Maori Sustainable Economic Development in New Zealand: Indigenous Practices for the Quadruple Bottom Line.

Dr Frank Scrimgeour and Catherine Iremonger, Department of Economics, University of Waikato, PB3105, Hamilton, New Zealand. Abstract Sustainable Economic Development of Maori indigenous people in Aotearoa (New Zealand) had been stifled through colonisation. Many traditional practices and customs that contributed to the economic, social, and cultural welfare of Maori people were banned under New Zealand law up until recent years which contributed to loss of human, social, cultural, and natural capital within the Maori Economy. This paper looks at ways forward in improving the social economic status of Maori people, using cultural development training methods and traditional pedagogues to ensure a Quadruple Bottom Line of social, culture, environment, and economic improvements. Introduction Colonisation and resource alienation policies have hindered Maori Sustainable Economic Development in New Zealand. Specific government polices such as those relating to Maori land and natural capital, and the unwritten but vocal social exclusion policies have also contributed to the resource alienation and the economic decline of Maori people. The interplay of Maori versus the Crown over the governance and management of Maori owned assets is a long and talked over debate, that is riddled with a number of issues regarding the fair and just development of the Maori people. Since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi 1840, Maori have not thrived economically. The relationship between the Crown and Maori had been strained over the years due to conflicts over resources. There have been numerous inequitable decisions that have left the Maori people worse-off, and have helped to alienate even friendly Maori from their resources. In addition to resource alienation, a breakdown of Maori social norms, inappropriate decision-making, and undesirable social outcomes, will have a large economic impact on the rest of New Zealand. Maori have been handicapped by policy and other inequities that have prevented them from developing their assets and accumulating wealth to the same extent as other New Zealand ethnic groups (Durie, 1998). Maori have seen New Zealand through the industrial age right to post modern development resulting in environmental, cultural, and social degradation and economic exclusion. Sustainable Development, a holistic and broad term to describe what we should be doing to sustain the earth, natural resources, and living creatures is suppose to be the universal vision to strive for human kind. Over the last two decades international movements of governments towards sustainable development aims: to provide for todays generations without compromising the

resources and security of future generations. Agenda 21 (UNEP,1992) was suppose to have been the blueprint founding document for global sustainable development which intends also too encourage the building of partnerships and roles amongst various social actors in the community, including indigenous people. Chapter 26 of Agenda 21 stipulates the need for increasing the role and capacity of indigenous people in sustainable development and to bring in equality factors into account. Although many countries have tried to implement this Chapter, many indigenous people are feeling that this is partnership is not genuine given the political antics in bureaucratic government departments. The almost deliberate deletion of indigenous peoples roles in sustainable development at the Johannesburg Summit, makes some people question the intent of sustainable development rhetoric. The concept of partnership, and expectations of joint collaboration, resonates deeply in the socio-political consciousness of many Maori. While there exists a willingness to embrace the concept, it is met with a certain cynicism born out of experience. Maori are often invited or drawn into partnerships where the other partner has access to both resources and legal authority while Maori engage from positions of scarcity (Macintosh, 2003, p2) In nature, when ecological cross over, competition prevails. The same can be said for economies given that economies are derivatives of the natural, social, and cultural environments. The Maori economy was natural resource based, however with postmodern development, and colonization and the Industrial Age, severely diminished the New Zealand natural resource base that defined the Maori traditional economy and what could be contemporary Maori economy. Property rights are intermingled with discourse on human, social, cultural, and economic rights. An appropriate measurement system is required to define and demarcate these rights and the Maori economy as a whole. Understanding of the Maori economy and ways to improve Maori Sustainable Economic Development requires and understanding on how Maori people think but also how they communicate and impart knowledge, but also the historical context in which Maori people have been subjected to. This paper looks at ways forward in improving the social economic status of Maori people, using cultural development training methods and traditional pedagogies to ensure a Quadruple Bottom Line of social, culture, environment, and economic capital improvements. This paper will briefly describe the Maori economy and society, issues to do with assimilation and alienation, Comparative case studies and issues, Maori Traditional Pedagogies, The Quadruple Bottom Line, and Future Directions. Background: As previously mentioned, Sustainable Development means to providing for the needs of the todays generations without compromising generations of the future (Brundtland, 1987). Although Maori have been preaching sustainability issues to the New Zealand

government for many decades, the government has only decided in recent times to move into a path of sustainable development after many decades in highly intensive industrial development and resource depletion. This resource depletion has resulted in the lower socio- economic status of Maori in the New Zealand society in which asset and welfare levels where so low in much of the time that Maori people have been colonized that it prevented adequate investment in housing, health, and educations, and also social and cultural capital degradation (Te Puni Kokiri, 2002). Maori, who have been alienated of assets since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi 1840 and the Declaration of Independence in 1835, Maori have learnt to live with resource scarcity and the careful recycling of goods. This type of social norm development has been installed for many generations though the Maori view point on the world called Te Ao Maori (The world of the Maori). Maori people have developed highly sophisticated and holistic values frameworks to maintain cultural, social, environmental, and economic sustainability that is intertwined with social norms, and practices, and Maori traditional pedagogies. These values have helped to knit Maori people together despite the influences of western concepts of control and assimilation. The encroachment of non-Maori onto Maori owned capital could breach international human rights legislation in which social, cultural, and economic rights are to be protected (UNCSCER, 1994). Defining these rights and assets can be confusing for many people not familiar with Maori culture and history. Also monitoring those rights and counteracting with increasing population growth can be equally as challenging to maintain a sustainable and healthy society. Although it is challenging for tribal based societies to work amongst modern society aims and goals, Maori peoples human rights to food, property, culture, environment etc are enshrined in the Treaty of Waitangi 1840 a protectorate treaty between the New Zealand Maori Tribes and the British Crown which guarantees under Article 2 of the Treaty of Waitangi.

The concept of Quadruple Bottom Line is analogous with the Triple Bottom Line Reporting (SustainAbility.com 2004; Elkington, 1997) in that Maori want social, environmental, and economic improvements topped-off with improvements in cultural capital. Cultural capital is essential for maintaining ethnic identity and the maintenance of cultural knowledge systems, and the delivery of cultural products and services. Macintosh states (2003, p24) The negative social indicators of Maori speak to a history of exclusion, institutional racism, material deprivation, cultural degradation and marginalization. To overcome these there is a need to not only recognize and respect cultural difference but to create structural change which produces true economic and political power sharing. Policy that affects Maori, as understood and directed by Maori with its roots in the Treaty of Waitangi, has sought to maintain and improve the well-being of Maori based on a world-view and values that emphasize collective identity and a unity between the spiritual and material worlds (Cheyne, OBrien, and Belgrave;1999: p47). Dawson (2000, p241) stipulates that if the economist makes no attempt to understand and discuss economy-culture relations, he or she becomes, deliberately or non-deliberately and evangelist for a new mono-culture based on his or her language. Economics for example should become a kind of ethno-economics. The Department of Economics at Waikato University has been involved in developing decision-making models and environmental and cultural business strategies to take into account the ethno-economic relations for Maori Sustainable Economic Development. This work has resulted in the development of a sustainability management system and education based on a quadruple bottom line of culture, social, environmental, and economic monitoring. In order to do this work, the identification of values is important for identifying indicators and relationships for monitoring purposes. The development of the Maori Sustainable Development model assists tribes in identifying their indicators, and assisting in the management of data for environmental, social, cultural, and economic capital performance. Ethical screening based on a quadruple bottom line, population scenario planning, and sustainable portfolio management is important for Maori Sustainable Development. Values Framework. Maori ontology (or world view) has similarities to systems thinking. Epimistology is intermingled with knowledge on the environment, genealogy, cultural knowledge, religion, and technology. Although some tribes may differ in opinions of which values may be important. There are key core values that cross over all tribal groupings. Creating a values framework requires the identification of values, objectives, criteria and attributes in the tribal culture. An objectives (or values hierarchy) is developed by identifying the main objective and structuring secondary objective to meet that particular goal (Figure 1). Criteria for selecting alternative decisions, and attributes for measuring

ARTICLE THE SECOND

Her Majesty the Queen of England confirms and guarantees to the Chiefs and Tribes of New Zealand and to the respective families and individuals thereof the full exclusive and undisturbed possession of their Lands and Estates Forests Fisheries and other properties which they may collectively or individually possess so long as it is their wish and desire to retain the same in their possession; but the Chiefs of the United Tribes and the individual Chiefs yield to Her Majesty the exclusive right of Preemption over such lands as the proprietors thereof may be disposed to alienate at such prices as may be agreed upon between the respective Proprietors and persons appointed by Her Majesty to treat with them in that behalf. (Treaty of Waitangi 1840).

United Nations Convention on Human Rights, United Nations Convention on Cultural, Social, and Economic Rights, World Labour Organisation Convention 169 on Tribal Societies, and Agenda 21 pave the way for establishing social, environmental, cultural, and economic justice amongst our societies.

performance of alternatives are also needed for informed decision making. Decisions are ranked and prioritised depending on the criteria and attribute measurements (Iremonger and Scrimgeour, 2003).

(rangitira) were given the role of allocating land and property to other tribal members (Asher and Naulls, 1987). The introduction of the New Zealand Declaration of Independence in 1835, helped to legally define the Maori Economy in western legal sense, by the British Crown recognising that the Independent tribes on New Zealand as their own sovereign states. The Treaty of Waitangi also helped to further describe the Maori economy through Article 2 of the treaty, which describes rights to natural capital assets, and taonga (treasures-which could mean anything from language and art, to natural features). The concept of taonga confuses many non-Maori alike and adds to the confusion of defining capital assets. However, from a Maori point of view these taonga, were clearly anything that is precious to them and helps to sustain Maori culture, environmentally, socially, culturally, and economically. People can also be considered taonga. Maori have been very wary in which industrial development and historic colonisation policies has resulted in a loss in their capital asset base and have lobbied the New Zealand government, the Privy Council, and the Queen on many occasions since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840.

MAORI SUSTAINABLE DEVLEOPMENT Te Ao Maori=Te Aoturoa=Wairuatanga =Rangitiratanga=Tikanga Maori=Kotahitanga

ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITY

SOCIAL STABILITY

CULTURAL STABILITY

ECONOMIC STABILITY

Criteria

Performance

Criteria

Performance

Criteria

PerformanceCriteria

Performance

Figure1: Values Framework for Maori Sustainable Development (Iremonger and Scrimgeour, 2001).

Given the contractual nature of the Treaty of Waitangi, treaty breaches by the New Zealand Government result in legal action and compensation to the tribal groups for rights violations, unless mediated resolutions outside the courtroom. Some academic writers have classed the Maori people as a nation or multiple nations within the New Zealand nation. This is because the Declaration of Independence of 1835 recognised individual iwi (tribes) as their own sovereign nations and that the Tiriti o Waitangi 1935 (Maori Language version of the Treaty of Waitangi 1840) also confirmed this by recognising Maori sovereignty (Durie, 1998).

The encroachment of other peoples values are counteracted by the way Maori people live and pass knowledge down through cultural knowledge systems. Values and decisions constantly go hand in hand. Value judgements influence the outcome of a decision or frame what constitutes desirable or undesirable criteria. For example, a company may value profit and structure all the day-to-day decisions in order to reach a profit. Maori may value cultural identity and make decisions that will enhance cultural identity). Values form ethics and codes of behavior, which can frame value frameworks (e.g. laws, business ethics, bible, CERES-Valdez Principles). Maori Economy and Society The Maori Economy is difficult to define. The traditional Maori economy was natural resource based with strong cultural social norms and practices to enable the sustainability of tribal members. Property demarcation was done through marking pou whenua (land posts) or natural boundaries, through the discovery of new land or through the conquests in warring. Land and resources could also be gifted for certain time periods to individuals, but in general, most land was considered common property. Chiefs

Iremonger and Scrimgeour (2001) has conceptualised the Contemporary Maori Macro economy in the following way (Figure 2) shows the Maori economy overlapping with the New Zealand Economy and encompassed by the global economy. The Maori Macro Economy deals with issues such as labour pools, education and skill drifts, health swamping, international trade issues, and policy development. The Maori Macro economy consist of the all the tribes and urban Maori. Iwi trust boars can work collectively to ensure that human capital (in the way of skills) can be transferred. In some cases economies of scale may be important through collective projects may be necessary to reduce costs and optimise resources and capital. The Tribal Micro economy consists of a number of tribal trusts, land trusts, charitable, and family trusts, and companies (Figure 3) that may contain natural, social, cultural, and other economic capital and property rights. Capital exchanges can occur between tribal members, between tribes, or with the New Zealand or Global economy. The micro economy deals with issues relating to business management, profitability, development of people and resources, growth and expansion, procurement, markets, and exchange. Iwi trust boards act as agent on a regional level to address Maori macro economic issues and

the management of human, social, economic, natural, and cultural capital. The micro economy may be regulated to prevent excessive loss of capital outside the tribal micro economy. The iwi trust board has a dual area of operation: 1) intrinsic business operations and responsibilities to required for the continued functioning of the iwi trust boards, 2) extrinsic operations and responsibilities to beneficiaries and to the New Zealand Government. Figure 2: The Maori Macro Economy

Figure 3: The Maori Micro Economy

CULTURAL EXCHANGES Language Art Performance History Technology

TRIBAL MICRO ECONOMY

ENVIRONMENTAL EXCHANGES Air Water Energy Waste Biodiversity Minerals

TRUST 1
N Z ECONOMY

TRUST 5 Company

GLOBAL ECONOMY

TRUST 3

Company

Trib Trib Trib Trib

Trib

Maori

HUMAN CAPITAL EXCHANGES Leadership Skills Knowledge People

(Source: Iremonger and Scrimgeour, 2001)

SOCIAL EXCHANGESNetworks Institutions Health Jobs Education Housing

ECONOMIC EXCHANGES Jobs Business Tax Interest Transaction costs Subsidies Ideas

(Source Iremonger and Scrimgour 2001)

Te Puni Kokiri (2002 and 2003) has done recent work in defining the Maori economy. Although these following figures are only an estimation of economic asset base, some has been done to calculate the contribution of social, cultural, and natural capital for the Maori Economy. NZIER (2003 a, b, and c). This work however is a homogenised view point collating all tribal groups under the tag of Maori and recent work done by the Department of Economics at the University of Waikato has resulted in models for iwi (tribes) to develop and monitor their own sustainable economic performance (Iremonger and Scrimgeour, 2001, 2002, 2003). Maori Economic Assets can be broken down into land administered by the Maori Trustee, those held by major Maori organisations, treaty of Waitangi Settlements, Iwi trust boards, and Maori Businesses. In total, it is estimated that the asset base is approximately $8.9 Billion (Table 1). Table 1: Maori assets and capital investment - 2001 Primary Secondary Tertiary ($ m) ($ m) ($ m) A. Maori Trusts 1,522 B. Maori Trustee 177 land assets C. Maori 856 498 organisations D. Iwi Treaty 86 settlements 145 E. Maori Trust Boards 856 F. Maori businesses 1,808 3,044 Total Assets ($ 4,508 856 3,628 million) Proportions 50% 10% 40%

Table 2: Total Assets reported by major Maori organisations Maori organisation Total Assets ($ million) Te Ohu Kai Moana 457.0 Crown Forestry Rental Trust 295.2 Waikato Raupatu Lands Trust 182.2 Te Rnanga o Ngi Tahu 375.6 Poutama Trust 28.6 Te Whnau o Waipareira Trust 15.2 Total 1,353.8 (TPK 2003)

Annual report 2001 2001 2001 2001 2001 2001

Total Assets ($ million) 1,522 177 1,354 86 145 856 5,708 8,992 100%

Table 3: Commercial Assets provided in Treaty of Waitangi settlements Iwi organisation Settlement Assets ($) Settlement date Hauai 715,682 1993 Ngti Rangiteaorere 760,000 1993 Ngti Whakaue 5,210,000 1994 Waimakuku 375,000 1995 Rotom 43,931 1996 Te Maunga 129,032 1996 Ngti Trangitukua 5,000,000 1998 Pouakani 2,650,000 1998 Te Uri o Hau 15,600,000 2000 Ngti Ruanui 41,000,000 2001 Ngti Tama 14,500,000 2001 Total 85,983,645 Source: Office of Treaty Settlements (www.ots.govt.nz) Institutions and their Effects Major obstacles to Maori economic development has been the continued interference on the traditional iwi governance structure by the Crown and the pernicious policies relating to Maori land and other assets and also the identity of Maori themselves. These obstacles have had major effects relating to the flow of different forms of social, man-made, human, cultural and natural capital, which affects the overall wealth and economic development of Maori. Although capital can flow in and out, in most part the capital flows have been flowing out in the case of Maori. Having land is of vital importance to Maori who believe that the first man (Tane) was descended from the Earth Mother (Papatuanuku) and that Maori word for land whenua also represents the umbilical cord that links man to the Earth. From Papatuanuku numerous children were born to her that represent the different elements of nature or natural processes, which provided Maori with all they needed. The flow of these natural processes is wrapped up in the concept of mauri or life force.

Primary industries include agriculture, forestry and fishing, and mining. Secondary industries include manufacturing; electricity, gas and water; and construction. Tertiary industries include wholesale and retail trade; accommodation, cafes and restaurants, transport, storage and communication; finance and insurance; property and business services, education, health and community services, cultural and recreational services

(Source TPK, 2003) Maori Land administered by the Maori Trustee (a government agent) is estimated to be $176.7 million. Major Maori Organisations are estimated to have and asset base of $1.25 Billion, Treaty of Waitangi Settlements are estimated to be $89 million For Maori-owned businesses Total assets estimates of $2.45 billion for Maori self-employed individuals, and $3.26 billion for Maori employers.

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To remove unfair and disadvantaged barriers for Maori development as a result of paternalistic government policy Very little barriers to development. However, unless land has a caveat on it then land is subject to insolvency laws

General Incorporated Societies and Charitable Trusts Act Trust Act Companies Act

Members, shareholders

Charitable Trusts Incorporated Societies Corporations

Table 4: Maori Trusts and Incorporations: How Government Legislation affects Sustainable Economic Development

Least government intervention -

Increases Decreases Increases Increases

Maori see themselves as guardians of the environment and have developed their own traditional resource management systems. Alteration to the environment affects the quality or quantity of the mauri, and would mean that a natural resource may need to be conserved or forbidden from use otherwise dire consequences could happen. These analogies can also be made in systems thinking through the use of feedback mechanisms and the flow of environmental services and products that supply society and the economy. For Maori, the cost of entry to markets is significantly higher than for non Maori. This prevents any significant economic development of the Maori people. The removal of natural capital from Maori has also driven them into urban centres in order to earn wages to pay for life-supporting services. Life supporting services were once the benefits of living and controlling their own lands (Loomis, 2000). Maori organisations compete with each other for a limited pool of state service resource capital, leading to a doubling up of services, and fragmentation of state service resource capital, and reducing the resources of these providers perform properly. As we have seen previously the continued regulation of Maori governance has lead to an array of organisations, with differing power, and administration cultures. The quantity of organisations and the differing lines of hierarchy has lead to miscommunication, uncertainty of leadership, squabbles in decision making and planning, and general break down of traditional social norms and social and cultural capital. Dasgupta (1990) suggests that social norms breakdown in periods of change (such in the process or colonisation or organisation), and if not replaced leads to market failure. Currently we are seeing this by the large disparities between Maori and non-Maori, and the large dependency Maori have on the State services, by not being able to contribute to welfare generation due to low participation in education and the job market (Ministry of Social Policy, 2001). Maori Trust Boards and Trusts under the Maori Trustee Reserved Lands are hindered in wealth accumulation due to the restrictive financial management and resource allocation policies by the Maori Trustee regime. Many unresolved Treaty claims exist for illegally taken natural resources that could help to aid in Maori economic development, but iwi may not have to resources to pursue them. In most cases Trusts and Incorporation formed under Crown legislation are not entitled to place any claims to the Waitangi Commission as they are not regarded as traditional iwi. Land-based trusts such as those under the Tu Ture Whenua Act 1993 also tend to be disadvantaged by the low quantity of land per capita or also the quality of lands and other natural capital. They are also restricted by not being able to borrow money to develop resources and restricted to access to markets (Ministry of Maori Development, 1998). Further detailed information about governance of Maori organisations found in Table 4.

Te Ture Whenua Act 1993 Maori Reservations Regulations 1994

Shareholders, Maori Land Court, Maori Trustee, beneficiaries The retention of Maori land by land owners

Some barriers do exist due to the necessary requirement for the Maori Land Court and Maori Trustee making decisions over succession and other issues. Also because Maori land owners find it difficult to get finance for business opportunities. Able to receive monies from land leases, forestry rights, fishing rights, mineral rights etc

Putea, iwi, kaitiaki, whanau, ahu whenua trusts, and Maori Incorporations, Maori Reservations

Decreases

Runanga a Iwi Act 1989

Minister of Maori Affairs

The Act was repelled when National party came in because of apparent lack of skill by iwi to managed themselves. Some of these Runanga still exist and have become government contractors of social service providers.

Iwi Runanga set up to be Iwi Transition Agencies.

Maori social and economic development

Increases

Strong barriers as a result of changes in Maori society the relevancy of these organizations are in question. Also because they do not coincide with traditional iwi structure then there is some psychological barriers for grassroots Maori with respect to allegiance

Maori Authorities- NZ Maori Council Maori Districts authorities, incorporated entities Maori Trustee. Minister of Maori Affairs Maori social and economic development

Maori Community Development Act 1962

Increases

Increases

Increases

Decreases

(Adapted from Iremonger and Scrimgeour, 2001)

Strong barriers Trust Board members are reliant on the Minister of Maori Affairs for investment approval. Also because they do not coincide with traditional iwi structure then there is some psychological barriers for grassroots Maori with respect to allegiance

Minister of Maori Affairs Receive compensation monies from Raupatu lands or land confiscated

Maori Trust Boards Act 1955 + other Tribal enactments

Maori Trust Boards

Increases

Increases

Strong barriers Land owners are powerless to control use of their resources. Massive devaluation of assets have occurred. Gives wide powers to lessee

Maori Trustee Act 1953 Maori Land Act Maori Affairs Act 1956 Maori Reserved Land Amendment Act 1997

Maori Trustee Maori Land Court Leased Maori land out to leasee on perpetual leases.

Strong government intervention Decreases

438 Trusts

Decreases

Trust/incorp oration types

Accountabili ty Purpose

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Government Intervention Natural Capital Social Capital Cultural Capital

Barriers to economic Developmen t

Decreases

Increases

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Tribal Sustainable Economic Development and Environmental Case Studies and Issues Cases: Te Puni Kokiri (TPK) Government policy towards Maori sustainable development in recent history has been in the way of capacity building grants and research, this is mainly been influenced by the Ministry of Maori Development (also called Te Puni Kokiri). In the later part of the 1990s Te Puni Kokiri took a whole of government approach to influencing positive outcomes for Maori sustainable development. A similar model was also tried out in Canada with the Metis, Innuit, and other Aboriginal people. International government pressure, globalisation, and trade issues pressure small countries such as New Zealand to upgrade their human rights and social responsibility records towards indigenous people. Social Accounting was used as trade barrier and consumer boycotts. Policy resulted in the formation of a policy called Closing the Gaps, (now considered highly controversial by the mainstream) which state it was ineffective. The Closing of the Gaps policy related to the giving of subsidies to Maori groups for educational, cultural, and social development purposes, and allowed TPK to monitor the performance of CEO from government departments to establish positive outcomes for Maori who at that time and currently are worse off than non-Maori. The policy was welcomed with skepticism, and although operational policies were development by government departments to close the gaps between Maori and Non-Maori, they were seldom implemented effectively. With resentment mounting within the public service, the State Services Commission were called in to monitor the performance of TPK, and Departments that were once were monitored by TPK now it is vice versa. Maori Education and Land Trusts These types of trusts have been the back-bone of Maori Development. Although through successive generations, the number of beneficiaries increase, the allocation of dividends have been through the form of scholarships and marae (ancestral house)grants. Koha (a method of giving) and also can related to community investment, a type of ethical investment. This type of investment is done by using decision-making models based on cultural values. Indigenous Sustainable Economic Development and Sustainable Tourism In Tai Tokerau (Northland) high Maori unemployment, redundancies, high tribal cultural identity wonderful beaches, and forests, have set the scene for the development of indigenous sustainable economic development and tourism industry. The town of Morewa, which relied on the Freezing works for employment came to a halt during the free market reforms made almost the whole town unemployed. Recent work by the Community Employment Group with local iwi, and local authorities have turned around the town to form other forms of development. The town now thrives on tourism, fashion, and arts, agriculture from a Maori perspective through the delivery of Marae Stays, Cafes, Maori Art, Maori Fashion, and use of Maori land for agricultural purposes.

Quality and integrity of Maori enterprises are now being researched as what constitutes a Maori business for branding purposes. Manukau City Council Manukau City Council are working in partnership with local iwi and urban Maori authorities to develop a large Papakainga (village) from eco-friendly materials and will be used to teach urbanised Maori and others about environmental, social, cultural, home economics, and decision making education. This project aims to improve city life of urbanised peoples through teaching them to make improvements through eco-efficiency. Manukau City Council have developed business incubation models that focus on the Marae (or Ancestral House) as a draw point to cluster a tribes business people together and to transfer knowledge to up and coming generations (Manukau City Council, 2003). This has also been replicated by other tribes however some have chosen to do this with commercial property. The Aroha Way (Aroha=love) Is a trust that teaches business strategies relating to Maori values to do with Kaitiakitanga (guardianship of the environment), Koha, (ethical investment and giving) and whanaunatanga (maori concepts on social integration). Ngai Tahu (South Island tribe) Ngai Tahu has been working on the Quadruple Bottom Line and has been involved in developing cultural/Treaty audits with Enviromark ( an environmental management system run with Landcare Research). These types of audits could be used by government or other organisations to analyse their performance in relation to a set criteria. Tairawhiti (East Coast) The East coast tribes have been prominent in establishing sustainable economic models for their area. Ngati Porou for example have established and adobe brick building project, and have bought an abandoned town, and established and educational course and building company that resulted in the housing of 200 homeless families in their tribe. Whakatohea and Tuhoe tribes have been prominent in Maori Sustainable Forestry in developing a cluster for Maori Land owners that lease land out to forestry companies. The formation of this cluster has resulted in the development of secondary and tertiary industries in relation to beekeeping, and pharmaceuticals. The cluster uses whanaunatanga linkages for social and cultural capital development. The cluster also uses their unique Maori identity to market their products on and international stage. Turanga a Kiwa has been working in conjunction with the Community Employment Group and the Organics Industry. They have initiated organic horticultural projects and green dollar schemes, that are also used by other organic environmental groups. Te Wananaga of Aotearoa (University of New Zealand) A Maori university has had exponential growth in the last 3 years, and is now the largest tertiary institution in New Zealand with 60000 students. The Wananga is the typical Maori corporate organisation that incorporated Maori values in every operational procedure. The wananga has been the first organisation to develop a totally iwi

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environmental management program relating to Kaitiakitanga and undertakes community and social investment for both Maori and non-Maori people in second chance learning. They use Maori accelerated learning techniques for students in a culturally safe environment. Maori-Made Branding Was established by Maori artist that wanted to gaurantee and authenticate to their customers that the work that the customer was purchasing was in fact Maori-made. The Quadruple Bottom Line can be conveniently used in this situation. Issues: Resource Management Act 1991 The major issues relating to Maori sustainable environmental development is the issues to do with ownership of resources. The Resource Management Act 1991 has helped to confuse roles, and ownership of natural resources with the government granting local authorities, when in some cases this has breached international human rights, and treaty property rights to the natural environment. Co-management regimes over resources may result in additional costs, and social disharmony amongst Maori and non-Maori alike. The Quadruple Bottom Line can be used to monitor how cultural, environmental, and social capital is affected. Work has been done by the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment on undertaking cultural audits during resource management cases. Seabed and Foreshore Issue Has resulted in extreme racial disharmony, as a result of economic development and commercial pressures, wanting ownership of marine resources. Under Common law, Foreshore and Seabed remains under customary ownership, until it is alienated, where compensation needs to be paid for extinguishments of property rights. This issue is very complex as both Maori and non-Maori people have ownership over the foreshore and seabed. The governments proposal is to extinguish these rights. Maori opposition to the extinguishments of rights has resulted in major political racial disharmony with one party in particular wanting to remove Maori customary rights altogether, despite breaking international Human Rights laws. If co-management regimes exist, then the Quadruple Bottom Line or even Triple Bottom Line could be considered to make organisations and departments more socially, culturally, environmentally, and economically accountable. Corporate Purity Although to some extent transparency maybe a good thing, depending on the indicators used, monitoring, and auditing, transparency regulations and standards may conflict with tribal or kin based societies. As previously mentioned, sustainability indicators may differ amongst cultures and organisations. The standardisation of indicators for government recording purposes may result in mono-culturalism and institutional bias. The Quadruple Bottom line can be used in this situation to show social responsibility to other peoples cultures and religions during business operations.

Common Currency Amalgamation Recent news tells us that New Zealand and Australian governments will form a common currency, and work together on tax, and policy issues (Scoop News 1/2/2004). How this affects Maori property rights and governance issues we are yet to find out. The Quadruple Bottom Line can be used to monitor how cultural, environmental, and social capital is affected. Maori Traditional Pedagogies Eco-restructuring, global environmental governance agreements, and the standardisation of environmental decision-making frameworks give a narrow perspective, and assumptions that whats good for one is good for all is dangerous to communities or people that require special learning needs for environmental management and sustainability education. This assumption of whats good for one is good for all could marginalize certain groups through misunderstanding, exclusion from decision-making, and public-private sector partnerships. Maintaining identity and distinction is important in an increasingly globalized world and education or doctrines that counteract the expression of culture clearly undervalues the people learning. Maori traditional pedagogies or learning methods can be used to accelerate sustainable development education amongst Maori people. Traditional pedagogues included the use of song, rhymes, art, role-playing, kinesiology, and other practical training methods and visual and sound learning aids. History of Maori Education has been flawed with under investment. There are also many barriers to learning these can relate to self confidence, bad education experiences, scarred of failure, lack of support or lack of finance. Some barriers can be reduced through the use of targeted support and encouraging a learning environment that is culturally safe, and allow for cultural expression. Course content, is vital to attract interest in any sustainable development education system. The MSD project has been active in developing easy to use tools and learning modules for rapid dissemination of sustainability information for a Quadruple Bottom Line in tribal operations and monitoring. Knowledge of cultural customs and communication methods are also important as not to alienate anyone from the learning. The Department of Economics has been proactive in developing many e-learning tools and educational programs to cater specifically for the Quadruple Bottom Line and Maori Sustainable Economic Development including templates for Iwi Sustainable Business Incubators, Environmental management checklists, and Iwi Environmental Credit Union. Quadruple Bottom Line The main key ingredient for a quadruple bottom line for Maori is cultural integrity and understanding so that sustainability indicators reflect changes in Maori values. It is also important that Maori tribes have control over their performance and bench marking for good decision making purposes. That is why the Department of Economics has established the MSD computer model to allow for tribes and sub-tribes to benchmark and

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monitor their indicators for their own sustainability performance. The MSD Model also consists of an ethical investment model that screens on a quadruple bottom line, resource inventory, beneficiary database, population scenario planning model, and a sustainability portfolio. This program can be used as an enterprise model or a model for sustainability analysis and transcend geographic boundaries. Full integration and participation from Maori communities is required to gather information for the MSD model. Other economic tools the department has been creating are templates to accelerating iwi sustainable enterprises such as incubation and clustering, investment, and marketing. These relate to publications on sustainability strategies, business templates, and community education through an Internet website for Maori Sustainable Economic Development. Future Directions Although, Maori have practiced some form of Quadruple Bottom Line reporting to government through resources losses since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, and the adaptation of government paternalism through the Audit Office monitoring Maori Trust Boards since 1955 (Maori Trust Boards Act 1955). Maori still require the need to develop accessible tools for resource monitoring and resource allocation for their own assets. The further development of the Maori Sustainable Development Computer Model and culturally appropriate learning programs to achieve sustainable outcomes for growing populations. What is desired that stronger management and governance, and the Quadruple bottom line has potential in achieving Sustainable Economic Development of Maori Communities through educational tools and programs specially catered for their unique learning needs. Maori believe they are world leaders in sustainability and the Quadruple Bottom Line given that they have developed strong holistic values through the Te Ao Maori and tikanga values frameworks. These some of this frameworks have been transferred onto the Maori Sustainable Development Computer Model, but also allow tribal trust boards to prioritise and place their own values onto the program will ranking and monitoring based on a environmental, social, cultural, and economic values. This concept was first developed by staff at the Department of Economics in 2001, through the development of the Investment viability model, and the term Quadruple Bottom Line was later talked about at the Johannesburg Summit in 2002 by another Maori Leader Tahu Potiki. Further research into Sustainability and QBL analysis tools with Maori tribes will be required to determine the long-term effects of the Maori Sustainable Development project work and for continuous improvement.

Reference: Asher, G. and D. Naulles (1987): Maori Land; Planning Paper No29, New Zealand Planning Council, Wellington. Brundtland, G. (1987): Our Common Future, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, United Nation, Stockholm (http://ods-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N87/184/67/IMG/N8718467.pdf?OpenElement) Business and Economic Research Limited (2003): Review of THE MAORI COMMERCIAL ASSET BASE 2001, Business and Economic Research Limited, Wellington, p11. Cheyne, C., OBrien, M. & Belgrave, M. (1999), Social Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, p47 Dasgupta, P (1990): The Environment as a Commodity. In Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol 6 (1) (1990), p51-67 Dawson, R (2001): The Treaty of Waitangi and the Control of Language, Institite of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, p241 Durie, M. (1998): Te Mana, Te Kawanatanga: The Politics of Maori Self-Determination, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Elkington, J (1997): Cannibals with Forks; The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business, Capstone, London, UK. Iremonger, C. and F.G. Scrimgeour (April 2001a):Investment Viability Model-IVM; an Ethical Investment Computer Model for Sustainable Development (Draft), Department of Economics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton New Zealand. Iremonger, C. and F.G. Scrimgeour (July 2001b):Maori, the Crown and the Governance and Management of Assets, Department of Economics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton New Zealand, NZARES Conference, Blenhiem. Iremonger, C. and F.G. Scrimgeour (2003): Strategy Toolkit for Maori Sustainable Development, D Department of Economics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton New Zealand. Scrimgeour, F.G. and C. Iremonger (December 2001c): A COMPUTER BASED DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR ETHICAL INVESTMENTS FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLE Department of Economics, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand, in MODSIM Conference Proceedings, Australian National University, Canberra.

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Scrimgeour, F.G. and C. Iremonger (December 2001d): Population and Scenario Modelling for Education and Te Reo Maori Investment, Department of Economics, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand, in MODSIM Conference Proceedings, Australian National University, Canberra. Loomis, T. (2000): The Political Economy of Indigenous Peoples and Development, Working paper, Department of Development Studies, University of Waikato, Hamilton. Te Puni Kokiri (2002): The Maori in the New Zealand Economy, Ministry of Maori Development, Wellington, New Zealand. Te Puni Kokiri (December 2003):THE MORI COMMERCIAL ASSET BASET; e Hua hanga Mori motu-Policy Working Paper, Economic Opportunities Team, Wellington, NZ Ministry of Mori Development (July 1998): A Guide to Loan Securities Options and Alternatives, Wellington. Ministry of Social Policy (May 2001): Communities and Government Potential for Partnership Whakato - pu Whakaaro, Community Policy Team, Ministry of Social Policy, Wellington, New Zealand Te Puni Kokiri (TPK) (1998a): A guide to Maori Land Trust ; Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993, Wellington.

The Maori Reservations Regulations 1994 Treaty of Waitangi 1840 Trustee Act 1956 Webpages: Johanseburg Declaration 2002 (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POI_PD.htm) Manukau City Council (2003) (www.manukau.govt.nz ) Office of Treaty Settlements (www.ots.govt.nz) SustainAbility.Com (2004): Profile on John Elkington developer of the Triple Bottom Line (www.Sustainability.com) The United Nations (1994): INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS( http://www.hrweb.org/legal/escr.html) The United Nations (1994): Universal (http://www.hrweb.org/legal/udhr.html) Declaration of Human Rights

The United Nations INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS (http://www.hrweb.org/legal/cpr.html) United Nations Development Program (1997): Governance for Sustainable Human Development, (http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/) News Articles:

UNEP (1992): Agenda 21 Legislation: Charitable Trust Act 1957 Companies Act 1993. Incorporated Society Act 1908, Maori Affairs Act 1953. Maori Community Development Act 1962 Maori Purposes Bill 1999 Maori Reservations Regulations 1994. Maori Reserve Land Amendment Act 1997 Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act of 1945 Maori Trustee Act 1953 Maori Trust Board Act 1955 Native Land Act of 1865 New Zealand Declaration of Independence 1835 Resource Management Act 1991 Runanga Iwi Act 1990 Suppression of Rebellion Act 1963 TeTure Whenua Maori Act 1993 Te Ture Whenua Maori Amendment Bill 1999 19

Scoop News (2/2/2004): Cullen and Costella say we will watltz with the Aussies (http://www.scoop.co.nz/mason/stories/PA0402/S00006.htm)

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