A

GREAT ER

M EA SU R E

O F

C O N F I D E N C E

Design Considerations for Maximizing Throughput and Accuracy in Switch/Measure Instrumentation

Jerry Janesch, Keithley Instruments, Inc.
As test engineers continue to maximize production efficiencies, they need to become more aware of ways to maximize throughput and thereby decrease test time and the cost of test. Here we look at the speed vs. accuracy trade-offs involved in making multi-channel measurements with a digital multimeter (DMM) and relay switching in addition to the practical considerations involved in selecting the right type of DMM and switching hardware and best practices to optimize throughput.

Hardware Set-Up
DMM and relay-based switching are the key building blocks for many test applications and the core elements of many ATE systems. There are a wide variety of implementation options, three of which are the most prevalent: stand-alone instrument systems, chassis-based systems, and the integrated solutions. Stand-alone solutions are often referred to as rack-and-stack solutions. These consist of two or more instruments connected together with cabling and networking. The two physically separate instruments have separate communication ports that are not necessarily compatible, meaning that often times the end user must integrate the pieces together. The

main advantage of this implementation is the variety of vendors from which to choose. There are more than a dozen vendors who make stand-alone DMMs and/or relay-based switching instruments. With this variety come many choices, allowing users to mix and match the best combination of instruments for the application. This is especially advantageous with switching, because the signal level and topology, such as multiplexer or matrix, can become very individualized. The chief disadvantages include the need for hardware instrument coordination and the demands of programming two individual instruments. Chassis-based solutions, such as VXIor PXI-based systems, consist of a chassis with a high speed communication bus and a number of slots that accept plug-in cards. The plug-in cards can be relay cards, DMM cards, or other instrumentation cards. The chassis concept, with many individual slots, provides flexibility to interchange and adapt configurations. In addition, a PC card can be plugged into the chassis or can be connected externally. Chassis-based solutions have a few drawbacks, including a limited number of vendors. In addition, like the rack-and-stack solution, there is the hardware disadvantage of maintaining the signal routing between the DMM and switching. And, in most cases, there is no analog or signal backplane within the chassis, so cabling between switching cards must be considered. Lastly, integrated solutions include both a DMM and switching within a single instrument. A single communication port controls both instrument functions, while embedded firmware automates connections and measurements in order to eliminate operator error. Much of the system operation is automated and optimized to allow maximum throughput and accuracy. The integrated solution also has an analog backplane or signal bus enabling an automated connection from switching to DMM and from switch card to switch card, leaving only the DUT cabling for the user. The chief disadvantage is the limited number of vendors making this type of all-in-one instrument. Integrated solutions, such as Keithleys Series 3700 System Switch and Multimeter with Plug-In Cards, offer all of these benefits

Design Considerations for Maximizing Throughput and Accuracy in Switch/Measure Instrumentation

July 2008

in addition to minimizing cost per channel and rack space, while simplifying programming and triggering.

Accuracy Specification = (% or PPM reading + % or PPM range) = (gain error + offset error
PPM = parts per million

DMM Considerations
A key predictor of system performance is the DMM specifications, including key parameters such as accuracy, throughput, and noise. Simply put, the amount of noise in the system will have an impact on system accuracy and ultimately on the throughput. Signal noise can come from a variety of sources, including RF signals, AC power lines, lighting, motors, transformers, and other sources. DMM accuracy is defined as how close the measurement result is to a known standard, while resolution represents the smallest portion of a signal that can be observed. Figure 1 depicts the accuracy term when plotted over the full range of an input signal. The full range is signified by 0% full scale (FS) on the left and 100% FS on the right. The offset error and gain error specifications determine the intercept and slope of the red lines. For specifications with small offset error and larger gain error, the slope is steeper, and the gain error is the most significant factor. If the offset error is relatively larger, and the gain error is relatively smaller, the line is flatter, and the shaded area is more rectangular. In some cases, the accuracy specification is stated as a percentage of full scale, which implies the shaded area of uncertainty would be a rectangle. When considering the uncertainty as a percentage of the reading value, the graph shows that the offset error is the most significant factor for lower signal levels, and the sum of offset and gain errors defines the uncertainty for larger signal values. Because of offset errors, relative uncertainties are larger for lower signal inputs and lower for higher signal inputs. The other important item to note is the specific NPLC, or number of power line cycles, in which the accuracy is given. In all cases, you will find the NPLC to be at least 1. Specifications are given in integer multiples of power line cycles for a number of reasons. Manufacturers typically use a technique called line-cycle integration to minimize the effects of 60 (or 50) Hz line
Maximum Gain Error Offset Error Maximum Gain Error

0% FS

50% FS

100% FS

Uncertainty vs. Reading % of Full Scale (FS) (specified nPLC)

where n = positive, non-zero integer

Figure 1. Speed and accuracy considerations

pick-up, which is the most common noise element for DMMs. Integrating over a complete power line cycle results in a cancellation of the positive and negative terms resulting in a more accurate reading.

Reading Rates
However, if an application calls for readings faster than 50 or 60Hz, then the linecycle integration technique wont work and the measurement may be subjected to more noise. But if the application calls for more speed and reading accuracy can be sacrificed, a number of items will need to be verified, including the speed capability of the instrument and the impact on measurement accuracy. Typical reading rate specifications include the measurements into the buffer, meaning how fast can the instrument take readings and store them into its internal memory, and measurements to a PC, which indicates the overall throughput including measurement time and bus transfer. Because it includes bus transfer, these specifications will differ for different types of communication buses such as Ethernet, GPIB, or USB. An important point about accuracy is that it only includes internally generated instrument noise, because there is no external noise rejection when operating sub-line cycle. Therefore, operating in a noisy electrical environment without good wiring procedures could significantly increase measurement uncertainty.

Many times in resistance measurement applications, users must consider the fourwire (Kelvin) connection method of measurement. This measurement function is preferred for low-resistance measurements because it compensates for lead and relay resistance. Such four-wire measurements have a considerable impact on throughput. One of the newest techniques that maximizes throughput and accuracy for four-wire measurements is called line synchronization. This technique uses the power line zero crossing as an event to kick-off the two A/D measurements when operating sub line cycle (<1 PLC). This technique can almost produce the same type of noise cancellation found in 1 PLC measurements while also improving the reading rate.

Switch Design Considerations

The other half of the equation in DMM and relay switching test setups is the switching aspect. Here we review some design considerations for switching systems, in particular the type of relay and controller functionality. The type of relay selected will generally have the largest impact on throughput. However, it is also important to consider controller functionality to verify that there will not be any unexpected delays in the design. The most basic consideration for speed in switching systems is the type of relay technology. Figure 2 outlines the basic types of relays and their key specifications. Basic relay

July 2008

Design Considerations for Maximizing Throughput and Accuracy in Switch/Measure Instrumentation

Relay Type Electromechanical Reed Solid State

Armature

Actuation Time 25 ms 0.52 ms 0.21 ms

Power, max. 60 VA 30 VA 0.8 VA

Life (no-load) 107 109 Unlimited

Integration of DMM and Switch

The successful integration of the DMM and switch involves tight triggering between instruments and paying close attention to system effects such as relay settling time. Settling time is an important consideration especially in electromechanical and reed relays. Because of their mechanical design, the physical operation of closing two pieces of metal will produce the phenomenon known as switch bounce or ringing. This puts constraints on when the DMM is triggered to measure and makes having an accurate understanding of the setting time critical to obtaining good measurements. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the stimulus, response, and the measure command. The top row indicates the stimulus while the second row shows the response curve at the device under test (DUT). The lagging response is due to cabling capacitance or the DUT itself. The bottom line shows when the DMM is commanded to take a measurement. So if measurements were taken when the stimulus was activated, the system would be measuring a wrong value. This is one of the most common errors in test systems. Relay settling times and capacitance are the most common problems. However, inductance can also effect settling times. Large systems with much cabling and cable capacitance or that measure high impedance and thus have large RC time constants may require even significant delays of 5 to 10 milliseconds or special signal routing techniques such as guarding. One advantage of using an integrated DMM/switching solution is that the consideration of settling times is built into the system.

Actuation

Coil

Contacts

Reeds

Contact

Glass

Pivot Point

Electromechanical Relay (Armature)

Dry Reed Relay

Figure 2. Table of relay types

designs include electromechanical, reed, and solid state. The most widely applicable relay is the electromechanical relay because it has the largest signal range capability of the three types. However, they also have the slowest actuation time and the shortest useful life. Electromechanical relays are ideal for high voltage, high current, and RF frequency applications. In addition, a latched feature also makes this relay very good in low voltage applications where contact potential can interfere with the measurement. Reed relays have actuation times of 0.5 to 2 milliseconds and have significantly longer life. However, reed relays by design can only handle a portion of the signal range that electromechanical relays can offer. But they do offer a great trade-off between speed and maintaining signal integrity. Lastly, solid-state relays can switch the fastest and have essentially infinite life. However, they can only handle small signal ranges and suffer from high on-resistance and high offset currents in the nanoamp range compared to picoamps of offset current for the other two types. After deciding on the relay type, the next consideration is the capability of the switching controller. Here, the first area to examine is the open and close times required to execute commands. If a fast relay is selected but the controller takes milliseconds to carryout a command, throughput will be greatly impacted.

Another common feature in switching hardware is memory or switching patterns, and is designed to increase throughput in switching hardware. These memory patterns are pre-programmed groups of channel closings that reside at the instrument level. A scanning option is also another common feature. Scanning is typically the fastest method to open and close a list of channels because the list is pre-defined and can therefore become optimized within the switching hardware. Typically, throughput improvements of up to 2 are possible when operating in this mode. A scan list using memory patterns allows closure of multiple channels in every scan step. This is a powerful feature when more than a basic sequential multiplexer scan is needed.

Stimulus

Response

Measure
(Delay)
Figure 3. Stimulus/response/measure graphic

Design Considerations for Maximizing Throughput and Accuracy in Switch/Measure Instrumentation

July 2008

A final system element is the use of triggering. This is in the form of a dedicated hardware trigger located on each of the instruments allowing very fast execution and deterministic operation. A flow chart of this would begin with the switch closing a channel, then activating a trigger to the DMM that then begins the measurement. When the measurement is complete the DMM issues a trigger to the switch indicating it is done

measuring. The switch then opens the previous channel and closes the next channel and continues in this fashion. Also, with an integrated switching system, there is not the additional need to program two components to interact properly.

Conclusion
An Integrated DMM/Switch solution offers many advantages in both hardware

and software aspects. When optimizing the DMM, understanding the instrument specifications to get a handle on the speed vs. accuracy trade-offs is important. For switching, consider the type of relay and controller functionality. And, lastly, take into account the system aspects of the solution, such as settling times, to ensure that the results are accurate and throughput is sufficient.

Specifications are subject to change without notice. All Keithley trademarks and trade names are the property of Keithley Instruments, Inc. All other trademarks and trade names are the property of their respective companies.

G R E A T E R

M E A S U R E

O F

C O N F I D E N C E

Keithley instruments, inc. 28775 AURORA ROAD ClEvElAND, OhIO 44139-1891 440-248-0400 Fax: 440-248-6168 1-888-KEIThlEY www.keithley.com

Belgium Sint-Pieters-leeuw Ph: 02-3630040 Fax: 02-3630064 info@keithley.nl www.keithley.nl italy Peschiera Borromeo (Mi) Ph: 02-5538421 Fax: 02-55384228 info@keithley.it www.keithley.it

china Beijing Ph: 8610-82255010 Fax: 8610-82255018 china@keithley.com www.keithley.com.cn japan Tokyo Ph: 81-3-5733-7555 Fax: 81-3-5733-7556 info.jp@keithley.com www.keithley.jp sweden Solna Ph: 08-50904600 Fax: 08-6552610 sweden@keithley.com www.keithley.com

finland Espoo Ph: 09-88171661 Fax: 09-88171662 finland@keithley.com www.keithley.com korea Seoul Ph: 82-2-574-7778 Fax: 82-2-574-7838 keithley@keithley.co.kr www.keithley.co.kr switzerland Zrich Ph: 044-8219444 Fax: 044-8203081 info@keithley.ch www.keithley.ch

fr ance Saint-Aubin Ph: 01-64532020 Fax: 01-60117726 info@keithley.fr www.keithley.fr malaysia Penang Ph: 60-4-656-2592 Fax: 60-4-656-3794 chan_patrick@keithley.com www.keithley.com taiwan hsinchu Ph: 886-3-572-9077 Fax: 886-3-572-9031 info.kei@keithley.com.tw www.keithley.com.tw

germany Germering Ph: 089-84930740 Fax: 089-84930734 info@keithley.de www.keithley.de netherlands Gorinchem Ph: 0183-635333 Fax: 0183-630821 info@keithley.nl www.keithley.nl united kingdom Theale Ph: 0118-9297500 Fax: 0118-9297519 info@keithley.co.uk www.keithley.co.uk

india Bangalore Ph: 080-26771071, -72, -73 Fax: 080-26771076 support_india@keithley.com www.keithley.com singapore Singapore Ph: 65-6747-9077 Fax: 65-6747-2991 koh_william@keithley.com www.keithley.com.sg

Copyright 2008 Keithley Instruments, Inc.

Printed in the U.S.A.

No. 2983

07.15.08

July 2008

Design Considerations for Maximizing Throughput and Accuracy in Switch/Measure Instrumentation