Realism in American Literature, 1860-1890 Definitions Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude," realism is a literary technique

practiced by many schools of writing. Although strictly speaking, realism is a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of middle-class life. A reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, "Where romanticists transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or superficial to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists center their attention to a remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable consequence" (A Handbook to Literature 428). Many critics have suggested that there is no clear distinction between realism and its related late nineteenth-century movement, naturalism. As Donald Pizer notes in his introduction to The Cambridge Companion to American Realism and Naturalism: Howells to London, the term "realism" is difficult to define, in part because it is used differently in European contexts than in American literature. Pizer suggests that "whatever was being produced in fiction during the 1870s and 1880s that was new, interesting, and roughly similar in a number of ways can be designated as realism, and that an equally new, interesting, and roughly similar body of writing produced at the turn of the century can be designated as naturalism" (5). Put rather too simplistically, one rough distinction made by critics is that realism espousing a deterministic philosophy and focusing on the lower classes is considered naturalism. In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century during which William Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis, Henry James, Mark Twain, and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an exploration of American lives in various contexts. As the United States grew rapidly after the Civil War, the increasing rates of democracy and literacy, the rapid growth in industrialism and urbanization, an expanding population base due to immigration, and a relative rise in middle-class affluence provided a fertile literary environment for readers interested in understanding these rapid shifts in culture. In drawing attention to this connection, Amy Kaplan has called realism a "strategy for imagining and managing the threats of social change" (Social Construction of American Realism ix). Realism was a movement that encompassed the entire country, or at least the Midwest and South, although many of the writers and critics associated with realism (notably W. D. Howells) were based in New England. Among the Midwestern writers considered realists would be Joseph Kirkland, E. W. Howe, and Hamlin Garland; the Southern writer John W. DeForest's Miss Ravenal's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty is often considered a realist

novel, too. Characteristics (from Richard Chase, The American Novel and Its Tradition) presentation of reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the expense of a well-made plot more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices are often the subject. they are in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class, to their own past. aspirations of an insurgent middle class. (See Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel) dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances. satiric, or matter-of-fact. comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses. Black and White Strangers, Kenneth Warren suggests that a basic difference between realism and sentimentalism is that in realism, "the redemption of the individual lay within the social world," but in sentimental fiction, "the redemption of the social world lay with the individual" (75-76). The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in twentieth century; Howellsian realism fell into disfavor as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the "genteel tradition." Practitioners Mark Twain Joseph Kirkland William Dean Howells E. W. Howe Rebecca Harding Davis Hamlin Garland John W. DeForest Henry James Other Views of Realism "The basic axiom of the realistic view of morality was that there could be no moralizing in the novel [ . . . ] The morality of the realists, then, was built upon what appears a paradox--morality with an abhorrence of moralizing. Their ethical beliefs called, first of all, for a rejection of scheme of moral behavior imposed, from without, upon the characters of fiction and their actions. Yet Howells always claimed for his works a deep moral purpose. What was it? It was based upon three propositions: that life, social life as lived in the world

W. D ofHa Howe writin

Howells knew, was valuable, and was permeated with morality; that its continued health depended upon the use of human reason to overcome the anarchic selfishness of human passions; that an objective portrayal of human life, by art, will illustrate the superior value of social, civilized man, of human reason over animal passion and primitive ignorance" (157). Everett Carter, Howells and the Age of Realism (Philadelphia and New York: Lippincott, 1954). "Realism sets itself at work to consider characters and events which are apparently the most ordinary and uninteresting, in order to extract from these their full value and true meaning. It would apprehend in all particulars the connection between the familiar and the extraordinary, and the seen and unseen of human nature. Beneath the deceptive cloak of outwardly uneventful days, it detects and endeavors to trace the outlines of the spirits that are hidden there; tho measure the changes in their growth, to watch the symptoms of moral decay or regeneration, to fathom their histories of passionate or intellectual problems. In short, realism reveals. Where we thought nothing worth of notice, it shows everything to be rife with significance." -- George Parsons Lathrop, 'The Novel and its Future," Atlantic Monthly 34 (September 1874):313 24. Realism is nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material. --William Dean Howells, Editors Study, Harper's New Monthly Magazine (November 1889), p. 966. "Realism, n. The art of depicting nature as it is seen by toads. The charm suffusing a landscape painted by a mole, or a story written by a measuringworm." --Ambrose Bierce The Devil's Dictionary (1911) Context and Controversy In its own time, realism was the subject of controversy; debates over the suitability of realism as a mode of representation led to a critical exchange known as the realism war. (Click here for a brief overview.) The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in the twentieth century. Howellsian realism fell into disfavor, however, as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the "genteel tradition." For an account of these and other issues, see the realism bibliography and essays by Pizer, Michael Anesko, Richard Lehan, and Louis J. Budd, among others, in the Cambridge Guide to Realism and Naturalism. Naturalism in American Literature Definitions The term naturalism describes a type of literature that attempts to apply scientific principles of objectivity and detachment to its study of human beings. Unlike realism, which focuses on literary technique, naturalism implies a philosophical position: for naturalistic writers, since human beings are, in Emile

Zola's phrase, "human beasts," characters can be studied through their relationships to their surroundings. Zola's 1880 description of this method in Le roman experimental (The Experimental Novel,1880) follows Claude Bernard's medical model and the historian Hippolyte Taine's observation that "virtue and vice are products like vitriol and sugar"-that is, that human beings as "products" should be studied impartially, without moralizing about their natures. Other influences on American naturalists include Herbert Spencer and Joseph LeConte. Through this objective study of human beings, naturalistic writers believed that the laws behind the forces that govern human lives might be studied and understood. Naturalistic writers thus used a version of the scientific method to write their novels; they studied human beings governed by their instincts and passions as well as the ways in which the characters' lives were governed by forces of heredity and environment. Although they used the techniques of accumulating detail pioneered by the realists, the naturalists thus had a specific object in mind when they chose the segment of reality that they wished to convey. In George Becker's famous and much-annotated and contested phrase, naturalism's philosophical framework can be simply described as "pessimistic materialistic determinism." Another such concise definition appears in the introduction to American Realism: New Essays. In that piece,"The Country of the Blue," Eric Sundquist comments, "Revelling in the extraordinary, the excessive, and the grotesque in order to reveal the immutable bestiality of Man in Nature, naturalism dramatizes the loss of individuality at a physiological level by making a Calvinism without God its determining order and violent death its utopia" (13). A modified definition appears in Donald Pizer's Realism and Naturalism in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction, Revised Edition (1984): [T]he naturalistic novel usually contains two tensions or contradictions, and . . . the two in conjunction comprise both an interpretation of experience and a particular aesthetic

recreation of experience. In other words, the two constitute the theme and form of the naturalistic novel. The first tension is that between the subject matter of the naturalistic novel and the concept of man which emerges from this subject matter. The naturalist populates his novel primarily from the lower middle class or the lower class. . . . His fictional world is that of the commonplace and unheroic in which life would seem to be chiefly the dull round of daily existence, as we ourselves usually conceive of our lives. But the naturalist discovers in this world those qualities of man usually associated with the heroic or adventurous, such as acts of violence and passion which involve sexual adventure or bodily strength and which culminate in desperate moments and violent death. A naturalistic novel is thus an extension of realism only in the sense that both modes often deal with the local and contemporary. The naturalist, however, discovers in this material the extraordinary and excessive in human nature. The second tension involves the theme of the naturalistic novel. The naturalist often describes his characters as though they are conditioned and controlled by environment, heredity, instinct, or chance. But he also suggests a compensating humanistic value in his characters or their fates which affirms the significance of the individual and of his life. The tension here is that between the naturalist's desire to represent in fiction the new, discomfiting truths which he has found in the ideas and life of his late nineteenth-century world, and also his desire to find some meaning in experience which reasserts the validity of the human enterprise. (10-11) For further definitions, see also The Cambridge Guide to American Realism and Naturalism, Charles Child Walcutt's American Literary Naturalism: A Divided Stream, June Howard's Form and History in American Literary Naturalism, Walter Benn Michaels'sThe Gold

Standard and the Logic of Naturalism, Lee Clark Mitchell's Determined Fictions, Mark Selzer's Bodies and Machines,and other works from the naturalism bibliography. See Lars Ahnebrink, Richard Lehan, and Louis J. Budd for information on the intellectual European and American backgrounds of naturalism. Characteristics Characters. Frequently but not invariably ill-educated or lower-class characters whose lives are governed by the forces of heredity, instinct, and passion. Their attempts at exercising free will or choice are hamstrung by forces beyond their control; social Darwinism and other theories help to explain their fates to the reader. See June Howard's Form and History for information on the spectator in naturalism. Setting. Frequently an urban setting, as in Norris's McTeague. See Lee Clark Mitchell's Determined Fictions, Philip Fisher's Hard Facts, and James R. Giles's The Naturalistic Inner-City Novel in America. Techniques and plots. Walcutt says that the naturalistic novel offers "clinical, panoramic, slice-oflife" drama that is often a "chronicle of despair" (21). The novel of degeneration--Zola's L'Assommoir and Norris's Vandover and the Brute, for example--is also a common type. Themes 1.Walcutt identifies survival, determinism, violence, and taboo as key themes. 2. The "brute within" each individual, composed of strong and often warring emotions: passions, such as lust, greed, or the desire for dominance or pleasure; and the fight for survival in an amoral, indifferent universe. The conflict in naturalistic novels is often "man against nature" or "man against himself" as characters struggle to retain a "veneer of civilization" despite external pressures that threaten to release the "brute within." 3. Nature as an indifferent force acting on the lives of human beings. The romantic vision of Wordsworth-that "nature never did betray the heart that loved her"-here becomes Stephen Crane's view in "The Open Boat": "This tower was a giant, standing with its back to the plight of the ants. It represented in a degree, to the correspondent, the serenity of nature amid the

struggles of the individual--nature in the wind, and nature in the vision of men. She did not seem cruel to him then, nor beneficent, nor treacherous, nor wise. But she was indifferent, flatly indifferent." 4. The forces of heredity and environment as they affect--and afflict--individual lives. 5. An indifferent, deterministic universe. Naturalistic texts often describe the futile attempts of human beings to exercise free will, often ironically presented, in this universe that reveals free will as an illusion. Practitioners Frank Norris Theodore Dreiser Jack London Stephen Crane Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth (1905) Ellen Glasgow,Barren Ground (1925) ( John Dos Passos (1896-1970), U.S.A. trilogy (1938): The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), andThe Big Money (1936) James T. Farrell (1904-1979), Studs Lonigan (1934) John Steinbeck (1902-1968), The Grapes of Wrath (1939) Richard Wright, Native Son (1940), Black Boy (1945) Norman Mailer (1923-2007), The Naked and the Dead (1948) William Styron, Lie Down in Darkness (1951) Saul Bellow, The Adventures of Augie March (1953) Other writers sometimes identified as naturalists: Nelson Algren, The Man with the Golden Arm Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio (1919) Harriet Arnow, The Dollmaker (1954) Ambrose Bierce Abraham Cahan, The Making of an American Citizen Kate Chopin, The Awakening Rebecca Harding Davis Don DeLillo Paul Laurence Dunbar, The Sport of the Gods Edward Eggleston, The Hoosier School-Master William Faulkner Harold Frederic, The Damnation of Theron Ware (1896) Henry Blake Fuller, The Cliff-Dwellers Hamlin Garland, Rose of Dutcher's Coolly Stephen Crane on Nature and the Universe

Robert Herrick, The Memoirs of an American Citizen (1905) Ernest Hemingway E. W. Howe, The Story of a Country Town Joseph Kirkland, Joyce Carol Oates David Graham Phillips Hubert Selby, Jr. Upton Sinclair, The Jungle When it occurs to a man that nature does not regard him as important, and that she feels she would not maim the universe by disposing of him, he at first wishes to throw bricks at the temple, and he hates deeply the fact that there are no bricks and no temples. --Stephen Crane, "The Open Boat" A man said to the universe: "Sir, I exist!" "However," replied the universe, "The fact has not created in me A sense of obligation." --Stephen Crane (1894, 1899)

http://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm Modernism and the Modern Novel The term modernism refers to the radical shift in aesthetic and cultural sensibilities evident in the art and literature of the post-World War One period. The ordered, stable and inherently meaningful world view of the nineteenth century could not, wrote T.S. Eliot, accord with "the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history." Modernism thus marks a distinctive break with Victorian bourgeois morality; rejecting nineteenth-century optimism, they presented a profoundly pessimistic picture of a culture in disarray. This despair often results in an apparent apathy and moral relativism. In literature, the movement is associated with the works of (among others) Eliot, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, W.B. Yeats, Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, H.D., Franz Kafka and Knut Hamsun. In their attempt to throw off the aesthetic burden of the realist novel, these writers introduced a variety of literary tactics and devices: the radical disruption of linear flow of narrative; the frustration of conventional expectations concerning unity and coherence of plot and character and the cause and effect development thereof; the deployment of ironic and

ambiguous juxtapositions to call into question the moral and philosophical meaning of literary action; the adoption of a tone of epistemological selfmockery aimed at naive pretensions of bourgeois rationality; the opposition of inward consciousness to rational, public, objective discourse; and an inclination to subjective distortion to point up the evanescence of the social world of the nineteenth-century bourgeoisie. (Barth, "The Literature of Replenishment" 68) Modernism is often derided for abandoning the social world in favour of its narcissistic interest in language and its processes. Recognizing the failure of language to ever fully communicate meaning ("That's not it at all, that's not what I meant at all" laments Eliot's J. Alfred Prufrock), the modernists generally downplayed content in favour of an investigation of form. The fragmented, non-chronological, poetic forms utilized by Eliot and Pound revolutionized poetic language. Modernist formalism, however, was not without its political cost. Many of the chief Modernists either flirted with fascism or openly espoused it (Eliot, Yeats, Hamsun and Pound). This should not be surprising: modernism is markedly non-egalitarian; its disregard for the shared conventions of meaning make many of its supreme accomplishments (eg. Eliot's "The Wasteland," Pound's "Cantos," Joyce's Finnegans Wake, Woolf's The Waves) largely inaccessible to the common reader. For Eliot, such obscurantism was necessary to halt the erosion of art in the age of commodity circulation and a literature adjusted to the lowest common denominator. It could be argued that the achievements of the Modernists have made little impact on the practices of reading and writing as those terms and activities are generally understood. The opening of Finnegans Wake, "riverrun, past Eve's and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodious vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs," seems scarcely less strange and new than when it was first published in 1939. Little wonder, then, that it is probably the least read of the acknowledged "masterpieces" of English literature. In looking to carry on many of the aesthetic goals of the Modernist project, hypertext fiction must confront again the politics of its achievements in order to position itself anew with regard to reader. With its reliance on expensive technology and its interest in re-thinking the linear nature of The Book, hypertext fiction may find itself accused of the same elitism as its modernist predecessors. What is Modernism? The following are characteristics of Modernism: Marked by a strong and intentional break with tradition. This break includes a strong reaction against established religious, political, and social views. Belief that the world is created in the act of perceiving it; that is, the world is what we say it is. There is no such thing as absolute truth. All things are relative.

No connection with history or institutions. Their experience is that of alienation, loss, and despair. Championship of the individual and celebration of inner strength. Life is unordered. Concerned with the sub-conscious. British & Irish Modernism The horrors of World War I (1914-19), with its accompanying atrocities and senselessness became the catalyst for the Modernist movement in literature and art. Modernist authors felt betrayed by the war, believing the institutions in which they were taught to believe had led the civilized world into a bloody conflict. They no longer considered these institutions as reliable means to access the meaning of life, and therefore turned within themselves to discover the answers. Their antipathy towards traditional institutions found its way into their writing, not just in content, but in form. Popular British Modernists include the following: James Joyce (from Dublin, Ireland) - His most experimental and famous work, Ulysses, completely abandons generally accepted notions of plot, setting, and characters. Ford Madox Ford - The Good Soldier examines the negative effect of war. Virginia Woolf - To the Lighthouse, as well, strays from conventional forms, focusing on Stream of Consciousness. Stevie Smith - Novel on Yellow Paper parodies conventionality. Aldous Huxley - Brave New World protests against the dangers and nature of modern society. D.H. Lawrence - His novels reflected on the dehumanizing effect of modern society. T.S. Eliot - Although American, Eliot's The Wasteland is associated with London and emphasizes the emptiness of Industrialism. American Modernism Known as "The Lost Generation" American writers of the 1920s Brought Modernism to the United States. For writers like Hemingway and Fitzgerald, World War I destroyed the illusion that acting virtuously brought about good. Like their British contemporaries, American Modernists rejected traditional institutions and forms. American Modernists include: Ernest Hemingway - The Sun Also Rises chronicles the meaningless lives of the Lost Generation. Farewell to Arms narrates the tale of an ambulance driver searching for meaning in WWI.

F. Scott Fitzgerald - The Great Gatsby shows through its protagonist, Jay Gatsby, the corruption of the American Dream. John Dos Passos, Hart Crane, and Sherwood Anderson are other prominent writers of the period. Mini Lesson: Make a chart to identify aspects of modernism. In the left column list the characteristics of modernism; in the middle column find specific passages; in the right column write an analysis of the passage. Modernism In Literature Presentation Transcript 1 . M o d e r n i s m i n l i t e r a t u r e A n o v e r w i

e w o f e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y t r e n d s 2 . D e f

i n i t i o n M o d e r n i s m i s a l i t e r a r y a n d c u l t u r a l i

n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t w h i c h f l o u r i s h e d i n t h e

f i r s t d e c a d e s o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . M o d e r n i s m i

s n o t a t e r m t o w h i c h a s i n g l e m e a n i n g c a n b e

a s c r i b e d . I t m a y b e a p p l i e d b o t h t o t h e c o n t e

n t a n d t o t h e f o r m o f a w o r k , o r t o e i t h e r i n

i s o l a t i o n . I t r e f l e c t s a s e n s e o f c u l t u r a l c r i

s i s w h i c h w a s b o t h e x c i t i n g a n d d i s q u i e t i n g ,

i n t h a t i t o p e n e d u p a w h o l e n e w v i s t a o f h u m a

n p o s s i b i l i t i e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s p u t t i n g i n

t o q u e s t i o n a n y p r e v i o u s l y a c c e p t e d m e a n s o f g

r o u n d i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g n e w i d e a s . M o d e r n i s m i

s m a r k e d b y e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y m a n

i p u l a t i o n o f f o r m , a n d b y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a

t k n o w l e d g e i s n o t a b s o l u t e . 3 . A f e w d a t e s 1 9

0 9 F i r s t M a n i f e s t o o f I t a l i a n F u t u r i s m 1 9 1 0

D e a t h o f E d w a r d V I I P o s t i m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t

i o n i n L o n d o n 1 9 1 3 R u s s i a n C u b o f u t u r i s m E n g l i

s h V e r t i c i s m 1 9 1 6 2 0 D a d a 1 9 1 2 1 7 I m a g i s m T r a d

i t i o n a n d i n d i v i d u a l T a l e n t b y T S E l i o t 1 9 2 2 T

s . E l i o t s T h e W a s t e L a n d J . J o y c e s U l y s s e s D

e a t h o f M . P r o u s t 4 . M o d e r n i s m a s a m o v e m e n t M o d

e r n i s m a s a m o v e m e n t c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d n o t o n l

y i n l i t e r a t u r e b u t a l s o i n T h e s c i e n c e s P h i l o

s o p h y P s y c h o l o g y A n t h r o p o l o g y P a i n t i n g M u s i c S

c u l p t u r e A r c h i t e c t u r e 5 . G e n e r a l F e a t u r e s M o d e r

n i s m w a s b u i l t o n a s e n s e o f l o s t c o m m u n i t y a n

d c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d e m b o d i e d a s e r i e s o f c o n t r a

d i c t i o n s a n d p a r a d o x e s , e m b r a c e d m u l t i p l e f e a t

u r e s o f m o d e r n s e n s i b i l i t y R e v o l u t i o n a n d c o n s

e r v a t i s m L o s s o f a s e n s e o f t r a d i t i o n l a m e n t e d

i n a n e x t r e m e f o r m o f r e a c t i o n a r y c o n s e r v a t i s

m c e l e b r a t e d a s a m e a n s o f l i b e r a t i o n f r o m t h e d o m i n a n c e o f t e c h n o l o g y c o n d e p a s t I n c r e a s i n g

m n e d v e h e m e n t l y e m b r a c e d a s t h e f l a g s h i p o f p r

o g r e s s 6 . C o n s e q u e n c e s P r o d u c t i v e i n s e c u r i t y o r

i g i n a t e d A e s t h e t i c s o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n F r a g m e n

t a t i o n A m b i g u i t y N i h i l i s m V a r i e t y o f t h e o r i e s

D i v e r s i t y o f p r a c t i c e s 7 . T h e m a t i c f e a t u r e s I n t

e n t i o n a l d i s t o r t i o n o f s h a p e s F o c u s o n f o r m r a

t h e r t h a n m e a n i n g B r e a k i n g d o w n o f l i m i t a t i o n

o f s p a c e a n d t i m e B r e a k d o w n o f s o c i a l n o r m s a n

d c u l t u r a l v a l u e s D i s l o c a t i o n o f m e a n i n g a n d s

e n s e f r o m i t s n o r m a l c o n t e x t V a l o r i s a t i o n o f t

h e d e s p a i r i n g i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e f a c e o f a n u n m

a n a g e a b l e f u t u r e D i s i l l u s i o n m e n t R e j e c t i o n o f

h i s t o r y a n d t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a m y t h i c a l p a s

t N e e d t o r e f l e c t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f m o d e r n u r b

a n l i f e I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d I n t

e r e s t i n t h e p r i m i t i v e a n d n o n w e s t e r n c u l t u r e

s I m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n a b s o l u t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f r e a l i t y O v e r w h e l m i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s

8 . T h e o r e t i c a l B a c k g r o u n d M a r x a n d D a r w i n h a d

u n s e t t l e d m e n f r o m t h e i r s e c u r e p l a c e a t t h e c

e n t r e o f t h e h u m a n u n i v e r s e . T h e i r t h e o r i e s t h

r e a t e n e d h u m a n i s t s e l f c o n f i d e n c e a n d c a u s e d a

f e e l i n g o f i d e o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y M a r x h a d r

e v e a l e d m e n s d e p e n d e n c e o n l a w s a n d s t r u c t u r e

s o u t s i d e t h e i r c o n t r o l a n d s o m e t i m e s b e y o n d t

h e i r k n o w l e d g e . H i s t o r i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l d e t e r m

i n i s m . D a r w i n i n h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n a

n d h e r e d i t y h a d s i t u a t e d h u m a n i t y a s t h e l a t e s

t p r o d u c t o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n I

1 P

0 l

. a

'

1 i

1 d

5 r

. i

1 i

. B

7 a

. t

8 i

. e

'

'

1 t

2 a

. s

2 h

4 e

. w

5 n

. s

6 i

&

8 f

1 1

. 9

'

3 c

. i

4 t

. i

6 9

. 4

3 L

3 r