T

he study of biological organisms

and systems has long fascinated the
scientifc community. Natures in-
trinsic rules and relationships gov-
ern how elementary components
combine to create complex organ-
isms and systems. these rules and
relationships often orchestrate the
growth of the higher-level system
without any global oversight or
guidance, a process known as emer-
gence. In this organic process, the whole
becomes more than the sum of its parts.
An example of an emergent system
is the ant colony. Although the queen
ant is considered to occupy the most
exalted position, she does not regularly
direct the colony as a whole. the suc-
cess of the colony is entirely dependent
on the basic interactions between ants
without any supervising guidance. In-
stincts that have developed over mil-
lions of generations guide the colony
through survival, including such criti-
cal operations as food collection, home
building, and colony organization.
An intriguing example of emer-
gence is a work created by the artist da-
vid Nash entitled Ash Dome (see David
Nash, by david Nash and Norbert
Lynton [New york City: harry N.
Abrams, 2007]). Ash Dome is a set
of 22 trees planted in a circular pat-
tern (see fgure 1, below). the trees
were grown under typical conditions
except that the artist modifed the
trunk of each tree by pruning it and
tying it to the ground every few years
at various locations. this caused the
trees to grow at a stepped incline.
here a natural growth pattern was
given an additional restriction that
forced it to achieve a goal that was
not originally part of the plan of the
maturing trees. this example dem-
onstrates that emergence can be nat-
ural, man-made, or a combination
of the two. emergent organisms re-
spond to obstacles using basic mate-
rials and following intrinsic rules to
create a solution that inherently ex-
hibits equilibrium. the result can be
both functional and aesthetic, as Ash
Dome reveals.
Infuenced by developments in
other scientific fields of endeavor
that employ evolutionary computa-
tional methods, structural engineers
[60]

C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g j u n E 2 0 1 1
0885-7024/ 06-0011-0060/ $30. 00 per arti cle

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Learning from Nature
Structural forms and processes that
arise organically in nature can be
scientifcally analyzed in an effort
to produce strong, effcient, and
elegant structural systems for the
built environment. Incorporating
these natural solutions into structural
designs is challenging, often requiring
that these forms and processes be
carefully studied, quantifed, and
reproduced under real-world conditions.
The resultsstructural systems that
are adaptable, constructable, and cost
effectiveare well worth the effort.
By Mark Sarkisian, P.E.,
S.E., M.ASCE, Eric Long,
P.E., S.E., M.ASCE, Chung-
Soo Doo, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., and
David Shook, P.E., M.ASCE
Figure 1
Ash Dome by David Nash
Figure 2
Bamboo Cross
Section
and architects have begun through
novel efforts to devise innovative, cus-
tomized methodologies for obtaining
solutions and methods and applying
themthat is, emergenceto prac-
tical structural design problems. such
organic solutions have great value be-
cause over time they have been shaped
by nature to their most effcient state.
Incorporating these organic solu-
tions into building design certainly
presents several challenges, particu-
larly in quantifying the processes in-
volved and deriving from them sys-
tems that are adaptable, constructable,
and cost effective. Nevertheless there
is a movement to derive innovative
structural solutions via adaptations
and mathematical derivations of na-
tures own mechanics. these organical-
ly inspired structural systems typically
exhibit interesting aesthetic qualities
that are not necessarily intuitive. the
san francisco offce of skidmore, ow-
ings & Merrill LLP (soM) has devel-
oped several examples of this approach.
In one example, the geometric
properties of bamboo as they relate to
structural shape, material placement,
and effciency were examined and ap-
plied to the frms entry in the com-
petition for the design of the China
World trade Center tower, in Bei-
jing. In another, the logarithmic spi-
ral, which is seen not only in shells,
seeds, and plants but also in spider
webs, hurricanes, and galaxies, was
incorporated into the frms entry into
the design competition for the ultra-
tall tower in san franciscos transbay
transit Center.
More recently, genetic algorithms
were applied to the design of the
365 m tall Al sharq tower, which is to
be located in dubayy (dubai), united
Arab emirates. this unique and slen-
der tower, which has an aspect ratio of
10:1, employs a perimeter spiraling
fligree of high-strength steel cables to
resist gravity and lateral loads, result-
ing in a column-free exterior. In yet an-
other example, a structural system in-
tegrated with a building envelope was
generated using topology optimiza-
tion algorithms for a design entered in
the competition for the Gemdale tow-
er, to be located in shenzhen, China.
the location and trajectory of the pe-
rimeter members were determined by
optimization techniques that moved
and manipulated material in a free-
form manner to determine the opti-
mal solution for a complex form.
T
he NAturAL forMs of
bamboo reveal unique struc-
tural characteristics. Its long,
narrow stems provide support for
large foliage during its growing life
and also provide strong and predict-
able support for man-made structures
after harvesting. even when subject-
ed to tsunamis, bamboo behaves ef-
fectively and effciently with respect
to lateral loads, exhibiting the genius
of the plants natural structural prop-
erties and geometric proportioning.
the growth characteristics of
bamboo are not random. Although
the diaphragm elements are not
evenly spaced over the bamboos
j u n E 2 0 1 1 C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g [61 ]

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Learning from Nature
Figure 3
China World
Trade Center
Tower
Competition
Entry
Figure 4 Structural Systems for China World Trade Center Tower Competition Entry
These organically inspired structural systems typically exhibit
interesting aesthetic qualities that are not necessarily intuitive.
height, they are mathematically predicable (see Mechani-
cal Properties of Bamboo, by Jules J.A. Janssen [New york
City: springer, 1991]). Bamboo consists of a culm, or stem,
composed of nodes and internodes, as illustrated in fgure
2 on page 60. the nodes mark the locations of diaphragms
and the locations from which new growth begins. the dia-
phragms help resist buckling of the culm wall along the en-
tire height of the culm. A slight change in diameter exists
at the node locations. the internodes are hollow, creating
an inner cavity surrounded by a culm wall. Along the inter-
nodes the material that forms the culm is aggregated at the
farthest point from the stems neutral axis, thus providing
maximum bending resistance. With this arrangement the
gravity loads are carried only by the exterior skin, impeding
uplift caused by lateral loads, and the overall weight of the
structure is minimized.
these geometric characteristics of bamboo were applied
to the structural systems of soMs submission in the design
competition for the China World trade Center tower (see
fgure 3 on page 61). (ultimately, a different design created
by soM architects was chosen, and the tower was completed
in 2009.) In this design, the tower was divided into eight
segments along its height (see fgure 4 on page 61). the
structural demand from lateral loads was strongest at the
base of the tower, or culm, and the internode spacing was
therefore smaller there than it was midway up the structure.
this smaller spacing increased the moment capacity and
buckling resistance of the structural form. In the upper half
of the culm, the vertical spacing between the internodes de-
creased proportionally with the diaphragm diameter. thus,
the form of the tower responded naturally to the structural
demands from the lateral loads.
T
he desIGN ProPosed for the tower in san fran-
ciscos transbay transit Center also was inspired by
natural forms, namely, those found in logarithmic spi-
rals (see fgure 5). these mathematically derived forms inspire
systems that are safe, cost effective to construct, optimal with
respect to seismic performance, and sustainable in that they
require a reduced amount of structural material. In this case,
the logarithmic spirals were interpreted to mimic the natural
force fows of a cantilevered structure to its foundation, result-
ing in a braced structural system comprising radiating struc-
tural members that would equally distribute the stresses while
minimizing the amount of material used.
the spiral inherent in these natural forms traverses around
a fxed center and gradually recedes from that center. engi-
neer Anthony Michell captured this behavior in his research
in the early 1900s (see the Limits of economy of Material
in frame structures, Philosophical Magazine 8 (6): 58997).
Michell described the radiating lines of a pure cantilever in
which force fow lines of equivalent, constant stress result in
particular spacings and orientations from the fxed support
to the tip of the cantilever (see fgure 6, below). the result is
the most effcient cantilever system possible. for the design
[62]

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Figure 5
Spiral Forms
in Nature
Figure 6
Michell Truss
The spiral inherent in these natural forms traverses around
a fixed center and gradually recedes from that center.
A = Node; F = Force applied to node A; B = Point of support
of the transbay transit Center tower, a Mi-
chell truss diagram was mathematically in-
terpreted and overlaid on the tower form,
defning an optimal perimeter bracing con-
fguration (see fgure 7, above).
the structure at the base of the tower was
designed to accommodate a gateway to the
adjacent terminal building. By incorporating
the Michell truss into the structural bracing,
openings in the adjoining transit terminal
were accommodated at the base of the tower.
the structural topology conceived at
the perimeter of the tower, combined with
what is known as a Linkfuse core system
a device designed and patented by soM
that links interior shear walls and dissi-
pates energy at the link locationsprovid-
ed what may have been the most effcient
structural system for a tall building any-
where in the world. the design (see fgure
8) reduced the material quantities required
for construction and provided a structure
refecting the goals of sustainable develop-
ment and designed not only to survive but
also to remain in service after even the most
signifcant natural disaster.
T
he desIGN of the Al sharq tow-
er has been developed through the
schematic design phase using emer-
gent processes observed in nature (see fg-
ure 9 on page 64). the towers plan form is
based on nine adjoining (or bundled) cyl-
inders (see fgure 10 on page 64). Because
traditional perimeter columns were not de-
sired, the design team considered a cable-
supported perimeter. the 102-story resi-
dential tower has a 39 by 39 m foor plan,
a height of 365 m, and therefore, as men-
tioned above, an aspect ratio of nearly 10:1.
the proposed structural design
consists of reinforced-concrete sys-
tems with some 70 km of spiraling
high-strength galvanized steel ca-
bles along the perimeter. the lateral
system comprises those cables plus
intersecting sets of parallel shear
walls. A helical form of constant
pitch was incorporated into each pe-
rimeter cylinder to establish an ini-
tial cable profle.
then, a principal stress analysis
that considered a membrane at the
outer tower surface was undertaken
to provide a preliminary cable pro-
fle that would follow the principal
stress trajectories. Analysis results
revealed that, for the corner mod-
ules of the bundled cylinder plan,
the principal stress trajectories were
vertical (tension or compression) at
the base of the structure and un-
derwent a transition to 45 degrees
(shear) near the top.
finally, a genetic algorithm op-
timization software routine was em-
ployed to determine the optimal
cable profle, and this program con-
sidered both the lateral system per-
formance (the building drift) and
the material quantities. Perimeter
cable size, spacing, and pitch over
the building height were varied to
create an optimal cable arrangement.
Genetic algorithms were first
j u n E 2 0 1 1 C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g [63]

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Figure 7
Michell Truss
Diagram Applied
to the Tower
Elevations
Figure 8
Transbay Tower
Competition Entry
A Michell truss
diagram was
mathematically
interpreted and
overlaid on the tower
form, defining an
optimal perimeter
bracing configuration.
proposed by John h. holland (Adaptation in Natural and Ar-
tifcial Systems [Ann Arbor, Michigan: university of Michigan
Press, 1975]). they can be viewed as having been inspired by
the observations of changes in species over generations made
by Charles darwin and published in The Origin of Species. Ge-
netic algorithms are heuristic optimization methods that use
the trial and error of mass populations. such processes ob-
served in nature as crossbreeding and genetic mutations are
incorporated to the fullest extent possible. In this case, it is a
natural process rather than a particular organic form that is
being replicated.
from the genetic algorithm optimization process, a ta-
pered helix of varying pitch was found to most closely con-
form to the genetic algorithm optimization results (see fg-
ure 11). these results reveal that the optimal cable profle
closely resembles the previously observed principal stress
trajectories.
A
NAturAL ProCess also was involved in soMs
entry in the design competition for shenzhens
Gemdale tower, which featured structural steel
foor framing and composite metal deck slabs for this 71-sto-
ry, 350 m tall structure. In this design, the lateral system for
the building consisted of a central shear wall core and a pe-
rimeter frame (see fgure 12 on page 65). the central core
was composed of reinforced-concrete walls located around
elevators and service areas. the perimeter frame was com-
posed of an optimized fligree pattern of concrete-flled steel
tube members. these members were located at the perim-
eter, or skin, of the building and acted as part of the lateral
and gravity systems. this location improved the effciency
of the lateral system and offered the opportunity to make
the structure an architectural expression that would comple-
ment the surrounding built environment.
topology optimization was used to determine the perim-
eter member profles. topology optimization is a process that
manipulates material densities within
a homogeneous design space to deter-
mine the best structural system based on
the redistribution of strain densities. In
essence, topology optimization moves
material from regions of low stress to
regions of high stress through several
iterative cycles. during this redistribu-
tion of materials, algorithms determine
potential discrete member locations and
then modify their size and orientation
for the most effcient transfer of loads. In
essence the algorithm takes a uniform
surface and by means of a very localized
optimization of materials produces a
global structural system. this emergent
structural system is not only effcient
but also often intriguing aesthetically.
In the frst step of this process, an ini-
tial form that met the architectural de-
sign intent and included input from the
structural design team was devised (see
fgure 13a on page 65). Before optimiza-
tion, the form was specifed to be a uni-
form shell of constant material density
and thickness. Lateral loads and founda-
tion supports were specifed in the anal-
ysis software. the topology optimiza-
tion routine took into consideration the
[64]

C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g j u n E 2 0 1 1
Figure 10 Al Sharq Tower Plan
Figure 11
Final Interpreted
Cable Profle
Figure 9
Al Sharq Tower
Rendering
optimization goals and any restraints on design. the optimiza-
tion goal was to maximize global stiffness under lateral loads
while using the least amount of material possible.
the results of the topology optimization are displayed in
fgure 13b, which shows the regions of high material density
in red and low material density in blue. the regions of high
density from these results were studied (see fgure 13c) and
used by the structural and architectural design teams to devise
an effcient structural system that would meet the architectur-
al and structural requirements (see fgure 13d).
the performance of the optimized perimeter frame was
then compared with designs calling for a more conventional
structure using similar material quantities. the results in-
dicated that the optimized structural
frame reduced the buildings drift by
25 percent compared with a compa-
rable moment frame design. By using
topology optimization in a free-form
manner, an emergent process creat-
ed a unique solution for this particu-
lar form. By equally distributing the
strain energy at a local level, the pro-
cess produced a global structural sys-
tem that was both effcient and aes-
thetically appealing.
these examples clearly demonstrate
that the structural forms found in na-
ture and the natural process of emer-
gence can be used to better understand
existing forms and to design novel and
efficient structures. these structural
forms can then be expressed in architec-
ture to achieve built environments that
are both rational and provocative. CE
Mark Sarkisian, P.E., S.E., M.ASCE, is the
director of structural engineering in the San
Francisco offce of Skidmore, Owings & Mer-
rill LLP. Eric Long, P.E., S.E., M.ASCE, is
an associate director in that offce, Chung-Soo
Doo, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., is a project engineer
there, and David Shook, P.E., M.ASCE, is a
structural engineer. This article is based on a
paper the authors presented at the 2011 Ar-
chitectural Engineering Conference, which
was sponsored by ASCE and its Architectural
Engineering Institute and held this spring in
Oakland, California.
j u n E 2 0 1 1 C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g [65]

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Sarkisian
Long
Shook
Doo
Figure 13 Optimization Process
Figure 12
Gemdale Tower
Competition Entry
By equally distributing the strain
energy at a local level, the process
produced a global structural
system that was both efficient
and aesthetically appealing.
a b c d
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