Certified Black Belt Handbook Chapter

Tni Cikiiiin Six Sicva
8iack 8ii Haxnnook

Sicoxn Fniiox
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb i 11/20/08 6:14:12 PM
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The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook
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Six Sigma for the New Millennium: A CSSBB Guidebook, Second Edition
Kim H. Pries
5S for Service Organizations and Offices: A Lean Look at Improvements
Debashis Sarkar
The Executive Guide to Understanding and Implementing Lean Six Sigma:
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Robert M. Meisel, Steven J. Babb, Steven F. Marsh, and James P. Schlichting
Applied Statistics for the Six Sigma Green Belt
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Statistical Quality Control for the Six Sigma Green Belt
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Six Sigma for the Office: A Pocket Guide
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Lean-Six Sigma for Healthcare: A Senior Leader Guide to Improving Cost and Throughput,
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Defining and Analyzing a Business Process: A Six Sigma Pocket Guide
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Six Sigma for the Shop Floor: A Pocket Guide
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Six Sigma Project Management: A Pocket Guide
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Transactional Six Sigma for Green Belts: Maximizing Service and Manufacturing Processes
Samuel E. Windsor
Lean Kaizen: A Simplified Approach to Process Improvements
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H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb ii 11/20/08 6:14:12 PM
Tni Cikiiiin Six Sicva
8iack 8ii Haxnnook
Sicoxn Fniiox
T. M. Kubiak
Donald W. Benbow
ASQ Quality Press
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb iii 11/20/08 6:14:12 PM
American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203
2009 by American Society for Quality
All rights reserved. Published 2009
Printed in the United States of America
14 13 12 11 10 09 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kubiak, T.M.
The certified six sigma black belt handbook / T.M. Kubiak and Donald W. Benbow.2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-87389-732-7 (alk. paper)
1. Quality controlStatistical methodsHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Benbow, Donald W.,
1936 II. Title.
TS156.B4653 2008
658.4013--dc22
2008042611
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Publisher: William A. Tony
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For Jaycob, my grandson:
This world is changing with each passing daysometimes for the better, sometimes not. I
will strive to carry your burdens until you are able to do so for yourself. May you always be
blessed with the best that life has to offer and always strive to improve not just your life but
the lives of others. On lifes journey you will confront challenges that may seem impossible,
but always know my strength and support will forever be with you. There will be many twists
and turns, but always be faithful to your own values and convictions. Know that if you live
life fully, you will surely achieve your dreams. I will always be there to help you find your way,
but only you have the strength to spread your wings, soar high, and find your yellow brick
road. When you follow your own path, there will be no limits to what you can accomplish.
T. M. Kubiak
For my grandchildren Sarah, Emily, Dana, Josiah, Regan, Alec, Marah, and Liam.
Donald W. Benbow
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb v 11/20/08 6:14:13 PM
(This page intentionally left blank)
vii
Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Part I Enterprise-Wide Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 Enterprise-Wide View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
History of Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Value and Foundations of Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Value and Foundations of Lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Integration of Lean and Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Business Processes and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Six Sigma and Lean Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Enterprise Leadership Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Organizational Roadblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Six Sigma Projects and Kaizen Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Part II Organizational Process Management and Measures . . . . 21
Chapter 3 Impact on Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Impact on Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 4 Critical to x (CTx) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Critical to x (CTx) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 5 Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chapter 6 Business Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Business Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
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viii Table of Contents
Chapter 7 Financial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Common Financial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Part III Team Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Chapter 8 Team Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Team Types and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Team Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Team Member Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Launching Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 9 Team Facilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Team Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Team Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Team Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 10 Team Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Team Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 11 Time Management for Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Time Management for Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Chapter 12 Team Decision- Making Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Team Decision- Making Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 13 Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 14 Team Performance Evaluation and Reward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Team Performance Evaluation and Reward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Part IV Define . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 15 Voice of the Customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Customer Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Customer Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Customer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Chapter 16 Project Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Problem Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Project Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chapter 17 Project Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Project Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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Tanii oi Coxixs ix
Part V Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 18 Process Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Process Flow Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Process Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter 19 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Types of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Measurement Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Sampling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Collecting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter 20 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Measurement Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Measurement Systems in the Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Metrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 21 Basic Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Basic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Graphical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Valid Statistical Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Chapter 22 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Commonly Used Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Other Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter 23 Process Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Process Capability Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Process Performance Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Short- Term and Long- Term Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Process Capability for Non- Normal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Process Capability for Attributes Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Process Capability Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Process Performance vs. Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Part VI Analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 24 Measuring and Modeling Relationships between Variables . . . . 184
Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Multivariate Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Multi- Vari Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Attributes Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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x Table of Contents
Chapter 25 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Statistical vs. Practical Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Point and Interval Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Tests for Means, Variances, and Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Goodness- of-Fit (Chi Square) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Contingency Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Non- Parametric Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter 26 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Chapter 27 Additional Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Gap Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Root Cause Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Waste Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Part VII Improve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Chapter 28 Design of Experiments (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Planning Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
One- Factor Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Two-Level Fractional Factorial Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Full Factorial Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapter 29 Waste Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Waste Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Chapter 30 Cycle-Time Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Cycle- Time Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 31 Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Chapter 32 Theory of Constraints (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Theory of Constraints (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Chapter 33 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Chapter 34 Risk Analysis and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Risk Analysis and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
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Part VIII Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter 35 Statistical Process Control (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Selection of Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Rational Subgrouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Control Chart Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Control Chart Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Chapter 36 Other Control Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Visual Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter 37 Maintain Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Measurement System Re- analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Control Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Chapter 38 Sustain Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Training Plan Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Ongoing Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Part IX Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) Frameworks and
Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Chapter 39 Common DFSS Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Validate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
DMADOV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Optimize, and Validate) . . . 415
Chapter 40 Design for X (DFX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Design for X (DFX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Chapter 41 Robust Design and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Robust Design and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Chapter 42 Special Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Strategic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Tactical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Part X Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Appendix 1 ASQ Code of Ethics (May 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Appendix 2A ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Body
of Knowledge (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Appendix 2B ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Body
of Knowledge (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
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Appendix 3 Control Chart Combinations for Measurement Data . . . . . . . . . . 460
Appendix 4 Control Chart Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Appendix 5 Constants for A
7
, B
7
, and B
8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Appendix 6 Factors for Estimating
X
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Appendix 7 Control Charts Count Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Appendix 8 Binomial Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Appendix 9 Cumulative Binomial Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Appendix 10 Poisson Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Appendix 11 Cumulative Poisson Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Appendix 12 Standard Normal Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Appendix 13 Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Appendix 14 t Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Appendix 15 Chi-Square Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Appendix 16 F(0.99) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Appendix 17 F(0.975) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Appendix 22 F(0.025) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Appendix 24 Median Ranks Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Appendix 25 Normal Scores Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Appendix 26 Factors for One-Sided Tolerance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Appendix 27 Factors for Two-Sided Tolerance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Appendix 28 Equivalent Sigma Levels, Percent Defective, and PPM . . . . . . . 554
Appendix 29 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (One-Tail,
Alpha = 0.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Appendix 30 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (One-Tail,
Alpha = 0.01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
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Appendix 31 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (Two-Tail,
Alpha = 0.025) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Appendix 32 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (Two-Tail,
Alpha = 0.005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Appendix 33 Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test . . . . . . . . . . 560
Appendix 34 Glossary of Six Sigma and Related Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Appendix 35 Glossary of Japanese Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
CD-ROM Contents
Sample Examination Questions for Parts IIX
Certified Six Sigma Black BeltSimulated Exam
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List of Figures and Tables
Part I
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.1 Example of a process flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 1.2 Relationship among systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps. . . . . . . . . . 11
Part II
Figure 4.1 Example of a CTQ tree diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 7.1 Traditional quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 7.2 Modern quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Part III
Figure 9.1 Team stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 10.1 Team obstacles and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 12.1 Example of a force field analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 13.1 Example of an affinity diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 13.2 Example of an interrelationship digraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 13.3 Example of a tree diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 13.4 Example of a prioritization matrixfirst step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 13.5 Example of a prioritization matrixsecond step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 13.6 Example of a matrix diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 13.7 Example of a PDPC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 13.8 Example of an AND. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Part IV
Figure 15.1 CTQ flow- down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 15.2 Example of a CTQ flow- down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 15.3 Example of a QFD matrix for an animal trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 15.4 Map of the entries for the QFD matrix illustrated in Figure 15.3. . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 15.5 Kano model for customer satisfaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 17.1 Project network diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 17.2 Example of a Gantt chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
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Part V
Figure 18.1 Process diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 18.2 Example of a SIPOC form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 18.3 Generic process flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 18.4 Process flowchart and process map example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 18.5 Example of written procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 18.6 Example of work instructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 18.7 Example of the symbology used to develop a value stream map. . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 18.8 Example of a value stream map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 18.9 Example of a spaghetti diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 18.10 Example of a circle diagram.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 20.1 Accuracy versus precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 20.2 Blank GR&R data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
Figure 20.3 GR&R data collection sheet with data entered and calculations
completed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 20.4 Blank GR&R report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 20.5 GR&R report with calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure 20.6 Gage R&R StudyANOVA method: source tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 20.7 Gage R&R studyANOVA method: components of variation. . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 20.8 Minitab session window output of the R&R studyX
/R method:
source tables for Example 20.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 20.9 Graphical results of the GR&R study
X/R method:
X and R
control charts by operators (appraisers) for Example 20.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table 20.1 Attribute agreement analysisdata for Example 20.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 20.10 Minitab session window output for Example 20.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 20.11 Graphical results of the attribute agreement analysis for Example 20.4. . . . . 115
Table 20.2 Attribute gage studydata for Example 20.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 20.12 Graphical results of the attribute gage analysis for Example 20.5. . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 21.1 Commonly used symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 21.1 Dot plot for a simple population of three numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 21.2 Sampling distribution of the mean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 21.2 Dot plot of the sample means from Table 21.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 21.3 Example of a histogram from a large non- normal looking population. . . . . . 124
Figure 21.4 Examples of the impact of the CLT when sampling from various
populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 21.5 Example of a data set as illustrated by a frequency distribution,
a dot plot, and a histogram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Table 21.3 Summary of descriptive measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 21.6 Example of a cumulative frequency distribution in table and graph
form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 21.4 A comparison of various graphical methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 21.7 Stem-and-leaf diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 21.8 Box plot with key points labeled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
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Figure 21.9 Examples of box plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 21.10 Example of a multiple box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 21.11 Example of a run chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 21.5 Data for scatter diagrams shown in Figure 21.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 21.12 Examples of scatter diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 21.13 Example of the use of normal probability graph paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 21.14 Example of a normal probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 22.1 Venn diagram illustrating the probability of event A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22.2 Venn diagram illustrating the complementary rule of probability. . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22.3 Venn diagram illustrating the addition rule of probability with
independent events A and B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 22.4 Venn diagram illustrating the general version of the addition rule
of probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 22.1 Example of a contingency table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 22.2 Contingency table for Examples 22.422.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 22.3 Summary of the rules of probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Table 22.4 Summary of formulas, means, and variances of commonly used
distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 22.5 Standard normal distribution for Example 22.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 22.6 Standard normal distribution for Example 22.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 22.7 Poisson distribution with mean = 4.2 for Example 22.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Figure 22.8 Binomial distribution with n = 6 and p = 0.1428 for Example 22.17. . . . . . . . 155
Figure 22.9 Example of a chi- square distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . 156
Figure 22.10 Example of a t distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 22.11 Example of an F distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 22.5 Summary of formulas, means, and variances of other distributions. . . . . . . . 159
Figure 22.12 Hypergeometric distribution for Example 22.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 22.13 Exponential distribution for Example 22.19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 22.14 Lognormal distribution for Example 22.20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Figure 22.15 Example of a Weibull function for various values of the shape
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Table 23.1 Cable diameter data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 23.1 Example of a process capability analysis using the data given in
Table 23.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 23.2 Methods of determining the standard deviation for use in process
capability indices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Table 23.3 Binomial probabilities for Example 23.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Part VI
Figure 24.1 Examples of different types of correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Table 24.1 Data for Example 24.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 24.2 Graphical depiction of regression concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Figure 24.3 Scatter diagram developed from the data given in Table 24.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
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xviii List of Figures and Tables
Figure 24.4 Scatter diagram from Figure 24.3 with two proposed lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 24.2 Computed values for the proposed lines in Figure 24.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 24.3 Computed values for the proposed lines given in Figure 24.4 with
residual values added. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 24.4 Residual values for the least squares regression line from
Example 24.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Table 24.5 Census data for Examples 24.10 and 24.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 24.5 Example of a principal components analysis using the data given
in Table 24.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 24.6 Scree plot for Examples 24.10 and 24.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 24.7 Example of a factor analysis using the data given in Table 24.5. . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 24.6 Salmon data for Example 24.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 24.8 Example of a discriminant analysis using the data given in
Table 24.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Table 24.7 Plastic film data for Example 24.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 24.9 Example of MANOVA using the data given in Table 24.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 24.10 Stainless steel casting with critical ID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Figure 24.11 Data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Table 24.8 Casting data for Example 24.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 24.12 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 24.13 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.8 with the means of each factor
connected by lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 24.9 Casting data for Example 24.14 with precision parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 24.14 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.9 with the means of each factor
connected by lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 24.15 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Table 24.10 Casting data for Example 24.14 after pressure wash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 24.16 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Table 24.11 Resting pulse data for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 24.17 Minitab session window output for the binary logistic regression based
on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 24.18 Delta chi- square versus probability analysis for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . 222
Figure 24.19 Delta chi- square versus leverage analysis for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Table 24.12 Favorite subject data for Example 24.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Figure 24.20 Minitab session window output for the nominal logistic regression
based on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Table 24.13 Toxicity data for Example 24.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 24.21 Minitab session window output for the ordinal logistic regression based
on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 25.1 Four outcomes associated with statistical hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Table 25.1 Sample size formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Table 25.2 Confidence intervals for means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Table 25.3 Confidence intervals for variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Table 25.4 Confidence intervals for proportions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
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lis oi Ficukis axn Taniis xix
Table 25.5 Hypothesis tests for means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 25.6 Hypothesis tests for variances or ratios of variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Table 25.7 Hypothesis tests for proportions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 25.2 Hypothesis test flowchart (part 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Table 25.8 Example of a one-way ANOVA source table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 25.9 Moisture content data for Example 25.12.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 25.10 Completed one-way ANOVA source table for the data given in
Table 25.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 25.11 Example of a two-way ANOVA source table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 25.12 Historical data of defect types along with current data from a
randomly selected week for Example 25.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Table 25.13 Goodness-of-fit table for Example 25.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Table 25.14 The general form of a two-way contingency table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 25.15 Observed frequencies of defectives for Example 25.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 25.16 Computation of the expected frequencies for Example 25.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Table 25.17 Comparison of parametric and non-parametric hypothesis tests. . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 25.18 Common non-parametric hypothesis tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 25.19 Data for Moods Median test in Example 25.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 25.20 Computation of the expected frequencies for Example 25.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 25.21 Data for Levenes test for Example 25.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Table 25.22 Levenes test for Example 25.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 25.23 Levenes test for Example 25.16 (continued). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 25.26 Data for Kruskal-Wallis test for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Table 25.27 Determining ranks for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Table 25.28 Kruskal-Wallis test for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 25.29 Data for Mann-Whitney test for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Table 25.30 Determining ranks for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Table 25.31 Mann-Whitney test for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 26.1 Example of a PFMEA form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Figure 26.2 Example of a DFMEA form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Figure 27.1 Example of a blank cause- and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 27.2 Example of a cause- and-effect diagram after a few brainstorming
steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure 27.3 Example of a Pareto chart for defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Table 27.1 Cost to correct each defect type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 27.4 Example of a Pareto chart for defects weighted by the cost to correct. . . . . . 288
Figure 27.5 Basic FTA symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Figure 27.6 Example of stoppage of agitation in a tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
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xx List of Figures and Tables
Part VII
Table 28.1 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet for Example 28.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table 28.2 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet with data entered for
Example 28.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table 28.3 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet with run averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Figure 28.1 Graph of the main effects for the data given in Table 28.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Table 28.4 A 2
3
full factorial design using the + and format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Table 28.5 A 2
3
full factorial design showing interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 28.2 Graph of the interaction effects for the data given in Table 28.3. . . . . . . . . . . 305
Table 28.6 Half fraction of 2
3
(also called a 2
31
design). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Table 28.7 Half fraction of 2
3
with completed interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Table 28.8 A 2
4
full factorial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table 28.9 A 2
41
fractional factorial design with interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table 28.10 Statistical models for common experimental designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Table 28.11 Examples of source tables for the models given in Table 28.10. . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Table 28.12 Sums of squares for the models given in Table 28.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Table 28.13 Examples of Latin squares from each main class up to order 5. . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Table 28.14 Latin square analysis for Example 28.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Table 28.15 Completed Latin square source table for Example 28.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Table 28.16 A 2
41
fractional factorial for Example 28.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Table 28.17 Session window from Minitab for the data given in Table 28.16. . . . . . . . . . . 321
Table 28.18 Minitab main effects plot for the analysis given in Table 28.17. . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Table 28.19 Minitab interaction effects plot for the analysis given in Table 28.17. . . . . . . 324
Table 28.20 Minitab analysis of residuals for the data given in Table 28.16. . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Table 28.21 Relevant tables for two-way full factorial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Table 28.22 Data for a 2
2
full factorial experiment with three replicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Table 28.23 Session window results for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Table 28.24 Main effects plot for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 28.25 Interaction plot for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 28.26 Residual plots for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 32.1 The Drum- Buffer-Rope subordinate step analogyno rope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 32.2 The Drum- Buffer-Rope subordinate step analogywith rope. . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 32.3 The interdependence of throughput, inventory, and operating expense
measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Figure 33.1 Example of a ranking matrix with criteria weights shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Figure 34.1 SWOT analysis for Example 34.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 34.2 PEST analysis for Example 34.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Part VIII
Figure 35.1 Function of SPC tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 35.2 Conveyor belt in chocolate- making process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
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lis oi Ficukis axn Taniis xxi
Figure 35.3 Conveyor belt in chocolate- making process with rational subgroup
choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Table 35.1 Data for Examples 35.1 and 35.2X
R and X
s charts, respectively. . . . . 363

Figure 35.4 X
R chart for data given in Table 35.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

Figure 35.5 X
s chart for data given in Table 35.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Table 35.2 Data for Example 35.3individual and moving range chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 35.6 Individual and moving range chart for data given in Table 35.2. . . . . . . . . . . 367
Table 35.3 Data for Example 35.4p chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Figure 35.7 p chart for data given in Table 35.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Table 35.4 Data for Example 35.5np chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Figure 35.8 np chart for data given in Table 35.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Table 35.5 Data for Example 35.6c chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Figure 35.9 c chart for data given in Table 35.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Table 35.6 Data for Example 35.7u chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Figure 35.10 u chart for data given in Table 35.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Figure 35.11 Short-run SPC decision flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Table 35.7 Summary of formulas for short-run SPC charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Table 35.8 Short-run chart data for Example 35.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Table 35.9 MAMR data for Example 35.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Figure 35.12 Moving average chart of length three from Example 35.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Figure 35.13 Moving average range chart of length three from Example 35.9. . . . . . . . . . . 388
Table 35.10 Interpreting control chart out-of-control conditions used by Minitab. . . . . . 391
Figure 35.14 Example of out- of-control condition #1 from Minitab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Figure 35.22 Example of out- of-control condition #1 from AIAG.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Figure 37.1 Example of an acceptable level of variation due to the measurement
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Figure 37.2 Example of an unacceptable level of variation due to the measurement
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 37.3 Example of two different formats for control plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
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xxii List of Figures and Tables
Part IX
Figure 41.1 Nonlinear response curve with input noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Figure 41.2 Nonlinear response curve showing the impact on Q
of input noise at P
1
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Figure 41.3 Nonlinear response curve showing the impact on Q of input noise
at P
1
, P
2
, and P
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Figure 41.4 Using a response curve to determine tolerance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 41.5 Conventional stack tolerance dimensioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 42.1 Example of a product family matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Figure 42.2 First step in forming a Pugh matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 42.3 Second step in forming a Pugh matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 42.4 Third step in forming a Pugh matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Figure 42.5 Final step in forming a Pugh matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
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xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition
I
n the spirit of customer- supplier relationships, we are pleased to provide our
readers with the second edition of The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook.
The handbook has been updated to reflect the most recent Six Sigma Black Belt
Body of Knowledge, released in 2007.
As with all ASQ certificationbased handbooks, the primary audience for this
work is the individual who plans to prepare to sit for the Six Sigma Black Belt
certification examination. Therefore, the book assumes the individual has the nec-
essary background and experience in quality and Six Sigma. Concepts are dealt
with briefly but facilitated with practical examples. We have intentionally avoided
theoretical discussion unless such a discussion was necessary to communicate a
concept. As always, readers are encouraged to use additional sources when seek-
ing much deeper levels of discussion. Most of the citations provided in the refer-
ences will be helpful in this regard.
A secondary audience for the handbook is the quality and Six Sigma profes-
sional who would like a relevant Six Sigma reference book. With this audience in
mind, we have greatly expanded the appendices section:
Although the Body of Knowledge was updated in 2007, we have elected
to keep the 2001 Body of Knowledge so that readers can compare
changes and perhaps offer recommendations for future Bodies of
Knowledge.
All tables were developed using a combination of Microsoft Excel
and Minitab 15. Thus, the reader may find some differences between
our tables and those published in other sources. Appendices 2933
are examples of where such differences might occur. Note that years
ago many statistical tables were produced either by hand or by using
rudimentary calculators. These tables have been handed down from
author to author and have remained largely unchanged. Our approach
was to revert to the formulas and algorithms that produced the tables
and then redevelop them using statistical software.
The table for control constants has been expanded to now include
virtually all control constants. To the best of our knowledge, this
handbook is probably the only reference source that includes this
information.
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xxiii 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
xxiv Preface to the Second Edition
Tables for both cumulative and noncumulative forms of the most useful
distributions are now presentfor example, binomial, Poisson, and
normal.
Additional alpha values in tables have been included. For example,
large alpha values for the left side of the F distribution now exist.
Thus, it will no longer be necessary to use the well- known conversion
property of the distribution to obtain critical F values associated with
higher alpha values. Though the conversion formula is straightforward,
everyone seems to get it wrong. We expect our readers will appreciate
this.
The glossary has grown significantly. Most notable is the inclusion of
more terms relating to Lean.
A second glossary has been added as well. This short glossary is limited
to the most common Japanese terms used by quality and Six Sigma
professionals.
We are confident that readers will find the above additions useful.
As you might expect, chapter and section numbering follows the same method
used in the Six Sigma Black Belt Body of Knowledge. This has made for some awk-
ward placement of discussions (for example, the normal distribution is referred to
several times before it is defined), and in some cases, redundancy of discussion
exists. However, where possible, we have tried to reference the main content in the
handbook and refer the reader there for the primary discussion.
After the first edition was published, we received several comments from read-
ers who stated that their answers did not completely agree with those given in the
examples. In many instances, we found that discrepancies could be attributed to
the following: use of computers with different bits, the number of significant dig-
its accounted for by the software used, the sequence in which the arithmetic was
performed, and the propagation of errors due to rounding or truncation. There-
fore, we urge the reader to carefully consider the above points as the examples are
worked. However, we do recognize that errors occasionally occur and thus have
established a SharePoint site that will permit readers to recommend suggestions,
additions, corrections, or deletions, as well as to seek out any corrections that may
have been found and published. The SharePoint site address is http://asqgroups.
asq.org/cssbbhandbook/.
Finally, the enclosed CD contains supplementary problems covering each
chapter and a simulated exam that has problems distributed among chapters
according to the scheme published in the Body of Knowledge. It is suggested that
the reader study a particular chapter, repeating any calculations independently,
and then do the supplementary problems for that chapter. After attaining success
with all chapters, the reader may complete the simulated exam to confirm mastery
of the entire Six Sigma Black Belt Body of Knowledge.
The Authors
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xxiv 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
xxv
W
e decided to number chapters and sections by the same method used
in the Body of Knowledge (BOK) specified for the Certified Six Sigma
Black Belt examination. This made for some awkward placement (the
normal distribution is referred to several times before it is defined), and in some
cases, redundancy. We thought the ease of access for readers, who might be strug-
gling with some particular point in the BOK, would more than balance these
disadvantages.
The enclosed CD contains supplementary problems covering each chapter and
a simulated exam that has problems distributed among chapters according to the
scheme published in the Body of Knowledge. It is suggested that the reader study
a particular chapter, repeating any calculations independently, and then do the
supplementary problems for that chapter. After attaining success with all chapters,
the reader may complete the simulated exam to confirm mastery of the entire Six
Sigma Black Belt Body of Knowledge.
The Authors
Preface to the First Edition
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xxv 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
xxvii
W
e would like to express our deepest appreciation to Minitab Inc., for pro-
viding us with the use of Minitab 15 and Quality Companion 2 software
and for permission to use several examples from Minitab 15 and forms
from Quality Companion 2. This software was instrumental in creating and verify-
ing examples used throughout the book.
In addition we would like to thank the ASQ management and Quality Press
staffs for their outstanding support and exceptional patience while we prepared
this second edition.
Finally, we would like to thank the staff of Kinetic Publishing Services, LLC,
for applying their finely tuned project management, copyediting, and typesetting
skills to this project. Their support has allowed us to produce a final product suit-
able for the ASQ Quality Press family of publications.
The Authors
Acknowledgments
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Enterprise-Wide Deployment
Chapter 1 Enterprise-Wide View
Chapter 2 Leadership
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HISTORY OF CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
Describe the origins of continuous improvement
and its impact on other improvement models.
(Remember)
Body of Knowledge I.A.1
Most of the techniques found in the Six Sigma toolbox have been available for
some time, thanks to the groundbreaking work of many professionals in the qual-
ity sciences.
Walter A. Shewhart worked at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric, where
he developed and used control charts. He is sometimes referred to as the father
of statistical quality control (SQC) because he brought together the disciplines of
statistics, engineering, and economics. He describes the basic principles of SQC in
his book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product (1931). He was the first
honorary member of the American Society for Quality (ASQ).
W. Edwards Deming developed a list of 14 points in which he emphasized the
need for change in management structure and attitudes. As stated in his book Out
of the Crisis (1986), these 14 points are as follows:
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.
2. Adopt a new philosophy.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone.
Instead, minimize total cost by working with a single supplier.
5. Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production,
and service.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Adopt and institute leadership.
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between staff areas.
Chapter 1
Enterprise-Wide View
Cnarik : FxikrkisiWini \iiw 3
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10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the workforce.
11. Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for
management.
12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship. Eliminate the
annual rating or merit system.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self- improvement for
everyone.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the
transformation.
Joseph M. Juran pursued a varied career in management beginning in 1924 as an
engineer, executive, government administrator, university professor, labor arbitra-
tor, corporate director, and consultant. He developed the Juran trilogy, three mana-
gerial processesquality planning, quality control, and quality improvementfor
use in managing for quality. Juran wrote hundreds of papers and 12 books, includ-
ing Jurans Quality Control Handbook (1999), Jurans Quality Planning & Analysis
for Enterprise Quality (with F. M. Gryna; 2007), and Juran on Leadership for Quality
(2003). His approach to quality improvement includes the following points:
Create awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement
Mandate quality improvement; make it a part of every job description
Create the infrastructure: Establish a quality council; select projects for
improvement; appoint teams; provide facilitators
Provide training in how to improve quality
Review progress regularly
Give recognition to the winning teams
Propagandize the results
Revise the reward system to enforce the rate of improvement
Maintain momentum by enlarging the business plan to include goals for
quality improvement
Deming and Juran worked in both the United States and Japan to help businesses
understand the importance of continuous process improvement.
Philip B. Crosby, who originated the zero defects concept, was an ASQ honorary
member and past president. He wrote many books, including Quality Is Free (1979),
Quality without Tears (1984), Lets Talk Quality (1990), and Leading: The Art of Becoming
an Executive (1990). Crosbys 14 steps to quality improvement are as follows:
1. Make it clear that management is committed to quality
2. Form quality improvement teams with representatives from each
department
3. Determine how to measure where current and potential quality
problems lie
4 Part I: Enterprise-Wide Deployment
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4. Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool
5. Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees
6. Take formal actions to correct problems identified through previous
steps
7. Establish a committee for the zero defects program
8. Train all employees to actively carry out their part of the quality
improvement program
9. Hold a zero defects day to let all employees realize that there has been
a change
10. Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves
and their groups
11. Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles
they face in attaining their improvement goals
12. Recognize and appreciate those who participate
13. Establish quality councils to communicate on a regular basis
14. Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement program
never ends
Armand V. Feigenbaum originated the concept of total quality control in his book
Total Quality Control (1991), first published in 1951. The book has been translated
into many languages, including Japanese, Chinese, French, and Spanish. Feigen-
baum is an ASQ honorary member and served as ASQ president for two consecu-
tive terms. He lists three steps to quality:
1. Quality leadership
2. Modern quality technology
3. Organizational commitment
Kaoru Ishikawa (1985) developed the cause- and-effect diagram. He worked with
Deming through the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). The fol-
lowing points summarize Ishikawas philosophy:
Quality firstnot short- term profit first.
Consumer orientationnot producer orientation. Think from the
standpoint of the other party.
The next process is your customerbreaking down the barrier of
sectionalism.
Using facts and data to make presentationsutilization of statistical
methods.
Respect for humanity as a management philosophyfull participatory
management.
Cross-function management.
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Genichi Taguchi taught that any departure from the nominal or target value for a
characteristic represents a loss to society. He also popularized the use of fractional
factorial experiments and stressed the concept of robustness.
In addition to these noted individuals, Toyota Motor Company has been rec-
ognized as the leader in developing the concept of lean manufacturing systems.
Various approaches to quality have been in vogue over the years, as shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years.
Quality
approach
Approximate
time frame Short description
Quality circles 19791981 Quality improvement or self-improvement study groups
composed of a small number of employees (10 or fewer)
and their supervisor. Quality circles originated in Japan,
where they are called quality control circles.
Statistical
process control
(SPC)
Mid-1980s The application of statistical techniques to control a
process. Also called statistical quality control.
ISO 9000 1987present A set of international standards on quality management
and quality assurance developed to help companies
effectively document the quality system elements to be
implemented to maintain an efficient quality system. The
standards, initially published in 1987, are not specific to
any particular industry, product, or service. The standards
were developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), a specialized international agency
for standardization composed of the national standards
bodies of 91 countries. The standards underwent
major revision in 2000 and now include ISO 9000:2005
(definitions), ISO 9001:2008 (requirements), and ISO
9004:2000 (continuous improvement).
Reengineering 19961997 A breakthrough approach involving the restructuring of
an entire organization and its processes.
Benchmarking 19881996 An improvement process in which a company
measures its performance against that of best-in-class
companies, determines how those companies achieved
their performance levels, and uses the information to
improve its own performance. The subjects that can be
benchmarked include strategies, operations, processes,
and procedures.
Balanced
Scorecard
1990spresent A management concept that helps managers at all levels
monitor their results in their key areas.
Continued
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VALUE AND FOUNDATIONS OF SIX SIGMA
Describe the value of Six Sigma, its philosophy,
history, and goals. (Understand)
A wide range of companies have found that when the Six Sigma philosophy is
fully embraced, the enterprise thrives. What is this Six Sigma philosophy? Several
definitions have been proposed, with the following common threads:
Use of teams that are assigned well- defined projects that have direct
impact on the organizations bottom line.
Training in statistical thinking at all levels and providing key people
with extensive training in advanced statistics and project management.
These key people are designated Black Belts.
Emphasis on the DMAIC approach to problem solving: define, measure,
analyze, improve, and control.
A management environment that supports these initiatives as a business
strategy.
The literature is replete with examples of projects that have returned high dollar
amounts to the organizations involved. Black Belts are often required to manage
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. Continued
Quality
approach
Approximate
time frame Short description
Baldrige Award
Criteria
1987present An award established by the U.S. Congress in 1987 to
raise awareness of quality management and recognize
U.S. companies that have implemented successful quality
management systems. Two awards may be given annually
in each of six categories: manufacturing company, service
company, small business, education, health care, and
nonprofit. The award is named after the late secretary
of commerce Malcolm Baldrige, a proponent of quality
management. The U.S. Commerce Departments National
Institute of Standards and Technology manages the
award, and ASQ administers it.
Six Sigma 1995present As described in Chapter 1.
Lean
manufacturing
2000present As described in Chapter 1.
Lean-Six Sigma 2002present This approach combines the individual concepts of Lean
and Six Sigma and recognizes that both are necessary to
effectively drive sustained improvement.
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four projects per year for a total of $500,000$5,000,000 in contributions to the com-
panys bottom line.
Opinions on the definition of Six Sigma differ:
PhilosophyThe philosophical perspective views all work as processes
that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled
(DMAIC). Processes require inputs and produce outputs. If you control
the inputs, you will control the outputs. This is generally expressed as
the y = f(x) concept.
Set of toolsSix Sigma as a set of tools includes all the qualitative and
quantitative techniques used by the Six Sigma expert to drive process
improvement. A few such tools include statistical process control (SPC),
control charts, failure mode and effects analysis, and process mapping.
Six Sigma professionals do not totally agree as to exactly which tools
constitute the set.
MethodologyThe methodological view of Six Sigma recognizes the
underlying and rigorous approach known as DMAIC. DMAIC defines
the steps a Six Sigma practitioner is expected to follow, starting with
identifying the problem and ending with implementing long- lasting
solutions. While DMAIC is not the only Six Sigma methodology in use,
it is certainly the most widely adopted and recognized.
MetricsIn simple terms, Six Sigma quality performance means 3.4
defects per million opportunities (accounting for a 1.5-sigma shift in the
mean).
In the first edition of this book, we used the following to define Six Sigma:
Six Sigma is a fact- based, data- driven philosophy of improvement that values defect
prevention over defect detection. It drives customer satisfaction and bottom- line
results by reducing variation and waste, thereby promoting a competitive advan-
tage. It applies anywhere variation and waste exist, and every employee should
be involved.
However, going forward, we combined the definitions of Lean and Six Sigma and
proffer a definition for Lean- Six Sigma. This is discussed in detail in Section I.A.4.
VALUE AND FOUNDATIONS OF LEAN
Describe the value of Lean, its philosophy,
history, and goals. (Understand)
The term lean thinking refers to the use of ideas originally employed in lean
manufacturing to improve functions in all departments of an enterprise.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), through its Manu-
facturing Extension Partnership, defines Lean as follows:
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A systematic approach to identifying and eliminating waste (non-value-added
activities) through continuous improvement by flowing the product at the pull of
the customer in pursuit of perfection.
ASQ defines the phrase non-value-added as follows:
A term that describes a process step or function that is not required for the direct
achievement of process output. This step or function is identified and examined
for potential elimination.
This represents a shift in focus for manufacturing engineering, which has tradition-
ally studied ways to improve value- added functions and activities (for example,
how can this process run faster and more precisely). Lean thinking doesnt ignore
the valued- added activities, but it does shine the spotlight on waste. A discus-
sion of various categories of wastes is provided in the waste analysis section of
Chapter 27.
Lean manufacturing seeks to eliminate or reduce these wastes by use of the
following:
Teamwork with well- informed cross- trained employees who participate
in the decisions that impact their function
Clean, organized, and well- marked work spaces
Flow systems instead of batch and queue (that is, reduce batch size
toward its ultimate ideal, one)
Pull systems instead of push systems (that is, replenish what the
customer has consumed)
Reduced lead times through more efficient processing, setups, and
scheduling
The history of lean thinking may be traced to Eli Whitney, who is credited with
spreading the concept of part interchangeability. Henry Ford, who went to great
lengths to reduce cycle times, furthered the idea of lean thinking, and later, the
Toyota Production System (TPS) packaged most of the tools and concepts now
known as lean manufacturing.
INTEGRATION OF LEAN AND SIX SIGMA
Describe the relationship between Lean and Six
Sigma. (Understand)
After reading the description in the last few paragraphs of Section I.A.2, Six Sigma
purists will be quick to say, Youre not just talking about Six Sigma; youre talking
about Lean too. The demarcation between Six Sigma and Lean has blurred. We are
hearing about terms such as Lean-Six Sigma with greater frequency because pro-
cess improvement requires aspects of both approaches to attain positive results.
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Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation and enhancing process
control, whereas Leanalso known as lean manufacturingdrives out waste
(non-value-added) and promotes work standardization and flow. Six Sigma prac-
titioners should be well versed in both. More details of what is sometimes referred
to as lean thinking are given in Chapters 2933.
Lean and Six Sigma have the same general purpose of providing the customer
with the best possible quality, cost, delivery, and a newer attribute, nimbleness.
There is a great deal of overlap, and disciples of both disagree as to which techniques
belong where. Six Sigma Black Belts need to know a lot about Lean (witness the
appearance of lean topics in the Body of Knowledge for Black Belt certification).
The two initiatives approach their common purpose from slightly different
angles:
Lean focuses on waste reduction, whereas Six Sigma emphasizes
variation reduction
Lean achieves its goals by using less technical tools such as kaizen,
workplace organization, and visual controls, whereas Six Sigma tends to
use statistical data analysis, design of experiments, and hypothesis tests
The most successful users of implementations have begun with the lean approach,
making the workplace as efficient and effective as possible, reducing the (now) eight
wastes, and using value stream maps to improve understanding and throughput.
When process problems remain, the more technical Six Sigma statistical tools may
be applied. One thing they have in common is that both require strong manage-
ment support to make them the standard way of doing business.
Some organizations have responded to this dichotomy of approaches by form-
ing a Lean- Six Sigma problem- solving team with specialists in the various aspects
of each discipline but with each member cognizant of others fields. Task forces
from this team are formed and reshaped depending on the problem at hand.
Given the earlier discussion, we believe a combined definition is required and
proffer the following:
Lean-Six Sigma is a fact- based, data- driven philosophy of improvement that val-
ues defect prevention over defect detection. It drives customer satisfaction and
bottom- line results by reducing variation, waste, and cycle time, while promoting
the use of work standardization and flow, thereby creating a competitive advan-
tage. It applies anywhere variation and waste exist, and every employee should
be involved.
BUSINESS PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS
Describe the relationship among various business
processes (design, production, purchasing,
accounting, sales, etc.) and the impact these
relationships can have on business systems.
(Understand)
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Processes
A process is a series of steps designed to produce products and/or services. A pro-
cess is often diagrammed with a flowchart depicting inputs, the path that material
or information follows, and outputs. An example of a process flowchart is shown
in Figure 1.1. Understanding and improving processes is a key part of every Six
Sigma project.
The basic strategy of Six Sigma is contained in DMAIC. These steps consti-
tute the cycle Six Sigma practitioners use to manage problem- solving projects. The
individual parts of the DMAIC cycle are explained in Chapters 1538.
Business Systems
A business system is designed to implement a process or, more commonly, a set of
processes. Business systems make certain that process inputs are in the right place
at the right time so that each step of the process has the resources it needs. Perhaps
most importantly, a business system must have as its goal the continual improve-
ment of its processes, products, and services. To this end, the business system is
responsible for collecting and analyzing data from the process and other sources
that will help in the continual incremental improvement of process outputs. Fig-
ure 1.2 illustrates relationships among systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps.
Note that each part of a system can be broken into a series of processes, each of
which may have subprocesses. The subprocesses may be further broken into steps.
SIX SIGMA AND LEAN APPLICATIONS
Describe how these tools are applied to processes
in all types of enterprises: manufacturing, service,
transactional, product and process design, inno-
vation, etc. (Understand)
Yes
No
Number of
hours
Hourly rate
Calculate
gross pay
Over
$100?
Deduct tax
Deduct Social Security
Print check
Figure 1.1 Fxample ol a process llowchart.
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The most successful implementations of Lean and Six Sigma have an oversight
group with top management representation and support. This group defines and
prioritizes problems and establishes teams to solve them. The oversight group is
responsible for maintaining a systemic approach. It also provides the training,
support, recognition, and rewards for teams.
The following are examples of problems that would be assigned to teams:
A number of customers of an accounting firm have complained about
the amount of time the firm takes to perform an audit. The oversight
group forms a team consisting of three auditors (one of them a lead
auditor), two cost accountants, and two representatives from the firms
top customers. The oversight group asks the team to determine if the
lead time is indeed inordinate and to propose measures that will reduce
it. The team begins by benchmarking (see Chapter 5) a customers
internal audit process. After allowing for differences between internal
and external audits, the team concludes that the lead time should be
shortened. The team next uses the material discussed in Chapter 18 to
construct a value stream map, which displays work in progress, cycle
times, and communication channels. A careful study of the map data
shows several areas where lead time can be decreased.
A team has been formed to reduce cycle times on an appliance assembly
line. The team consists of the 12 workers on the line (six from each of
the two shifts) as well as the 2 shift coaches and the line supervisor.
Although this makes a large team, it helps ensure that everyones
creative energy is tapped. The team decides to start a job rotation
process in which each assembler will work one station for a month
and then move on to the next station. After three months the workers
universally dislike this procedure, but they agree to continue through at
Systems
Processes
Subprocesses
Steps
Figure 1.2 kelationship among systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps.
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least one complete rotation. At the end of nine months, or one and a half
rotations, the team acknowledges that the rotation system has helped
improve standard work (see Chapter 29) because each person better
understands what the next person needs. They are also better equipped
to accommodate absences and the training of new people. The resulting
reduction in cycle times surprises everyone.
A team has been charged with improving the operation of a shuttle
brazer. Automotive radiators are loaded on this machine and shuttled
through a series of gas- fired torches to braze the connections. The
operator can adjust the shuttle speed, wait time, gas pressure, torch
angle, and torch height. There is a tendency to adjust one or more of
these settings to produce leak- free joints, but no one seems to know the
best settings. The team decides to conduct a full factorial 2
5
designed
experiment with four replications (see Chapter 28) during a planned
plant shutdown.
A company is plagued with failure to meet deadlines for software
projects. A team is formed to study and improve the design/code/test
process. The team splits into three subteams, one for each phase.
The design subteam discovers that this crucial phase endures excess
variation in the form of customer needs. This occurs because customers
change the requirements and because sometimes the software package
is designed to serve multiple customers whose needs arent known until
late in the design phase. The subteam helps the designers develop a
generic Gantt chart (see Chapter 17) for the design phase itself. It also
establishes a better process for determining potential customer needs
(see Chapter 15). The design group decides to develop configurable
software packages that permit the user to specify the functions needed.
The coding subteam finds that those responsible for writing the
actual code are often involved with multiple projects, leading to
tension between project managers. This results in spurts of activity
and concentration being spent on several projects with the resulting
inefficiencies. The subteam collaborates with the project manager to
establish a format for prioritization matrices (see Chapter 13), which
provide better guidance for coders.
The testing subteam determines that there is poor communication
between designers and testers regarding critical functions, especially
those that appeared late in the design phase. After discussions with
those involved, it is decided that for each project a representative of the
testing group should be an ex officio member of the design group.
References
Crosby, P. B. 1979. Quality Is Free. New York: McGraw- Hill.
. 1984. Quality without Tears: The Art of Hassle- Free Management. New York: New
American Library.
. 1990. Leading: The Art of Becoming an Executive. New York: McGraw- Hill.
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Deming, W. Edwards. 1986. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Feigenbaum, A. V. 1991. Total Quality Control. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.
Gryna, Frank M., Richard C. H. Chua, and Joseph A. DeFeo. 2007. Jurans Quality Planning
& Analysis for Enterprise Quality. 5th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.
Ishikawa, K. 1985. What Is Total Quality Control? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Juran, Joseph M., and A. Blanton Godfrey. 1999. Jurans Quality Control Handbook. 5th ed.
New York: McGraw- Hill.
609
Index
Page numbers followed by f or t refer to
figures or tables, respectively.
A
absolute zero, 91
accuracy
components of, 97
defined, 97
precision vs., 98f
activity network diagrams (ANDs), 57, 57f
addition rule of probability, 139141
adjusted coefficient of determination, 186
affinity diagrams, 52, 53f, 72
agenda committees, 49
air gages, 96
aliasing, 298
Altshuller, Genrich, 427
American Society for Quality (ASQ), 2
Code of Ethics, 433
Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Body of
Knowledge (2001), 447459
Knowledge (2007), 434446
analysis of variance (ANOVA) method,
107109, 255
one-way, 256258
two-way, 258259
ANDs (activity network diagrams), 57, 57f
ANOVA (analysis of variance) method.
See analysis of variance (ANOVA)
method
appraisal costs, 34
appraiser variation (AV), 98
ASQ. See American Society for Quality
(ASQ)
assembly, design for, 417
attractive requirements, 70
attribute agreement analysis, 111116
attribute charts, 368
c chart, 372374
np chart, 370375
p chart, 368370
u chart, 374376
attribute gage studyanalytic method, 116118
attributes data, 95
process capability for, 175176
attributes data analysis, 217
binary logistic regression, 218223
nominal logistic regression, 218, 224226
ordinal logistic regression, 218, 226229
attributes method, of measurement systems
analysis, 111118
attribute agreement analysis, 111116
attribute gage studyanalytic method,
116118
authorizing entity, duties of, 39
Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG),
out-of-control rules of, 390
Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG)
method, 100107
AV (appraiser variation), 98
average variation between systems, 99
axiomatic design, 428
B
balanced design, 297, 306
balanced scorecards, 5t
KPIs in, 2930
perspectives of, 2829
Baldrige Award Criteria, 6t
benchmarking, 5t, 2627
collaborative, 27
competitive, 27
functional, 27
internal, 27
steps in, 27
610 Index
between-conditions variation, 99
bias, defined, 97
binomial distributions, 149t
cumulative table, 476479
table, 472475
bivariate distributions, 159t
bivariate normal distributions, 159t, 162
Black Belts (BBs), 67, 1718
black box engineering, 418
Blazey, Mark, 88
blocking, 297, 299300
planning experiments and, 310
Blooms Taxonomy, 445446, 458459
boundaries, project, 72
box-and-whisker charts, 129t, 130
box plots, 130, 131f
multiple, 131132, 132f
Brinnell method, 97
business processes, 10
business systems, 10
C
calipers, 96
called yield, 179, 180
capability, tolerance and, 423
capability indices
assumptions for, 174
long-term, 173174
short-term, 173174
causality, correlations vs., 186187
cause-and-effect diagrams, 4, 72, 285, 286f,
385f
causes
common, 359
special, 359
c chart, 372374
central limit theorem (CLT), 123125
central tendency, measures of, 128
CFM (continuous flow manufacturing), 339
Champions, 15
change management, 1516
changeover time, 83, 340
reducing, 340341
check sheets, 9394
chi square (goodness-of-fit) tests, 259261
chi-square distributions, 149t, 155156
table, 504505
circle diagrams, 8889, 89f
CLT (central limit theorem), 123125
CMMs (coordinate measuring machines),
9697
coaches, duties of, 40
Code of Ethics, ASQ, 433
coefficient of determination, 186
adjusted, 186
cognition, levels of, based on Blooms
Taxonomy, 445446, 458459
collaborative benchmarking, 27
common causes, 359
competitive benchmarking, 27
complementary rule of probability, 139
completeness of the system, law of, 427
conditional probability, 143144
confidence intervals, 125
for correlations coefficient, 187188
for means, 237240, 238239t
point estimates and, 237
for proportions, 241243, 242t
for regression line, 194195
for variances, 240241
confounding, 297, 298
constraints. See theory of constraints (TOC)
contingency tables, 141143, 261264
continuous data, 90, 95
continuous flow manufacturing (CFM), 339
control chart method, 109111
control charts
analyzing, 389399
attribute charts, 368376
c chart, 372374
combinations for measurements,
460461
constants, 462464
constants for A
7
, B
7
, and B
8
, 465469
control limits for, 362
count data, 471
individual and moving range chart,
366367
moving average and moving range
(MAMR), 383389
np chart, 370375
p chart, 368370
purpose of, 359
short-run, 376382
triggers for updating, 407
u chart, 374376
variables, 361362
variables selection for, 360
Xbar R chart, 362364
Xbar s chart, 364365
control limits, 362
formulas for, 389
control plans, 406407
conversion/diversion, 51
I 611
coordinate measuring machines (CMMs), 9697
correlation coefficient, 184188
confidence interval for, 187188
hypothesis test for, 187
correlations, causality vs., 186187
cost curves, 35
modern quality, 35f
traditional quality, 34f
cost of quality, 3435
costs
appraisal, 34
defined, 33
external failure, 34
internal failure, 34
prevention, 34
quality, 3435
CPM (Critical Path Method), 76
crashing projects, 76
critical parameter management, 428429
critical path, defined, 76
Critical Path Method (CPM), 76
critical path time, defined, 76
critical-to-cost (CTC), 24
critical-to-delivery (CTD), 25
critical-to-process (CTP), 25
critical-to-quality (CTQ) flow-down tool,
6465, 65f, 66f
critical-to-quality (CTQs), 24
critical-to-safety (CTS), 25
critical to x (CTx) requirements, 2425
Crosby, Philip B., 34
CTC (critical-to-cost), 25
CTD (critical-to-delivery), 25
CTQ (critical-to-quality) flow-down tool,
6465, 65f, 66f
customer loyalty, 31
customer perspective, 28
customers
determining and meeting needs of, 6470
external, 22
feedback from, 63
internal, 22
loyal, 31
profitable, 31
tolerant, 31
unprofitable, 31
customer segmentation, 31, 62
cycle time, 8283
defined, 337
cycle-time reduction, 337341
continuous flow manufacturing, 339
reducing changeover time, 340341
cycle variation, 208
D
data
attribute, 95
collecting, 9394
continuous, 95
discrete, 95
errors, 9293
process capability for non-normal data,
174175
quantitative, 9091
variables, 95
decision-making tools, for teams
conversion/diversion, 51
force field analysis, 5051, 50f
multivoting, 51
nominal group technique, 50
decision matrix, 429430
defects per million opportunities (DPMO),
179, 180
defects per unit (DPU), 179, 180
define, measure, analyze, design, and
validate (DMADV), 414415
define, measure, analyze, design, optimize,
and validate (DMADOV), 415
define, measure, analyze, improve, and
control (DMAIC), 7, 10
Deming, W. Edwards, 23
dependent events, 144145
descriptive statistics, 126128
descriptive studies, 137
design FMEA (DFMEA), 278
design for assembly, 417
design for maintainability, 417
design for manufacturing, 417
design for producibility, 417
design for robustness, 417
functional requirements for, 418
noise factors for, 418420
statistical tolerances for, 420423
tolerance design and, 420
design for test, 417
design for X (DFX), 416417
design of experiments (DOE)
guidelines for conducting, 310311
planning, 309311
principles, 297308
terminology for, 294297
design space, defined, 295
Design-to-Cost (DTC), 416
DFX (Design for X), 416417
discrete data, 9091, 95
discriminant analysis, 198, 201204
612 Index
discrimination, 99
distributions
binomial, 153155
bivariate, 159t
bivariate normal, 159t, 162
chi-square, 155156
exponential, 160t, 162-163
F, 157158
frequency, 129t
hypergeometric, 158162, 159t
lognormal, 160t, 164165
normal, 148151
Poisson, 152153, 159t
summary of, 149t
t (Students t), 156157
Weibull, 160t, 165166
diversion/conversion, 51
dividing heads, 96
DMADOV (define, measure, analyze, design,
optimize, and validate), 415
DMADV (define, measure, analyze, design,
and validate), 414415
DMAIC (define, measure, analyze, improve,
and control), 7, 10
documentation, 410411
DOE. See design of experiments (DOE)
dot plots, 123, 123f, 124f
DPMO (defects per million opportunities),
179, 180
DPU (defects per unit), 179, 180
driver, 54
Drum-Buffer-Rope subordinate step analogy,
344f, 345346
E
effect, defined, 294
effects
interaction, 297, 303305
main, 297, 300303
efficient estimators, 235
energy transfer in the system, law of, 427
equipment variation (EV), 98
equivalent sigma levels, 554555t
errors
in data, 92
experimental, 295
minimizing, 9293
EV (equipment variation), 98
evaluation, ongoing, 411412
events
dependent, 144145
independent, 144145
mutually exclusive, 145
executives, 18
experimental errors, 188189, 295
experimental plan, 310
experimental run, defined, 295
experiments. See also design of experiments
(DOE)
full factorial, 325331
one-factor, 311319
two-level fractional factorial, 319325
exponential distributions, 160t, 162163
external activities, 340
external customers, 22
external failure costs, 34
external suppliers, 22
F
facilitators, duties of, 39
factor, defined, 294
factor analysis, 197, 200201
factorial designs, defined, 319
failure mode and effects analyses (FMEAs),
278282
design, 278
process, 278
fault tree analysis (FTA), 288290
basic symbols, 289f
fault trees, 54
F distribution, 149t, 157158
F(0.01) distribution table, 535537
feasibility studies, 351
feedback, from customers, 63
focus groups for, 63
in-person interviews for, 63
interviews for, 63
Feigenbaum, Armand V., 4
financial measures
margin, 32
market share, 32
net present value, 3334
return on investment (ROI), 3233
revenue growth, 32
financial perspective, 28
fishbone diagrams, 285, 285f, 286f
Fisher transformation, 235
five forces, Porters, 425
5S system, 333334
I 613
5 whys technique, 285286
flowcharts, 10, 10f, 84, 84f
generic, 82f
flows, metrics for evaluating process,
8183, 82f
focus groups, for customer feedback, 63
force field analysis, 5051, 50f
Ford, Henry, 8
forecasts, 339
formal, 38
formal teams, 38
Fourteen Points, Demings, 23
4:1 ratio (25%) rule, 404
fractional factorial experiments, 5
frequency distributions, 129t
full factorial experiments, 325331
source table for, 237t
statistical model for, 326t
sums of squares for, 328t
functional benchmarking, 27
functional gages, 96
functional requirements, 418
G
gage blocks, 9596
gage repeatability and reproducibility
(GR&R) study, 99, 403404
example, 100107
Gantt charts, 76, 77f
for time management of teams, 49
gap analysis, 283
general stakeholders, 2223
goals
SMART statements for, 73
statement of, for teams, 44
goodness-of-fit (chi square) tests,
259261
graphical methods, 129
gray box design, 418
Green Belts (GBs), 18
growth and learning perspective, 29
GR&R (gage repeatability and
reproducibility) study, 99
example, 100107
H
harmonization, law, 427
height gages, 96
histograms, 124, 124f, 358359
hoshin planning, 16, 425426
hypergeometric distributions, 158162,
159t
hypothesis tests
contingency tables, 261264
for correlation coefficient, 187
goodness-of-fit (chi square) tests,
259261
for means, 244248, 245247t
non-parametric tests, 264277
process for conducting, 244
for proportions, 250255, 251t
for regression coefficient, 196
for variances, 248250, 249t
I
ideality, law of increasing, 427
Imai, Masaaki, 342
implementation, 347350
framework for, 349350
income, defined, 33
independent events, 144145
individual and moving range chart,
366367
inferential studies, 137
informal teams, 38
in-person interviews, for customer feedback,
63
interaction effects, 297, 303305
internal activities, 340
internal benchmarking, 27
internal customers, 22
internal failure costs, 34
internal perspective, 29
internal suppliers, 22
interrelationship digraphs, 5254, 53f
interval scales, 91
interviews, for customer feedback, 63
Ishikawa, Kaoru, 4
Ishikawa diagrams, 285, 285f, 286f
ISO 9000, 5t
J
Juran, Joseph M., 3
Juran trilogy, 3
K
kaizen, 336, 337, 338
defined, 342343
kaizen blitz, 337
defined, 342343
kanban systems, 332333
Kano model, 6970, 69f
Kaplan, Robert S., 28
614 Index
key performance indicators (KPIs)
in balanced scorecards, 2930
defined, 29
KPIs. See key performance indicators (KPIs)
Kruskal-Wallis test, 266t, 272275
kurtosis, 127
L
Latin square designs, 313t, 315319
source tables for, 314t
leadership, 1419
change management and, 1516
organizational roadblocks to, 1415
Lean, defined, 78
lean manufacturing, 6t, 8
Lean-Six Sigma, 6t, 8
defined, 9
implementations of, 1112
lean thinking, 78, 340
integrating Six Sigma and, 89
learning and growth perspective, 29
level, defined, 295
Levenes test, 265t, 269272
limits
natural process, 178
specification, 178179
linearity, defined, 97
linear regression
multiple, 196197
simple, 189192
linear regression coefficients, 189
linear regression equation, 189
link functions, 218
lognormal distributions, 160t, 164165
long-term capability, 173174
loyal customers, 31
M
main effects, 297, 300303
maintainability, design for, 417
MAMR (moving average and moving range)
control charts, 383389
considerations when using, 383384
constructing, 384385
Mann-Whitney test, 266t, 275277
one-tail critical values for, 556557
two-tail critical values, 558559
MANOVA (multiple analysis of variance),
198, 204208
manufacturing, design for, 417
margin, 32
market share, 32
Master Black Belts (MBBs), 18
matrix diagram, 56, 56f
mean(s), 127128, 128t, 358359
commonly used symbol for, 122t
confidence intervals for, 237240,
238239t
hypothesis tests for, 244248, 245247t
measurement error, causes of, 120121
measurement scales, 91
interval, 91
nominal, 91
ordinal, 91
ratio, 91
measurement systems
components of, 99
in enterprises, 118119
re-analysis of, 403405
measurement systems analysis, 9799
attributes, 111118
variables, 99111
measurement tools, 9597
examples of, 9697
measures of central tendency, 128
median, 127128, 128t
median ranks table, 539541
method of least squares, 188189
metrology, 119121
micrometers, 96
Minitab, 107109
rules for out-of-control conditions, 390
mode, 127128, 128t
models, 348
Moods median test, 264268, 265t
moving average and moving range (MAMR)
control charts, 383389
considerations when using, 383384
moving range charts. See individual and
moving range chart
multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA),
198, 204208
multiple linear regression, 196197
multivariate analysis, 197
discriminant analysis, 198, 201204
factor analysis, 197, 200201
multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA),
198, 204208
principal components analysis, 197,
198200
multi-vari studies, 208217
multivoting, 51, 55
I 615
must-be requirements, 70
mutually exclusive events, 145
N
n, defined, 295
natural process limits, 178
net present value (NPV), 3334
neutral characteristics, 70
NGT (nominal group technique), 50
Nippondenso, 400
noise factors
defined, 295
for robust design, 418420
nominal group technique (NGT), 50
nominal logistics regression, 218, 224226
nominal scales, 91
non-normal data, process capability for,
174175
non-parametric tests, 264, 265266t
Kruskal-Wallis test, 266t, 272275
Levenes test, 269272
Mann-Whitney test, 266t, 275277
Moods Median test, 264268
non-value-added, defined, 8
normal distributions, 148151, 149t
cumulative standard table, 499501
standard table, 496498
normal probability plots, 135137, 136
normal scores table, 543545
norms, team, 4445
Norton, David P., 28
np chart, 370375
NPV. See net present value (NPV)
O
objectives, statement of, for teams, 44
observed value, defined, 294
Ohno, Taiichi, 332
one-dimensional requirements, 70
one-factor experiments, 311319
completely randomized, 311
Latin square designs, 315319
randomized complete block design
(RCBD), 311
one-sided tolerance limits, factors for,
546549
one-way ANOVA designs, 256258, 311, 312t
ongoing evaluation, 411412
optical comparators, 96
order, 297, 298
run, 299
standard, 298
ordinal logistic regression, 218, 226229
ordinal scales, 91
organizational memory, 408409
out-of-control rules, 389
of Automotive Industry Action Group
(AIAG), 390, 396399
Minitab, 390, 391396
P
Pareto charts, 72, 285288, 286f
Pareto principle, 131132
parts per million (PPM), 179, 180181
payback period, 33
p chart, 368370
PDPC (process decision program chart),
5657
percent agreement, 99
percent defective, equivalent sigma levels
and, 554555
perspectives
customer, 28
financial, 28
internal, 29
learning and growth, 29
PERT (Project Evaluation and Review
Technique), 76
PEST (political, economic, social, and
technological) analysis, 354
phone interviews, for customer feedback, 63
pilot runs, 348
Plackett-Burman designs, 310
planning, strategic, 424426
tactical, 426430
point estimates, 237
Poisson distributions, 149t, 152153
cumulative table, 489495
table, 481487
poka-yoke, 335336
population, 122
population parameters, 122
Porter, Michael, 425
Porters five forces, 425
portfolio architecting, 425
positional variation, 208
power
defined, 230
power, sample size and, 297298
PPM (parts per million), 179, 180181
616 Index
practical significance, statistical significance
vs., 231
precision
components of, 9899
defined, 98
precision protractors, 96
precision-to-tolerance ratio (PTR), 99
prediction intervals, 195, 235236
prevention costs, 34
principal components analysis, 197,
198200
prioritization matrix, 5456, 55f
probability
addition rule of, 139141
classic definition, 138
complementary rule of, 139
conditional, 143144
multiplication rule of, 145147
relative-frequency definition, 138
rules of, 147t
problem statements, 71
procedures, written, 8485, 85f, 86
process analysis tools, 8389
flowcharts, 84, 84f
process maps, 84, 84f
spaghetti diagrams, 88, 88f
value stream maps, 8588, 87f
written procedures, 8485, 85f, 86f
process capability
for attributes data, 175176
defined, 167
for non-normal data, 174175
process capability indices, 167171
process capability studies, 176177
conducting, 177
process decision program chart (PDPC),
5657
processes
defined, 80
metrics for evaluating flow in, 8183, 82f
SIPOC tool for, 8081, 81f
processes, business, 10
process flowcharts, 10, 10f
process flow metrics, 8183
process FMEA (PFMEA), 278
process improvement teams, 38
process logs, 389
process maps, 72, 84, 84f
process owners, 1819
process performance
defined, 171
specification vs., 178181
process performance indices, 171173
process performance metrics, 179181
defects per million opportunities
(DPMO), 179, 180
defects per unit (DPU), 179, 180
parts per million (PPM), 179, 180181
rolled throughput yield (RTY), 179, 181
throughput yield, 179, 180
process-related training plans, developing,
410
process stakeholders, 2223
process variation, sources of, 359
producibility, design for, 417
profitable customers, 31
project charters
defined, 71
goals and objectives for, 73
performance measures for, 74
problem statements, 71
project scope, 7273
Project Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT), 76
project tracking, 7377
proportions
confidence intervals for, 241243, 242t
hypothesis tests for, 250255, 251t
prototypes, 348
PTR (precision-to-tolerance ratio), 99
Pugh analysis, 429430
pull systems, 333334
push systems, 339
p-value
defined, 230
Q
quality circles, 5t
quality costs, 34
quality function deployment (QFD), 6669,
67f, 68f
quality improvement, history of, 26
quartiles, 130
R
randomization, 297, 299
randomized complete block design (RCBD),
311, 312t
random sampling, 93
range, 127, 128t
rapid continuous improvement (RCI), 337
I 617
rapid exchange of tooling and dies (RETAD),
340
rational subgroups, choosing, 360361
ratio scales, 91
RCBD (randomized complete block design),
340
RCI (rapid continuous improvement), 337
re-analysis, of measurement systems,
403405
recognition, as team motivation technique,
42
recorders
duties of, 40
reengineering, 5t
regression
binary logistic, 218223
nominal logistic, 218, 224226
ordinal logistic, 218, 226229
regression analysis, 188197
confidence intervals for, 194195
hypothesis tests for, 196
method of least squares, 192194
multiple linear regression, 196197
prediction intervals for, 195
simple linear regression, 189192
relationships within teams, as motivation
technique, 43
repeatability, 98
repeated measures, 297, 298
repetition, 298
replication, 297, 298
reproducibility, 9899
requirements
attractive, 70
must-be, 70
one-dimensional, 70
residuals, 188189
resolution, 99, 297, 307308
response variable, defined, 294
RETAD (rapid exchange of tooling and dies),
340
return on investment (ROI), 3233
revenue growth, 32
reversal characteristics, 70
rewards, as team motivation technique, 42
ring gages, 96
risk analysis, 351352
roadblocks, organizational, 1415
robustness, 5
design for, 417
Rockwell method, 97
ROI (return on investment), 3233
rolled throughput yield (RTY), 179, 180
root cause analysis, 284
cause-and-effect diagrams, 285, 285f, 286f
fault tree analysis, 288290, 289f
5 whys technique, 284285
Pareto charts, 285288, 286f
RTY (rolled throughput yield), 179, 180
run charts, 130t, 132133, 133f
run order, 299
S
sample homogeneity, 93
sample size, 231234
formulas for, 232t
power and, 297298
sample standard deviation, 127, 128t
sampling methods, 9293
scales
interval, 91
nominal, 91
ordinal, 91
ratio, 91
scatter diagrams, 130t, 133135, 134t
scope, defining, 7273
screening designs, 310
scribes
duties of, 40
self-directed teams, 38
setup time, 83
6Ms, 120
7Ms, 120121
Shewhart, Walter A., 2
Shingo, Shigeo, 340
Shingo methodology, 340
short-run control charts, 376382, 377f
rules for, 380
summary of formulas for, 378379t
short-term capability, 173174
sigma levels, equivalent, 554555
significance
statistical vs. practical, 231
simple linear regression, 189192
simulations, 348
sine bars, 96
single minute exchange of dies (SMED), 340
SIPOC (suppliers, inputs, process, outputs,
customers) tool, 8081, 81f
Six Sigma, 6t
defined, 67
integrating Lean and, 89
618 Index
projects, 1617
responsibilities, 1719
roles, 1719
Knowledge (2001), 447459
Knowledge (2007), 434446
Six Sigma projects
effective, 23
impact on stakeholders and, 23
storyboards for, 77
teams and, 23
skewness, 127
SMART (specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, timely) goal statements, 73
SMED (single minute exchange of dies), 340
source tables
for full factorial experiments, 327t
spaghetti diagrams, 88, 88f
SPC (statistical process control), 5t
objectives of tools for, 358359
special causes, 359
specification
limits, 178179
process performance vs., 178181
sponsor entity
duties of, 39
SQC (statistical quality control), 2
stability, of measurement system, defined, 97
stakeholders, 2223
general, 22
impact of Six Sigma projects on, 23
process, 2223
standard deviation, 358359
sample, 127, 128t
standard error of the estimate, 194
standard operating procedures (SOPs),
documenting, 411
standard order, 298
standard work, 334
statement of goals and objectives, for teams,
44
statistical conclusions
descriptive, 137
inferential, 137
statistical control, state of, 167
statistical process control (SPC), 5t
objectives of tools for, 358359
statistical quality control (SQC), 2
statistical significance, practical significance
vs., 231
statistics, 122
commonly used symbols, 122t
stem-and-leaf diagrams, 129t, 130
storyboards, 77
for Six Sigma projects, 77
strategic planning, 424
hoshin planning, 425426
Porters five forces model, 425
portfolio architecting model, 425
stratified sampling, 93
Students t distribution, 149t, 156157
subgroups, choosing rational, 360361
substance-field involvement, law of, 428
sums of squares
for full factorial experiments, 328t
for Latin square designs, 315t
one-way ANOVA designs, 315t
for randomized complete block design,
315t
suppliers
external, 22
internal, 22
surveys
for customer feedback, 63
SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats) analysis, 353
symbols, statistical, commonly used, 122t
systematic design, 428
systems, business, 10
T
tactical planning, 426430
axiomatic design, 428
critical parameter management,
428429
Pugh analysis, 429430
systematic design, 428
TRIZ, 427428
Taguchi, Genichi, 5
takt time, 82, 83
defined, 338
tallies, 129t
t distribution (Students t distribution), 149t,
156157
table, 502503
team leaders, duties of, 39
team members
duties of, 40
selecting, 40
team motivation, techniques for, 4243
team roles, 3940
I 619
teams, 44f
common obstacles and solutions for,
4748f
communication and, 4445
decision-making tools for, 5051
dynamics of, 46
growth stages of, 43
informal, 38
launching, 41
norms for, 4445
performance criteria for, 58
process improvement, 38
rewards for, 5859
selecting members for, 40
self-directed, 38
statement of objectives for, 44
time management for, 49
virtual, 38
work group, 38
temporal variation, 208
10:1 ratio rule, 404
test, design for, 417
theory of constraints (TOC), 344346
impact of, 346
thread snap gages, 96
throughput, 83
throughput yield, 179
time management, for teams, 49
TOC. See theory of constraints (TOC)
tolerance design, 420
tolerance intervals, 236237
tolerance limits
one-sided, factors for, 546549
two-sided, factors for, 550553
tolerances, statistical
capability and, 423
conventional, 420, 421422
statistical, 420, 422423
tolerant customers, 31
total productive maintenance (TPM), 400401
total quality control, 4
touch time, 82
Toyota Production System (TPS), 8
TPM (total productive maintenance),
400401
tracking, project, 7377
training
initial, 409
recurring, 409
training plans
considerations, 410
developing process-related, 410
transfer devices, 96
transition from macro to micro, law of, 428
transition to super system, law of, 428
treatment, defined, 295
tree diagrams, 54, 54f
CTQ, 25f
TRIZ (Teorija Rezbenija Izobretaltelshih Zadach),
427428
Tukey, John, 130
two-level fractional factorial experiments,
319325
two-sided tolerance limits, factors for, 550553
two-way ANOVA, 258259
Type I error, 231
defined, 230
Type II error, 231
defined, 230
U
u chart, 374376
unbiased estimators, 234235
uneven development of parts, law of, 427
unprofitable customers, 31
V
value-added, 332
value-added time, 83
value stream maps, 8588, 87f
variables control charts, 361362, 389
variables data, 95
variables method, of measurement systems
analysis, 99111
ANOVA method, 107109
control chart method, 109111
GR&R study, 100107
variables selection, for control charts, 360
variances
confidence intervals for, 240241
hypothesis tests for, 248250
virtual teams, 38
visual controls, 402
visual factory, 401402
voice of customer (VOC), 62, 6667
W
waste analysis, sources of, 290291
waste elimination, 332336
5S system for, 333334
kaizen for, 336
620 Index
kanban systems for, 332333
poka-yoke for, 335336
pull systems for, 333334
standard work for, 334
Weibull distributions, 160t, 165166
Whitney, Eli, 8
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, critical values for,
560
within-system variation, 98
work group teams, 38
work in progress (WIP), 82
work in queue (WIQ), 82
written procedures, 8485, 85f, 86f
X
Xbar R chart, 362364
Xbar s chart, 364365
Z
zero defects concept, 3

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Tni Cikiiiin Six Sicva

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s charts, respectively. . . . . 363

R chart for data given in Table 35.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

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