOG, assume x > 0.
n=1
I
n
= {0}.
32 2. THE REAL NUMBERS
(2) J
n
=
0,
1
n
8n 2 N.
1
n=1
J
n
= ;.
(3) K
n
= (n, 1) 8n 2 N.
1
n=1
K
n
= ;.
Theorem (2.5.2 Nested Intervals Property). If I
n
= [a
n
, b
n
], n 2 N,
is a nested sequence of closed, bounded intervals, then 9 2 R 3 2
I
n
8 n 2 N.
Proof. By nesting, I
n
I
1
8 n 2 N, so a
n
b
1
8 n 2 N. Thus
; 6= {a
n
: n 2 N} = A
is bounded above.
Let = sup A, so a
n
8 n 2 N.
[To show b
n
8 n 2 N.]
Let n 2 N be given (so b
n
is arbitrary, but xed).
[To show b
n
is a u.b. of A, so then b
n
.]
(1) Suppose n k. Then I
n
I
k
, so a
k
b
k
b
n
.
(2) Suppose n > k. Then I
k
I
n
, so a
k
a
n
b
n
.
Thus, 8 k 2 N, a
k
b
n
=)b
n
is an u.b. of A =) b
n
.
2.5. INTERVALS 33
Theorem (2.5.3). If I
n
= [a
n
, b
n
], n 2 N, is a nested sequence of closed,
bounded intervals 3
inf{b
n
a
n
: n 2 N} = 0,
the 9 a unique 2 R 3 2 I
n
8 n 2 N.
Proof. Let = inf{b
n
: n 2 N}. Using an argument similar to that of the
previous theorem, we hav a
n
8 n 2 N, so = sup{a
n
: n 2 N} .
Thus, x 2 I
n
8 n 2 N () x .
Let > 0 be given. [To show = 0.]
By Property I, since inf{b
n
a
n
: n 2 N} = 0,
9 m 2 N 3 0 + > b
m
a
m
.
Then 0 b
m
a
m
< .
Thus 0 < 8 > 0.
By Theorem 2.1.9, = 0 = ,
so = is the only point belonging to I
n
8!n 2 N.