Manufacturing Science & Engineering (Mechanical Engg.

Department) Workshop (Lathe) Lathe:

A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding,knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.

Fig (1): Lathe Machine Lathe is the oldest, most basic, most versatile, widely used machine tool and lathe is known as the Mother of all the Machines.

Why lathe are also known as turning machines?

Because the job to be machined is rotated or turned and the cutting tool is moved relative to the job.

Function of the lathe:

1. For producing cylindrical jobs. 2. Flat surfaces and holes. 3. With special attachments, it can be used for producing different types of surfaces, cutting threads, cutting grooves. 4. As a whole, a skilled worker can produce any type of job with a lathe.

Lathe parts:
1. Bed: Base of the lathe supports all major components of the lathe machine. Large mass and made from gray cast iron. Three main parts of the lathe headstock, tailstock and carriage are mounted on the bed of the lathe.Top of the bed has two guide ways or slide ways to provide support and sliding surfaces for the carriage and for the tailstock. 2. Headstock: Secured permanently at the left hand end of the lathe bed.It supports the spindle and is equipped with the power driving mechanism for the spindle. The spindle speed can be set through speed selector knobs. The spindle is hollow to facilitate holding of long work pieces.The work holding devices such as chucks, centres and collets are attached to the spindle. 3. Tailstock: Located at the right hand end of the bed Can be moved along the guide ways and can be clamped in any position on the bed.Also called loose headstock.Main purpose is to hold the dead centre and to support the long work pieces during machining.It has a quill, into which the deadcentre,drills,reamers can be fixed. The quill can move in and out with the help of hand wheel.

4. Carriage: The carriage slides along the guide ways between headstock and consists of an assembly of the cross-slide, tool post, the compound rest and the apron. Main function is to hold the cutting tool and move it to

give longitudinal and cross feed to it. The cross-slide moves radially in and out, thus controlling the radial position of the cutting tool.

5. Feed rod: The feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the head stock .It rotates during the operation during the operation of the lathe and provides mechanized movement to the carriage or the cross-slide by means of gears, a friction clutch, and a keyways along the length of the feed rod. 6. Lead screw: The lead screw is also powered by the gears from the headstock and is used for providing specific accurate mechanized movement to the carriage for cutting threads on the work piece. The lead screw has a definite pitch. 7. Split nut: A split nut in the apron is used to engage the lead screw with the carriage. In some lathes, the lead screw performs the functions of feed rod and there is no separate feed rod. Similarly a lathe not meant for thread cutting will not have a lead screw.

8. Chucks: Chucks are used for mounting the difficult workpieces.3-jaw chuck (Self Centering) and 4-jaw chuck (Independent) are most probably being used while machining. 9. Gearbox: Gearbox is inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio by moving levers.

Fig (2): Figure showing different lathe parts 10. Apron: Attached to the front of the carriage, it has the mechanism and controls the movement of the carriage and cross slide. 11. Compound rest: Mounted on the cross slide and pivots around the tool post.

Machining operations done in lathe:

1. Straight turning 2. Taper turning 3. Chamfering 4. Drilling 5. Reaming 6. Boring

7. Counter boring 8. Taper boring 9. Internal thread cutting 10. Tapping 11. Parting off 12. Thread cutting 13. Facing 14. Knurling 15. Filing 16. Polishing 17. Grooving 18. Spinning 19. Forming

Turning:

Fig (3): Turning Operation

Fig (4): Operations related to turning

Turning operation is one of the most basic machining processes. That is, the part is rotated while a single point cutting tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation.Turning can be done on the external surface of the part as well as internally (boring). The starting material is generally a workpiece generated by other processes such as casting , forging, extrusion, or drawing. We can simply say that turning is nothing but reducing the diameter of the workpiece.

Different operations on Lathe:

Fig (5): Different operations on lathe

Facing:
Facing is part of the turning process. It involves moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating workpiece. This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation performed in the

production of the workpiece, and often the last- hence the phrase "ending up". And facing is nothing but reducing the length of the workpiece.

Fig (6) : Facing Operation

Cutting Parameters: In turning, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and more.

1. Cutting feed: The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool. 2. Cutting speed: The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM). 3. Spindle speed: The rotational speed of the spindle and the workpiece in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the workpiece where the cut is being made. In order to maintain a

constant cutting speed, the spindle speed must vary based on the diameter of the cut. If the spindle speed is held constant, then the cutting speed will vary. 4. Feed rate: The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM). 5. Axial depth of cut: The depth of the tool along the axis of the workpiece as it makes a cut, as in a facing operation. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.

Tapers and Taper Turning:

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of work measured along its length. In a lathe taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical work piece. D= larger diameter of taper in mm d= smaller diameter of tapered in mm L= length of tapered part in mm 2 = full taper angle =angle of taper or half taper angle

Taper turning methods:

1. Using a form tool. 2. Swiveling the compound rest. 3. Using a taper turning attachment. 4. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe. 5. Tail stock offset method.

1. Taper turning using a form tool: The form tool has a straight cutting edge set at the desired taper angle. Form tool is a replica of the taper to be produced. That is the angle between the straight cutting edge and the rotational axis of the job equals taper angle or one half the included angle of the taper.Shape of the tool is reproduced on the work piece.

Limitation:
This method is limited only for short length taper. Because the metal is removed by the entire cutting edge, and only increase in the length of the taper will necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge. This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to vibration and spoil the work piece.

2. Swiveling the compound rest.

The compound rest has a circular base graduated in degrees, which can be swiveled at any angle.While turning a taper, the base of compound rest is swiveled through an angle equal to the taper angle. The tool is then fed by hand. Once the compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of

the compound slide screw will cause the tool to be fed at that angle and generate a corresponding taper.

Limitations: This method is limited to turn a short but steep taper owing to the limited movement of the cross slide.But a small taper may also be turned. The compound rest may be swiveled at 45 degree on turn a steep taper. 3. Taper turning by a taper attachment: The principle of turning taper by a taper attachment is to guide the tool in a straight path set at an angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece, while the work is being revolved between centers or by a chuck aligned to the lathe axis. A taper turning attachment consists essentially of a bracket or frame which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar pivoted at the centers. The bar having graduations in degrees may be swiveled on either side of the zero graduation and is set at the desired angle with the lathe axis. When the taper turning attachment is used, the cross slide is first made free from the lead screw by removing the binder screw. The rear end the cross slide is then tightened with the guide block by means of a bolt. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the cross slide will follow the angular path, as the guide

block will slide on the gear bar at an angle to the lathe axis. The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide which is placed at right angles to the lathe axis. The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the work must be converted in degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bar may be swiveled is 10 degree to 12 degree on either side of the centre line. If the diameters D,d and the length L of the taper are specified, the angle of swiveling the guide bar can be determined from equation-

Tan = (D-d)/2L

The advantage of using a taper turning attachment are: 1. The alignment of live and dead centers being not disturbed, both straight and taper turning may be performed on a work piece in one setting without much loss of time.

2. Once the taper is set, any length of a piece of work may be turned within its limit. 3. Eery steep taper on a long work piece may be turned, which cannot be done by any other method. 4. Accurate taper on a large number of work pieces may be turned. 5. Internal tapers can be turned with ease.

4. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe:

Taper turning by combining feeds is a more specialized method of turning taper.In certain lathes both longitudinal and cross feeds may be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal path which is the resultant of the magnitude of the two feeds. The direction of the resultant may be changed by varying the rate of feeds by change gears provided inside the apron.

5. Tail stock off-set:

Thread cutting: There are a large number of thread forms that can be machined in lathe such as Whitworth, Acme, ISO metric, etc. Thread cutting can be considered as turning only since the path to be travelled by the cutting tool is helical. Classification of threads are done on the basis of different criteria. 1. Internal threads 2. External threads And 3. Left hand threads 4. Right hand threads

Fig (7) : Threads Diameters: There are several relevant diameters for screw threads: major diameter, minor diameter, and pitch diameter. 1. Major diameter: Major diameter is the largest diameter of the thread. For a male thread, this means "outside diameter", but in careful usage the better term is "major diameter", since the underlying physical property being referred to is independent of the male/female context. On a female thread, the major diameter is not on the "outside". The terms "inside" and "outside" invite confusion, whereas the terms "major" and "minor" are always unambiguous. 2. Minor diameter: Minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread. 3. Pitch diameter: Pitch diameter, also known as mean diameter, is a diameter in between major and minor. It is the diameter at which each pitch is equally divided between the mating male and female threads. It is important to the fit between male and female threads, because a thread can be cut to various depths in between the major and minor diameters, with the roots and crests of the thread form being variously truncated, but male and female threads will only mate properly if their sloping sides are in contact, and that contact can only happen if the pitch diameters of male and female threads match closely. Another way to think of pitch diameter is "the diameter on which male and female should meet".

Lead, pitch, and starts:

Fig(8): Figure showing Lead, pitch, and starts

Lead: Lead and pitch are closely related concepts. They can be confused because
they are the same for most screws. Lead is the distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete rotation of the screw (360 ).

Pitch:Pitch is the distance from the crest of one thread to the next. Because the
vast majority of screw thread forms are single-start thread forms, their lead and pitch are the same. Single-start means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360 it has advanced axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-start" ), means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body.Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360 it has advanced ), axially by the width of two ridges. Another way to express this is that lead and pitch are parametrically related, and the parameter that relates them, the number of starts, very often has a value of 1, in which case their relationship becomes equality. In general, lead is equal to S times pitch, in which S is the number of starts.While specifying the pitch of a metric thread form is common, inch-based standards usually use threads per inch (TPI), which is how many threads occur per inch of axial screw length. Pitch and TPI describe the same underlying physical propertymerely in different terms. When the inch is used as the unit of measurement for pitch, TPI is the reciprocal of pitch and vice versa. For example, a 14-20 thread has 20 TPI, which means that its pitch is 120 inch (0.050 in or 1.27 mm)

Fig (8) : Threading operation

Chucks:
A chuck is a specialized type of clamp used to hold an object, usually an object with radial symmetry, especially a cylindrical object. It is most commonly used to hold a rotating tool (such as the drill bit in a power tool) or a rotating workpiece (such as the bar or blank in the headstock spindle of a lathe). Some chucks can also hold irregularly shaped objects (ones that lack radial symmetry). In some applications, the tool or workpiece being held by the chuck remains stationary while another tool or workpiece rotates (for example, a drill bit in the tailstock spindle of a lathe, or a round workpiece being milled by a milling cutter). Different Chucks: 1. 3-Jaw chuck (Self-centering) 2. 4-Jaw chuck (Independent) 3. Magnetic chucks 4. Vacuum chucks