WASTE &WASTE MINIMISATION Liquid/solid and gaseous waste materials are generated during the manufacture of any product.

Once this waste has been created it cannot be destroyed, although it can be concentrated and its chemical or physical form can be changed. Apart from creating potential environmental problems, wastes not only represent losses from the production process, but also require significant investment in pollution control practices. Most effluent treatment systems do not actually eliminate the waste but transfer it from one place to another. For example: Aqueous solutions of heavy metals can be treated by chemical precipitation. If the treatment system is designed and operated correctly, the aqueous stream can then be passed on for further treatment or discharge to the receiving water. But the precipitated metallic sludge must be disposed of, usually by land fill site. Also, biological treatment is not free from this problem. It may well dispose of the organic waste, but it leads to a disposal problem of the resulting biological sludge. The best solution for a waste problem is avoiding the production of waste in the first place, i.e. waste minimisation. Waste minimisation means the reduction, to the extent feasible, of hazardous waste that is generated prior to treatment, storage or disposal of the waste. The terms waste minimisation and pollution prevention are becoming key initiatives of the US Environmental Protection Agency and the terms are increasingly being used in all areas of current applied research and development. Figure 1 illustrates the benefits of waste minimisation. Waste minimisation brings the dual benefits of lower effluent treatment costs and lower raw materials costs. In its widest context, waste can be interpreted as almost any loss or discharge of any material to any medium, and with particular emphasis on specified ranges of substances for the three environmental media - air, water and soil. Once we have created waste we cannot destroy it. We can concentrate the waste or dilute it, change its physical form, change its chemical form, but we cannot destroy it. Clearly, the best solution is one where we avoid the production of waste and effluent, i.e. waste minimisation. Waste minimisation not only brings the benefit of reduced effluent treatment cost, but there is often a further benefit in reduced raw materials costs (Figure 1). Before we set about minimising waste it is important to understand what and where waste originates. Lets start by defining waste. Waste includes streams or materials that are: vented to the air discharged to water

sent to landfill sent to incinerator sent to a flame sent to a biological treatment facility

Waste reduction can be accomplished by creating less waste initially or by recycling waste products back to the process. It is also possible to reduce emissions by operating waste treatments units more efficiently (Figure 2). Waste can be hazardous or non-hazardous, toxic, non-toxic, flammable or nonflammable, etc.

INTEGRATED POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MINIMISATION Over the last two decades, attitudes to the environment have changed dramatically. The public no longer accepts that pollution is inevitable. Instead, the public is aware that the environment should be improved and believes that the polluter should pay. These changes in attitude are very significant for industry. The response of government has been to introduce new legislation and economic instruments, and to establish regulatory authorities with increased powers to enforce compliance. Industry is affected directly by increased regulation and more subtly by the change in public attitude to the environment. In order to respond positively to this new climate, companies need to reappraise their activities and to explore the possible introduction of waste minimisation, clean technology and energy saving schemes. In this way pollution can be avoided. Regulatory pressure Over the past decade the UK parliament has passed many Acts, Orders and regulations to protect the environment. Much of this activity was prompted by legislation from the European Union, which the UK government was then required to incorporate in similar domestic legislation. The UK government pioneered the concept of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) and implemented it with the Environmental Protection Act (1990) (EPA). This type of system is likely to be adopted throughout the rest of Europe. The current legislation has very important consequences for industry. It follows that managers with environmental responsibilities should be conversant with those parts of the law that are most relevant to their companies and familiar with the duties of the bodies that regulate their industry. In the integrated pollution control the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution recommended that releases of pollutants from industrial processes should no longer be subject to different control regimes for different media (air, water, land). They introduced the concept of Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO) which is a systematic procedure for establishing which option, at acceptable cost, is the most beneficial or the least damaging to the environment as a whole (in the long term as well as the short term). In addition to introducing the principle of holistic environmental protection and the associated concept of BPEO, the IPC also introduced the fundamental principle of Pollution Prevention rather than Cure and the right of the public to have access to information about pollution from prescribed processes. These principles are in common with the principles behind WASTE MINIMISATION, How are these IPC principles to be put into practice? Part I of EPA 90 sets out a series of objectives which must be met in the operation of prescribed processes. (Prescribed processes are those industrial processes defined in Regulations as having the potential to cause serious pollution and therefore are to be subject to IPC.)

1.

The first objective is to use the best available techniques not entailing excessive cost (BATNEEC) for prevention releases, or where that is not practicable, for minimising and rendering the releases harmless. The second objective aligns with IPC principle of protection of the whole environment, i.e. ensure that BATNEEC is used to minimise the pollution which may be caused to the environment as a whole - the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO).

2.

To meet these objectives, a shift of emphasis from Best Practicable Means (which was largely based on end-of-pipe technology) to the notion of using low-waste production technologies for the whole process, was starting to take place. BATNEEC So what does BATNEEC mean? I would expect that most of you are, by now, familiar with this acronym - even if not feeling entirely confident about its precise meaning. Starting with the BAT part: Best refers purely to the effect of the technique on the environment, i.e. it is that technique (or those techniques, for there may be more than one set of techniques with comparable effectiveness) that is most effective in preventing, minimising or rendering harmless pollution releases. Available means procurable by the operator in question. This doesnt imply that the technique has to be in general use in the UK or overseas, but it does recognise that novel technologies proven only at pilot plant scale require a degree of business confidence before they can be said to be available. Techniques is defined in the Act. It embraces not only the plant and equipment in the process, but also the way it is operated, the manning and supervision levels, the training and qualifications of the staff, etc. So how does HMIP come to a view on what constitutes BAT? EPA90 lays a specific duty on the chief inspector to follow developments in technology and techniques for preventing or reducing pollution of the environment due to the releases of substances from the prescribed processes. To this end, HMIP commissions research into available techniques either for specific production process or for wider industrial sectors. The research is published by Guidance notes which merely represent a selection of possible alternatives which were available at the time of publication. If techniques have come along since, or alternatives appear better in relation to a particular process then, of course, it is for the applicant to put them forward and demonstrate why they are the best available technique. So far I have spoken only about BAT. The NEEC or Not Entailing Excessive Cost part requires consideration of the cost of applying the Best Available Techniques in relation both to the nature of the industry concerned and to the degree of the environmental damage, and thus the cost of BAT that can be required before costs are considered excessive. How does HMIP come to a view on what constitutes BATNEEC?

For new processes, BATNEEC will often be synonymous with the best available technique, but for existing processes it is usually more complicated. There is an inherent expectation that all plant will, in time, be brought up to new plant standards (or ultimately close down), so in addition to assessing the cost implications, the HMIP will establish timescales for upgrading. The progress will vary between plants depending upon: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) the impact of their activities upon the environment; the plants technical characteristics; its rate of utilisation and length of its remaining life; the nature and volume of pollution emissions from it; the desirability of not entailing excessive cost for the plant concerned, having regard in particular to the economic circumstances of the industrial sector concerned.

To summarise Integrated Pollution Control applies to the most potentially polluting or technologically complex industrial processes throughout England and Wales. The enforcing authority is HMIP. IPC is concerned with the control of releases to all three environmental media - air, water, and land. The main objectives of IPC are: (a) (b) (c) to prevent or minimise the release of prescribed substances and to render harmless any such substances which are released; to develop an approach to pollution control that considers releases from industrial processes to all media in the context of the effect on the environment as a whole (BATNEEC); to minimise the pollution which may be caused to the environment taken as a whole by the releases, having regarded the best practicable environmental options available (BPEO). There are three separate lists of prescribed substances, according to whether the substance is to be controlled in relation to air, water or land releases.

Note

Waste Minimisation and IPC What is waste? In its widest waste minimisation context, waste can be interpreted as almost any loss or discharge of any material to any medium. Under IPC, strictly it is only releases of substances prescribed in the Regulations which must be prevented or minimised; other releases need only be rendered harmless. Section 75 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 formally defines waste as: (a) (b) any substance which constitutes a scrap material or an effluent, or other unwanted surplus substance arising from the application of a process, and; any substance or article which requires to be disposed of as being broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled.

It is important to note at this stage that all emissions of materials into air, water and land, as well as energy consumption, should be considered in waste minimisation programmes. The concept of Waste Minimisation, like IPC, is based on the premise that Prevention is better than cure. Waste minimisation involves any technique, process or activity which either avoids, eliminates or reduces waste at its source, usually within the confines of the production unit. Synonymous terms include: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) waste minimisation; waste reduction; clean technologies/clean engineering/clean processing; pollution prevention/reduction; environmental technologies; low and non-waste technologies.

The main implications of these techniques are: (i) the avoidance of reliance of end-of-pipe treatment of waste streams; (ii) the adoption of clean, low-waste technologies; (iii) and (where some waste production is unavoidable) recycling, reclamation or use as fuel. Whats involved in waste minimisation in practice? Generally, waste minimisation is NOT about reducing waste after it has been generated, so the following techniques usually have no place in a waste minimisation programme. Incineration Chemical transformation to less harmful waste Biological treatment Transfer from one environmental medium to another where it might be less harmful Dilution or dispersion

These techniques are end-of-pipe abatement options which in a waste minimisation programme are only considered as a measure of last resort to further treat releases that have already been minimised. So, what is waste minimisation about? It is about methodically assessing the process in question, using EPA methodology, with the aim of advancing each waste - or release - producing part up the order of priority from 7 to 1 in the following list of waste production practices. 1. Elimination of waste production 2. Reduced production of waste at source 3. Recycling within the process 4. Reclamation for recycling or other use 5. Use of the waste for energy production 6. Treatment to form less harmful waste 7. Disposal * (Overheads) Hierarchy of Waste Management Practice, adopted by the UK Government. As a general rule, the further upstream you tackle your waste problem, the more benefits you will obtain.

The Benefits of Improved Pollution Control Improved pollution control can reduce the impact on the environment, which is of benefit to everyone. The direct benefits to companies through integrated measures to improve pollution control (i.e. waste minimisation) can include: (i) reduced costs; (ii) improved company image; (iii) more effective compliance with the law. (i) Reduced costs Discharge to the environment can cost companies money in a number of ways. (a) Disposal costs These direct costs include: for solid waste - landfill charges, skip costs and transport costs; for aqueous waste - trade effluent charges, pumping costs, make-up water replacement and treatment costs.

These costs are the most likely to be noticed, particularly as they will probably increase in the near future and thus are the most likely to prompt companies to consider improved pollution control. Wasted resources Material discharges into effluents and emissions, by definition, have been incorporated into the product or consumed usefully in the manufacturing process. These costs are the main hidden costs of pollution. They include: wasted raw materials; wasted product; all of the production costs associated with wasted products. (c) (d) (e) Operating costs of pollution control equipment These direct costs could include: electricity for motors, fans, pumps; fuel for heaters or burners; labour to operate and maintain equipment; consumables such as chemical additives; depreciation of capital equipment; disposal charges for any waste arising from the treatment process. Non-compliance with legislation These associated costs include: fines and legal fees; paying for remedial work following pollution incident; staff time; increased insurance premiums. Lost business These associated hidden costs could include: lost revenue from wasted product; loss of potential extra sales to customers that refuse to trade with a company with a poor environmental performance. (b)

(ii)

Improved company image Public interest in companies environmental performance has greatly increased in recent years. Poor environmental performance can affect the company by: reducing sales opportunities; reducing the stock market value of the company; increasing advertising and marketing costs to recover from poor public perception; increasing the cost of public relations activities. (iii) Complying with current and future legislation Environmental legislation is by far the main reason why companies modify their pollution control systems. Companies that do not comply with legislative requirements can be prosecuted. All businesses are covered by environmental legislation to some extent, e.g. the Duty to Care provisions of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. Prescribed processes with the most potential for pollution are covered by Integrated Pollution Control (IPC), while less polluting prescribed processes are covered by Local Air Pollution Control. The table summarises the main environmental legislation affecting businesses in England and Wales. When taking a strategic view of waste minimisation and pollution control, we need to consider possible future legal requirements and ensure that any measures we adopt now are consistent with foreseeable changes.

Process and utility waste Before we set about minimising waste, it is important to understand where the waste originates. There is a clear hierarchy intrinsic to chemical processes which is illustrated by the onion diagram. We start with the reactor in the core of the onion. Whatever design is chosen for the reactor dictates the separation problems and process recycles. Once these two layers are fixed we know the material and energy balance and these allow us to design the heat recovery system (the third layer in the figure). After exhausting the economic possibilities for heat recovery we add utilities (furnaces, boilers, refrigeration systems, and so on), which make up the outer layer of the onion. So from the onion diagram we can identify two basic classes of waste Process waste + Utility waste Process waste represents a loss of raw materials, intermediates, by products, main products and purge streams. The outer layer of the diagram is the source of utility waste. This could be flue gas emissions, ash from fuel, waste from boiler feed water treatment and boiler blowdown. (1) Sources of process waste: There are three basic sources of process waste: reactors, separators and recycle systems and process operations. (a) Reactors produce waste in a number of ways (even under normal operating conditions): (i) if it is not possible to recycle unreacted feed material to the reactor inlet, then low conversion will lead to waste of that untreated feed; (ii) waste is produced through the formation of waste by-products, either from the primary reaction or through secondary reactions; (iii) waste is produced in the reactor when feed impurities undergo reaction and when catalyst is degraded or lost and requires recycling. (b) Separation and recycle systems produce waste through the imperfect recovery and recycling of valuable materials from waste streams.

The third source of process waste we can classify under the general category of (c) Process operations such as start up and shut down of continuous processes, product changeover, equipment cleaning for maintenance, and tank filling all produce waste. (2) Sources of utility waste The principal sources of utility waste are associated with hot utilities (including cogeneration systems) and cold utilities. Furnaces, steam boilers, gas turbines and diesel engines all produce waste as gaseous combustion products. These contribute in various ways to the greenhouse effects and acid rain, and they are also a direct health hazard if they form smog. As well as gaseous waste, steam generation produces aqueous waste from boiler feed water treatment and boiler blowdown. The recirculating cooling water systems used on most chemical processes also create aqueous waste through cooling tower blowdown.

Clearly, the waste streams created by utility systems tend, on the whole, to be less environmentally harmful than process waste. However, given problems such as the greenhouse effects and acid rain we, as chemical engineers, cannot afford to be complacent. Also, there is non direct waste, or what we call the seven elements of waste. The seven elements of waste are: over-production - making too many, just in case; waiting - time is an important element of competitiveness; transporting - reorganise production to minimise material handling; inappropriate processing - using a hammer to crack a nut; unnecessary inventory - cover up quality problems; unnecessary motions - ergonomics; defects - a challenge to improve.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

WASTE MINIMISATION TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES Waste minimisation techniques can be applied to any manufacturing process and range from easy operational charges to state-of-the-art recovery equipment. The common factor in the technique is that they reduce operational costs. Waste minimisation techniques can be divided into four general classifications: 1. Good practice 2. production/ process modification; 3. volume reduction; 4. recovery. Because the classifications are broad, there will be some overlap. In practice, waste minimisation techniques are generally used in combination so as to achieve maximum effect at the lowest cost. The selection of a specific minimisation technique by the individual business must be based on accurate and current information on waste stream generation and waste management costs. This is accomplished by developing and implementing a waste minimisation programme as a key part of a comprehensive waste management plan. Components of the programme should include procedures for collecting information, evaluation of options and identifying cost effective waste minimisation techniques. Once identified, the techniques can be implemented and become an established part of the management and operation of the business. 1. Good practice 1.1 Good design This section was discussed in class. 1.2 Good house keeping 1.2.1 Inventory Management Proper control of raw materials, intermediate products, final products and associated waste streams in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce waste generation. In many cases, waste is just out-of-date, off-specification, contaminated or unnecessary raw materials, spill residues or damaged final products. There are two basic aspects to inventory management; (a) inventory control - controlling the type and quantities of materials in the plant inventory, including techniques to reduce inventory size and chemical use while increasing inventory turn-over; material control - controlling the handling of raw materials, along with the finished products and waste streams in production facility, including methods to reduce raw materials and finished product loss and damage due to handling, production and storage.

(b)

1.2.2

Inventory control Inventory control is a waste minimisation technique that is applicable to all types of industry, regardless of their size. The great advantage of this approach is that it is not expensive or difficult to implement.

Purchasing only the amount of raw materials required for a production run or a set period of time is one of the keys to proper inventory control. This requires the establishment of a strict inventory tracking system. In many instances, excess or out-of-date material is simply disposed of as waste. The disposal cost will greatly exceed the original purchase cost. Thus, purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only on an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered. Another approach to inventory control is to purchase the material in the proper amount and the proper size of container. If large quantities of a material are used, then purchasing it in bulk will produce less waste, both in product loss and empty packaging, than if it were purchased in drums or bags. On the other hand, small containers may be better than bulk purchases if the material itself has a short shelf life or is not used in large quantities. The ultimate in inventory control procedures is just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, since this system eliminates the existence of any inventory by directly moving raw materials from the receiving areas to the manufacturing area for immediate use. The final product is then transported out without any intermediate storage. JIT manufacturing is a complex programme to implement and cannot be used by all facilities; however, when applicable, it can minimise waste significantly. Developing review procedures for all material purchased is another step in establishing an inventory control programme. Procedures should require that all materials be approved prior to purchase. In the approval process all production materials should be evaluated to determine if they contain hazardous constituents and if so, what alternative nonhazardous substitute materials are available. Also, brief evaluation procedures should be established for all incoming raw materials to avoid the acceptance of incorrect, offspecification or defective materials. Material Control Material control procedures include storage of raw materials, product and process waste and the transfer of these items within the process and around the facility. Proper material control procedures will ensure that raw materials will reach the production process without loss through spills, leaks or contamination. It will also ensure that the material is efficiently handled and used in the production process and does not become waste. Examples of potential sources of material loss are shown in Table 1.1. Area Loading Source Leaking fill hose or fill line connections Draining of fill lines between filling Punctured, leaking or rusting containers Leaking valves, piping and pumps Overfilling of tanks Improper or malfunctioning overflow alarms Punctured, leaking or rusted containers Leaking transfer pumps, valves and pipes

Storage

Improper material transfer procedures Lack of regular inspection Lack of training programme Process Leaking process tanks Improperly operated and maintained process equipment Leaking valves, pipes and pumps Overflow of process tanks; improper overflow controls Leaks and spills during material transfer Inadequate checking Open drains Equipment and tank cleaning Off-specification raw materials Off-specification products Table 1.1 Potential Sources of Process Material Loss Material loss can be greatly reduced through improved process operation, increased maintenance and additional employee training. Many sources of material loss, such as leaks and spills, can be easily identified and corrected. 2. Production Process Modification Improving the efficiency of a production process can significantly reduce waste generation. Use of this approach helps reduce waste at the source of generation. The potential waste minimisation techniques can be divided into three general categories: improved operations and maintenance procedures, material change and process equipment modification. 2.1 Operational and maintenance procedure Improvements in the way a production process is operated and maintained can result in significant waste reduction. A wide range of methods are available to operate a production process at peak efficiency. But firstly, a thorough knowledge of the production process is essential. (a) Operational procedures: Improved operation procedures are quite simply methods which make optimum use of the raw materials used in the production processes. Some examples are: reduce raw materials and product loss due to leaks, spills and off specification process material; schedule production to reduce equipment cleaning; consolidate types of equipment or chemical to reduce quantity and variety of waste; improve cleaning procedures to reduce generation of dilute mixed waste; segregate wastes to increase recoverability; optimise operational parameters (temperature, pressure, reaction time, concentration and chemicals) to reduce by-products or waste generation; develop employee training procedures on waste reduction; evaluate the need for each operational step and eliminate steps that are not necessary; collect spilled or leaked material for re-use.

Once proper operating procedures are established they must be fully documented and made part of the employee training programme. A comprehensive training programme is a key element of any effective waste minimisation programme. (b) Maintenance programme: A maintenance programme which stresses corrective and preventive maintenance can reduce waste generation caused by equipment failure. To be effective, a maintenance programme should be developed followed for each operational step in the production process, with special attention to potential problem points. A strict schedule and accurate records on all maintenance activities should be maintained. The type of information which should be collected and updated regularly in order to establish a preventive maintenance is: a list of plant equipment and location; operating time for each item or area; which items are critical to the process(es); problem equipment; previous maintenance history; vendor maintenance manuals; a database of equipment repair histories.

Maintenance procedures themselves produce waste, such as process materials, rags, scrap parts, oils and clean-up residue. These wastes can be reduced by using standard waste minimisation techniques such as revised operational procedures, equipment modification, source regeneration and recovery. 2.2 Material change Hazardous material used in either a product formation or in a production process may be replaced with a less hazardous or non-hazardous material. Reformulating a product to contain less hazardous material will reduce the amount of hazardous waste generated during both the products formulation and its end use. Using a less hazardous material in a production process will generally reduce the amount of hazardous waste produced. Product reformulation is one of the most difficult waste minimisation techniques, yet it can be very effective. As more manufacturers implement inventory management programmes, pressure will increase on chemical supply companies to produce products with lower quantities of hazardous materials. Hazardous materials used in the production process can also be replaced with less hazardous or non-hazardous materials. This is a very widely used waste minimisation technique where changes can range from using purer raw materials to replacing solvents with water-based products. One important area which is sometimes overlooked in making material change is its impact on the total water stream. Switching from solvent-based to water-based products can increase wastewater volumes and concentrations, which could adversely affect the current wastewater treatment systems, course effluent limits to be exceeded and possibly increase wastewater treatment sludge production. Thus, before any change is made, its impact on all emissions must be evaluated.

Minimising or eliminating hazardous materials from the production process can decrease not only hazardous waste generation, but also the quantity of hazardous materials in air emissions and wastewater effluents. 2.3 Process equipment modification Waste generation may be reduced by installing more efficient process equipment or modifying existing equipment to take advantage of better production techniques. New and updated equipment can use process materials more efficiently, producing less waste. Additionally, higher efficiency systems may reduce the number of rejects or off-specification products, thereby reducing the amount of material which has to be treated. The use of more efficient equipment or processes can pay for itself through higher productivity, reduced raw material costs and reduced waste management costs. Modifying existing process equipment can be a very cost-effective method of minimising waste generation. In many cases, the modification can be relatively simple with inexpensive changes in the way the materials are handled within the process to ensure that they are not wasted. Modifying production equipment to improve operational efficiency requires a thorough understanding of both the production process and waste stream generation. In many cases it is best to phase in the required process modifications over a period of time to reduce any potential effects on the whole production process and to evaluate its impact on the waste stream. Some examples of modifications to existing process equipment which can minimise waste generation are shown in Table 1.2. Process step Chemical reaction Filtration and washing Technique Optimise reaction variables and reactor design. Optimise reactant addition method. Eliminate use of toxic catalysts. Eliminate or reduce use of filter aids and disposable filters. Drain filter before opening. Use countercurrent washing. Recycle spent washwater. Maximise sludge dewatering.

Table 1.2 Examples of Production Process Modifications for Waste Minimisation An important factor in evaluating the cost effectiveness of equipment modifications is the cost associated with treating or disposing of off-specification products. This can be very expensive, not only in terms of labour and materials but also in waste management costs. 3. Volume reduction Volume reduction includes techniques to separate hazardous waste from recoverable wastes from the total waste stream. These techniques are usually used to increase recoverability, reduce volume and thus the cost of waste treatment or disposal. They can be divided into two general categories; source segregator and waste concentration.

3.1

Source segregation Segregation of wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste minimisation. By segregating wastes at the source of generation and handling the hazardous and non-hazardous wastes separately, the volume and disposal cost of the waste can be reduced. Additionally, the non-contaminated or undiluted wastes may be reusable in the production process or may be sent off-site for recovery. The segregation technique is applicable to a wide variety of waste streams and industries and usually involves simple changes in operational procedures. A commonly used waste segregation technique is to collect and reuse in the product, dust and excess materials generated during the manufacturing process. 3.2 Concentration Various techniques are available to reduce the volume of a waste through physical treatment. Such techniques usually remove a portion of a waste, such as water. For example, concentration techniques are commonly used to dewater waste water treatment sludges and reduce the volume by as much as 90%. Available concentration methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, evaporation, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, freeze vapourisation, filter press, heat drying and compaction. Concentration techniques are available for all types of waste streams and are used by a wide range of industries. In some cases, concentration of a waste stream may also increase the likelihood that th material can be reused or recycled. 4. Recovery Recovering waste can provide a very cost effective management alternative. This technique can help eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and possibly provide income from a reliable waste. Recovery of waste is a widely used practice in many manufacturing processes and can be carried out on-site or at an off-site facility. Waste recovery should only be considered after all other waste minimisation options have been instituted. Actually reducing the amount of waste generated at the source will usually be more cost effective than recycling. In many cases this is because a waste is lost raw material or product which requires time and money to manage and recover. Also, simply generating and handling a waste product produces a range of regulatory health and environmental liabilities. The effective use of recovery will depend on the segregation of the recoverable waste from other process waste. This will ensure that the waste is uncontaminated and the concentration of recoverable material is maximised. 4.1 On-site recovery In most cases the best place to recover process wastes is within the production facility. Wastes, which are simply contaminated versions of the process raw materials, are good candidates for in-plant recycling. Such recovery can significantly reduce raw material purchases and waste disposal costs. Waste can be most efficiently recovered at the point of generation, because the possibility of contamination with other waste materials is reduced, as is the risk involved in handling and transporting waste materials.

Some waste streams can be reused directly in the original production process as raw materials. This can usually be accomplished when the waste material is only slightly contaminated or is excess raw material. Some waste may have to undergo some type of purification before it can be reused. A number of physical and chemical techniques which can be used are shown in Table 1.3. These techniques range from simple filtration to state-of-the-art techniques such as freeze crystallisation. The method of choice will depend on the physical and chemical characterisation of the waste stream on the recovery economics and on operational requirements. Most on-site recovery systems will generate some type of residue. This residue can either be processed for further recovery or properly disposed of. For example, a solvent distillation system will usually recover only 90% of the input spent solvent for reuse. The residues or distillation bottoms are a hazardous waste and as such must be managed in an approved manner. Absorption Molecular separation Activated carbon Reverse osmosis Ion exchange Ultrafiltration Electrolysis Condensation Distillation Evaporation Refrigeration Electrolytic recovery Precipitation Reduction Filtration Flotation Liquid-liquid extraction Centrifugation Sedimentation

Phase transition

Chemical modification Physical separation

Table 1.3 Examples of Physical and Chemical Techniques for Waste Recovery

WASTE MINIMISATION IN PROCESS OPERATIONS Waste from process operations is generally brought about by unsteady-state conditions away from the conditions under which the process was designed to operate. Start-up, shutdown and product changeovers are obvious cases. However, poor operating practice can also keep the process away from the conditions under which it was designed to operate. Typical operations which bring about waste include: start-up/shut-down product changeover poor control and operation equipment cleaning tank filling fugitive emissions. Process Operations as Sources of Waste: (a) Start-up/shut-down of continuous processes reactors give lower than design conversion rates; reactors at non-optimal conditions produce additional unwanted products; separators working at unsteady conditions produce intermediates with compositions which do not allow them to be recycled; process intermediates are generated which, because the downstream process is not operational, cannot be processed further; separators working at unsteady conditions produce products which do not meet the required sales specifications. (b) Product changeovers in continuous processes all these sources of process waste associated with start-up and shut-down also apply to product changeover in multi-product plants; in batch and continuous processes it may be necessary to clean equipment to prevent contamination of new product. Materials used for equipment cleaning often cannot be recycled, leading to waste. Poor control and operation even at steady state, reactors generate waste if operated at non-optimal conditions; separators which split useful materials from waste streams can lose material at steady state if operated at non-optimal conditions. Equipment cleaning for maintenance equipment needs to be cleaned and made safe for maintenance. Tank filling when process tanks or road tankers are filled, material in the vapour space is forced out of the tank and lost to atmosphere; accidental spillages can occur from tank filling operations. Fugitive emissions

(c)

(d) (e)

(f)

material transfer requires pipework, valves, pumps and compressors. Fugitive emissions occur from pipe flanges, valve glands and pump and compressor seals.

We will now make suggestions on what can be done, particularly in design, to overcome such waste from operations. (1) Start up/Shut down of continuous processes minimise the number of shutdowns. Install more reliable or stand-by equipment. plan maintenance to avoid unnecessary shutdown. design for flexible operations, e.g. high turndown rate rather than shutdown.

(1.1)

Batch processes Batch processes, by their very nature, are always at steady-state so they are difficult to maintain at optimum conditions. We should, therefore, question whether it would be advisable and possible to change to continuous operations. If we choose to maintain batch operation then the production schedule can have a major influence on the production of waste from batch processes. The production schedule is important in two ways: the time-limiting step in batch process dictates the batch cycle time and hence the level of production. If the plant is capacity-limited then there is pressure to speed up the limiting step and this can lead to waste. As an example, consider the common case where the reaction is the limiting step in a batch process. Pressure to shorten the time for the reaction can lead to low reactor conversion. Alternatively, using more extreme conditions to shorten the cycle time can lead to excessive waste by-product formation; batch processes are often multi-product. Changeover between products causes waste since equipment must be cleaned. Such waste can be minimised by scheduling operations to minimise product changeovers; Right first time is the goal. Getting a process to work right first time, every time is the low-waste goal. Right first time is the key to rapid changeovers, flexibility and good service at low cost; Remember that when more preparation is done off-machine then downtime and waste are reduced. Example: Each start-up after a meal-break, for example, leads to waste. Staggering meal-breaks is one way to running more continuous and less wasteful. Discontinuous feeds to a continuous process can also lead to stoppages and be a source of waste. Automated feeds such as pallet chargers to eliminate such stoppages. (2) (2.1) Equipment cleaning Introduction - Examples of cutting cleaning losses: use the cheapest mix: mixtures of solvents are often used for cleaning but prices of solvents change over time and you may be able to reduce your costs by reformulating. Set up some trials to ensure you are getting the best cleaning power per ; resin production can be a source of free cleaning solvent. Solvents may be byproducts of chemical reactions used to produce resins. Installing separation tank allows recovery of the solvent which is suitable for use in cleaning. One plant saved 200,000/year this way.

dirty solvent can still be clean. What looks dirty solvent still has lots more cleaning power. In fact solvents can still be effective for cleaning when it contains up to 15% solids, particularly if filtered effectively.

In both continuous and batch processes, equipment needs to be maintained. In such circumstances the equipment must be emptied of process fluids and cleaned. This might first require flushing with an organic solvent. The equipment will then be flushed with water or steam cleaned. Such equipment is clearly a source of waste and more reliable equipment is one answer. Also effective vessel washing is essential to ensure product quality and prevent crosscontamination particularly where batch plant is used for a range of different products. Furthermore, this need to maintain product quality can lead to companies being over-cautious in their vessel washing. However, product quality can be protected by focusing on better washing technique rather than more washing. The result is often lower wash liquor consumption, reduced effluent generation, shorter down time periods and fewer labour inputs. (2.2) Collecting and segregation of waste Process waste streams are usually mixed in an effort to render pollutants as diluted as possible ready for treatment (biological treatment). However, the mixing of streams prematurely can often inhibit recovery of useful materials. The following measures to collect and segregate waste can help in the recovery and recycling of useful materials: install a process sewer when processing organic materials, draining to a sump tank. Recycle the contents if possible; install separate facilities for the collection of aqueous waste. This water sewer should have facilities to separate materials. Solids and organics can often be separated by setting. Recycle material if possible. (3) Tanks, pumps and valves Tank filling causes waste when the rise in the liquid level causes vapour in the tank to be expelled to atmosphere. The vapour carries process materials to atmosphere and creates waste. To reduce waste from tank filling we must prevent the vapour space from breathing to the atmosphere. There are three broad methods of avoiding such breathing: (i) send vapours from the tank space to recovery system (condenser, adsorption, etc.) before venting; (ii) use tanks with floating roofs. This eliminates the vapour space but sealing the edge can be a problem; (iii) use a tank with a flexible membrane in the roof. The best way to avoid fugitive waste is by using leak-tight equipment (e.g. changing from packing to mechanical seals or even using seal-less pumps). If this is not possible then regular maintenance checks can reduce fugitive waste. If all else fails the equipment can be enclosed and ventilation provided; the ventilation air would be treated before passing to atmosphere. Example on valves: One-way valves can prevent fall back of materials. Suction pipes are often used for lifting liquids from tanks. Where the pump is higher than the tank, liquid will inevitably fall back into the tank from the pipe, with a loss of up to 1-2 kg of chemicals in one operation. A oneway valve will prevent the fall back; the liquid in the tube can be recovered by lifting the pipe higher than the pump.

Pumps: Pumps dont usually contribute to waste except in two areas: (i) recover seal flushes and purges: Each pump seal and purge needs to be examined as a possible source of waste. Most can be recycled to the process with little difficulty; (ii) use seal-less pumps: Leaking pump seals lose product and create problems. Using seal-less pumps or magnetically driven seal-less pumps eliminates these losses. (4) Control and monitoring The problems associated with process operations are generally unsteady-state. Optimising procedures for start-up, shutdown and product changeover can cut waste. Perhaps the most powerful method is improved instrumentation and increased automation. As pointed out earlier, poor operating practice can mean that the process operates under conditions for which it was not designed, leading to waste. Whilst increased automation can solve such problems, this will not always be cost effective. If this is the case then a system of monitoring and targeting to improve the process operating practice should be considered. Note: Final Remark When reducing waste from process operations a balance which takes into account start-up, shutdown and product changeovers is required. Better operating procedures and improved instrumentation and automation can also have a significant effect.

Stages in Waste Minimisation: obtain commitment from senior management for a waste minimisation initiative; appoint a waste manager who will be responsible for co-ordinating waste minimisation activities; gather available information on the types and amounts of major waste generated by the companys operations. Where possible, you should estimate the direct costs to your companys wastes; identify priority areas for action in terms of either waste costs or quantities; seek ideas from the waste reduction team and other staff about how to eliminate or reduce these priority waste streams. Keep an open mind on suggestions and think about: - alternative production techniques; - alternative raw materials, solvent or fuel, etc.; - improved process control measures. Consider possible waste minimisation options and select the most feasible and costeffective to implement. Start with no-cost and low-cost measures that will produce immediate savings. These fast starters on obvious waste reduction opportunities will help to establish confidence in the waste minimisation plan. Implement your selected measures, making sure you: - prepare an action plan; - identify roles and responsibilities clearly; - involve the staff controlling the operations that produce the waste; measure waste production, raw material use and utility use regularly to demonstrate that the expected savings are being made; review progress regularly and publicise success. Cost savings achieved from initial products will help to justify further action to prevent waste; incorporate waste minimisation to your companys continuous improvement programme. Process flowsheet process inputs and outputs: Notes:- explain the principle of identifying: - all material and other inputs to the process; - all the wastes from the process. do not consider quantities at this stage. emphasise the importance of taking the time to complete this analysis. The diagram highlights the range of possible process inputs and wastes. Identify as many process inputs and wastes as possible for each step of the production process.

2. (i)

Overhead

(ii)

the process flowsheet: emphasise the need to consider the business operation as a series of separate processes each with its own suppliers and customers. These may be internal or external.

each step of the process adds value to the product and incurs a cost from the labour, materials and utilities (gas, water, electricity, compressed air, etc.) used in that process.

The true cost of waste includes: - cost of wasted resources - cost of rejects at each stage in the process - the value of lost sales from rejects. The cost of rejects includes the value added to the material by the time it was rejected. The cost of the reject therefore increases as the material progresses towards the final product. Inserting this information into the process flow sheet helps to identify and track waste. This process flow sheet, which is called a waste tracking model, forms the first key stage of the waste minimisation methodology. This waste tracking model is the core of the waste minimisation procedure; it provides the means by which priority action areas can be identified. Effort must be targeted on areas where it will deliver the greatest cost saving.

Tutorial Example process flowsheet: Process flowsheet for nail manufacturer: The example of the overhead shows the main processes involved in the manufacture of nails at a fictitious company. Raw materials and storage: The major raw materials are steel rods and bars, which are normally stored before use. Point out that fork-lift trucks, labour, utilities and some consumables are used in this step, but little value is added to the material. Acid pickling: From storage, the metal is cleaned by acid pickling. This process uses acid, water, heat, protective equipment and labour. Class should identify wastes. This process adds some value to the product. Extrusion: To reduce the metal bar to correct diameter, it is pushed through a die. Class should be encouraged to think about inputs, outputs and wastes, e.g. energy, labour, machine maintenance, material loss at batch change over and lubricant. Nail making: The extruded wire is then cut and shaped. Again, the class should identify inputs and wastes. At this point, the majority of the value has been added to the product. Any rejects and need for reworking will waste all this added value. This is an important point because many people do not appreciate the true cost of rework. Packing, warehousing and dispatch: excessive use of consumables, packaging, utilities and labour.

3.

Identifying waste minimisation opportunities Now that we have a taste of the power of using a process flowsheet to track waste, we can be equipped with a good tool to get started. (Fishbone diagram) Once the priority areas for action have been identified, a cause and effect diagram can be used to identify opportunities for eliminating waste. people causes processes effect (waste) product procedures

For each effect, i.e. too much process waste, there are likely to be several causes. In manufacturing industry, the key causes are: people methods materials machinery Why is waste generated? Remember to look for ways to cure the cause or causes, of the problem and not just the symptoms. One practical method of identifying the reasons for waste is to brainstorm ideas and then rank them to determine root causes. By starting a team off with a cause and effect session you develop the shared understanding that is needed to go on and develop solutions to the waste problems. The fishbone diagram is a useful record of the thinking. Generating ideas: Once the causes of waste have been identified, it is important to involve everyone in generating solutions. Cause and effect diagrams are a standard tool for quality improvement. The best recipe for success is to: ask the people who work on the process to suggest reasons for the problem list their suggestions against each cause involve everyone in the development of a solution implement no-cost measures as soon as possible. 4. The Action Plan Early success is essential to prove that waste minimisation is worth the effort. Drawing up an action plan will help to achieve this. Since almost everything in business is measured in cost terms, it is important to take detailed measurements and translate them into costs.

Once the process flowsheet has been developed and the key area for priority action identified, the next stage is to hold a meeting with the people concerned. Successful waste minimisation requires a team approach, where people are invited to contribute their ideas. The key areas chosen for action must be consistent with the companys strategic goals.

Waste Minimisation in Reactors The reactor is the heart of the process and can be a primary source of waste products. Under normal operating conditions there are five major sources of waste from reactions. (a) Low conversion if recycling is difficult If it is not possible to recycle unreacted feed material back to the reactor inlet then low conversion in the reactor will lead to waste of that unreacted feed. Waste by-products from the primary reactions The primary reaction can produce waste by-products, e.g. Feed 1 + Feed 2 product + waste by-product Waste by-products from secondary reactions Secondary reactions can produce waste by-products, e.g. Feed 1 + Feed 2 product waste by-product Feed impurities undergo reaction Impurities in the feed materials can react to produce additional waste by-products. Catalyst waste Catalyst is either degraded and requires changing or is lost and cannot be recycled.

(b)

(c)

(d) (e) (a)

Low conversion if recycling is difficult If recycling is not possible we should, in general, try to achieve a high conversion in the reactor. If the reaction system involves a single, irreversible reaction then a higher conversion can be achieved using longer residence time, higher temperature or higher pressure. The problem of forcing a high conversion with single reactions becomes acute if the difficulty of separation and recycling coincides with the reaction being reversible. There is a maximum conversion, the equilibrium conversion, which we cannot exceed even with long residence time. What can we do to force a higher conversion for reversible reaction? We have a number of options available to shift the equilibrium and therefore force a higher conversion. We can change: (a) the feed ratio, e.g. use an excess of one reactant; (b) inert concentration, e.g. add inert material if reaction leads to increased number of moles; (c) temperature, e.g. raise temperature for enothermic reactions; (d) pressure, e.g. increase the pressure if reaction leads to a decrease in the number of moles. Alternatively, intermediate separation of products as the reaction proceeds can be an effective means of forcing higher conversion. A common example of this technique is in the manufacture of sulphuric acid where, to force a higher conversion of SO2 to SO3, the product gases undergo reaction followed by a first stage absorption to remove SO3. The remaining

product gases then pass through a final reaction stage. By this means, conversion of SO2 to SO3 is increased from typically 97% to over 99% with a corresponding reduction in SO2 emissions. (b) Waste by-products from the primary reactions If the reaction is of the form: Feed 1 + Feed 2 product + waste by-product then we can usually only avoid the formation of waste by using a different reaction path. This will likely involve a change in feed stock, different reaction chemistry and possibly a totally different process. (c) Waste by-products from secondary reactions A typical example of this situation is in the following reaction system: Feed 1 + Feed 2 product waste by-product However, there are many classes of multiple reactions. The action necessary to minimise reactor waste depends on the class of the reaction system. (d) Feed impurities undergo reaction If one or more feeds to the reactor contains an impurity, this impurity can become waste, or even worse, could react to produce waste by-products. Clearly, the best solution to feed impurities is feed purification. However, the decision as to whether to purify the feed or purify the product should be taken bearing in mind all associated costs, i.e. raw materials, feed purification and waste treatment. (e) Catalyst waste We can reduce waste from catalysts by using heterogeneous catalysts rather than homogeneous catalysts, which are often difficult to separate and recycle. In addition, we should look to prolong catalyst life which can be done by avoiding local extreme conditions. In general, a number of actions can be taken to help to improve reactions and reduce waste, these include: (its true for both catalysts and feed) (1) Better flow distribution The quality of mixing in a reactor is crucial and here is an area that deserves more attention than it typically gets. The problem is illustrated in Figure1. Reactants entering at the top of a fixed catalyst bed are poorly distributed. Part of the feed is short-circuits down through the centre of the reactor and does not allow adequate time for conversion to desired products. In contrast, feed that is closer to the walls remains in the reactor too long and overreacts to by-products that eventually become waste. One solution is to add some sort of distributor at the reactor inlet that causes the feed to move uniformly through all parts of the reactor. A special collector at the bottom of the reactor may also be necessary to prevent the flow from necking down the outlet. Similarly, if a gas reactant is added to a liquid, the gas needs to be finely dispersed and evenly distributed throughout the liquid phase.

(2)

Improve catalyst Because of the significant effect a catalyst has on reactor conversion and product mix, searching for better catalysts should be an on-going activity. Changes in the chemical make

over of a catalyst, the method by which it is prepared, or its physical characterisation (size, shape, porosity, etc.) can lead to substantial improvements in catalyst life and effectiveness. (3) Improve physical mixing in the reactor Modifications to the reactor such as adding or improving baffles, installing a higher rpm motor on the agitator(s) or using a different mixer blade design (or multiple impellers) can improve mixing. Pumped recirculation can be added or increased. Two fluids going through a pump, however, do not necessarily mix well and a static mixer may be needed to ensure good contacting. (4) Improve way in which reactants are added The idea here is to get closer to ideal reactant concentrations before the feed enters the reactor. This helps avoid secondary reactions which form unwanted by-products. The way NOT to add reactants is shown in the upper half of Figure 2. It is doubtful that the ideal concentration exists anywhere in this reactor. A consumable catalyst, especially, should be diluted in one of the feed streams (one which does not react in the presence of the catalyst). Part 2 of the figure illustrates one approach to improving the situation by improving mixing using three in-line static mixtures. (5) Consider different reactor design The classic stirred-tank back mix reactor is not necessarily the best choice. A plug flow reactor offers the advantage that it can be staged and each stage can be run at different conditions (especially temperature), closely controlling the reaction for optimum product mix and minimum waste. (6) Provide separate reactor for recycle streams Recycling by-product and waste streams is an excellent technique for reducing waste, but often the ideal reactor conditions for converting recycle streams back to useable products are considerably different from conditions in the primary reactors. One solution is to provide a separate, smaller reactor for handling recycle and waste streams as illustrated in Figure 3. Temperature, pressure and concentrations can then be optimised in both reactors to take maximum advantage of reaction kinetics. (7) Improve control For a given reactor configuration, there is one set of operating conditions that is optimum at any given time. The control system should know that condition and make it occur, with little fluctuation. Such control may be complex, particularly in the case of batch reactor operation which frequently reduces the formation of waste products. Advanced computer control systems are capable of responding to process upsets and product changes swiftly and smoothly, producing a minimum of unwanted by-products. (8) Examine heating and/or cooling techniques The technique for heating or cooling the reactor needs to be examined, especially to avoid hot-spots or overheated feed streams, both of which cause unwanted by-products.