2.1.1 Outline the cell theory.

The cell theory states that:

All living organisms are composed of cells. Multicellular organisms (example: humans) are composed of many cells while unicellular organisms (example: bacteria) are composed of only one cell. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the smallest structures capable of surviving on their own. Cells come from pre-exsisting cells and cannot be created from non-living material. For example, new cells arise from cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an organism is produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell.

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory. When scientists started to look at the structures of organisms under the microscope they discovered that all living organisms where made up of these small units which they proceeded to call cells. When these cells were taken from tissues they were able to survive for some period of time. Nothing smaller than the cell was able to live independently and so it was concluded that the cell was the smallest unit of life. For some time, scientists thought that cells must arise from non-living material but it was eventually proven that this was not the case, instead they had to arise from pre-exsisting cells. An experiment to prove this can be done as follows:

Take two containers and put food in both of these Sterilize both of the containers so that all living organisms are killed Leave one of the containers open and seal the other closed

What will happen is that in the open container mold will start to grow but in the container that was sealed no mold will be present. The reason for this is because in the open container, cells are able to enter the container from the external environment and start to divide and grow. However, due to the seal on the other container no cells will be able to enter and so no mold will develop, proving that cells cannot arise from non-living material. 2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life including metabolism, response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction and nutrition.

2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit. Remember: 1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meters 1 micrometer (m) = 10-3 millimeters 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-3 micrometers A molecule = 1 nm Thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm Viruses = 100 nm Bacteria = 1m Organelles = up to 10 m Eukaryotic cells = up to 100 m 2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification.

Take a measurement of the drawing (width or length) Take this same measurement of the specimen Remember to convert units if needed to Place your values into the equation Magnification = length of drawing / length of actual specimen

You can also calculate the length of the specimen if this is unknown: length of the drawing / magnification. Conversion of units: 1 centimeter = 10-2 meters 1 millimeter = 10-3 meters 1 micrometer = 10-6 meters 1 nanometer = 10-9 meters 2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size. Many reactions occur within the cell. Substances need to be taken into the cell to fuel these reactions and the wast products of the reactions need to be removed. When the cell increases in size so does its chemical activity. This means that more substances need to be taken in and more need to be removed. The surface area of the cell is vital for this. Surface area affects the rate at which particles can enter and exit the cell (The amount of substances that it takes up from the environment and excretes into the environment), whereas the volume affects the rate

at which material are made or used within the cell, hence the chemical activity per unit of time. As the volume of the cell increases so does the surface area however not to the same extent. When the cell gets bigger its surface area to volume ratio gets smaller. To illustrate this we can use three different cubes. The first cube has a side of 1 cm, the second 3 cm and the third 4 cm. If we calculate the surface area to volume ratio we get: Cube 1 Surface area: 6 sides x 12 = 6 cm2 Volume: 13 = 1 cm3 Ratio = 6:1 Cube 2 Surface area: 6 sides x 32 = 54 cm2 Volume: 33 = 27 cm3 Ratio = 2:1 Cube 3 Surface area: 6 sides x 42 = 96 cm2 Volume : 43 = 64 cm3 Ratio = 1.5:1 As we can see the cube with the largest surface area and volume has the smallest surface area to volume ratio. If the surface area to volume ratio gets too small then substances wont be able to enter the cell fast enough to fuel the reactions and wast products will start to accumulate within the cell as they will be produced faster than they can be excreted. In addition, cells will not be able to lose heat fast enough and so may overheat. Therefor the surface area to volume ratio is very important for a cell. 2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties. Multicellular organisms show emergent properties. For example: cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems and organ systems form multicellular organisms. The idea is that the whole is greater than the composition of its parts. For example your lungs are made of many cells. However, the cells by themselves arent much use.

It is the many cells working as a unit that allow the lungs to perform their function. 2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others. Every cell in a multicellular organisms contains all the genes of that organism. However, the genes that are activated vary from cell to cell. The reason we have different types of cells in our body (the cells in your eyes are not the same as the ones that make up your hair) is because different genes are activated in different cells. For example, the gene that produces keratin will be active in hair and nail cells. Keratin is the protein which makes up hair and nails. Genes encode for proteins and the proteins affect the cells structure and function so that the cell can specialize. This means cells develop in different ways. This is called differentiation. Differentiation depends on gene expression which is regulated mostly during transcription. It is an advantage for multicellular organisms as cells can differentiate to be more efficient unlike unicellular organisms who have to carry out all of the functions within that one cell. 2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways. Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently replaced such as the skin. Stem cells have the ability to produce a wide range of cells which means that they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and produce many different cells by cell division and the process of differentiation. For example, one type of stem cells in the bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells. 2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells. Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem cells found in the bone marrow give rise to the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow transplants to treat people who have certain types of cancer. When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood cells. So before the patient is treated with chemotherapy, he or she can undergo a bone marrow harvest in which stem cells are removed from the bone marrow by using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip

bone). Alternatively, if stem cells cannot be used from the patient then they can be harvested from a matching donor. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a bone marrow transplant in which the stem cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip, usually via a vein in the chest or the arm. These transplanted stem cells will then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce healthy blood cells in the patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very important as it allows some patients with cancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment. Without this therapeutic use of stem cells, patients would only be able to take low doses of chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the disease. 2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

Figure 2.4.1 - Annotated drawing of a cell membrane 2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes. Phospholipid molecules make up the cell membrane and are hydrophilic (attracted to water) as well as hydrophobic (not attracted to water but are attracted to other hydrophobic tails). They have a hydrophilic phosphate head and two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails. Cell membranes are made up of a double layer of these phospholipid molecules. This is because in

water the hydrophilic heads will face the water while the hydrophobic tails will be in the center because they face away from the water. The phospholipid bilayer makes the membrane very stable but also allows flexibility. The phospholipid in the membrane are in a fluid state which allows the cell to change its shape easily. 2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins. Membrane proteins can act as hormone binding sites, electron carriers, pumps for active transport, channels for passive transport and also enzymes. In addition they can be used for cell to cell communication as well as cell adhesion. 2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration. 2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Membranes are semi-permeable which means that they allow certain molecules through but not others. The molecules can move in and out through passive transport which is a method that does not require any input of outside energy. It can either be done by simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion. Molecules will go from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration as they move randomly and eventually become evenly distributed within the system if they are permeable to the membrane. Simple diffusion involves the diffusion of molecules through the phospholipid bilayer while facilitated diffusion involves the use of channel proteins embedded in the membrane. The cell membrane is hydrophobic inside so hydrophobic (lipid soluble) molecules will pass through by simple diffusion whereas hydrophilic molecules and charged particles will use facilitated diffusion. Water moves through by osmosis which is also by passive transport. Osmosis involves the movement of water molecules from a region of low solute concentration, to a region of high solute concentration. So if the solute concentration is higher inside the cell than outside the cell, water will move in and vice versa. 2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.

Active transport involves the movement of substances through the membrane using energy from ATP. The advantage of active transport is that substances can be moved against the concentration gradient, meaning from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration. This is possible because the cell membrane has protein pumps embedded it which are used in active transport to move substances across by using ATP. Each protein pump only transports certain substances so the cell can control what comes in and what goes out. 2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and the cell membrane. After proteins have been synthesized by ribosomes they are transported to the rough endoplasmic reticulum where they can be modified. Vesicles carrying the protein then bud off the rough endoplasmic reticulum and are transported to the Golgi apparatus to be further modified. After this the vesicles carrying the protein bud off the Golgi apparatus and carry the protein to the plasma membrane. Here the vesicles fuse with the membrane expelling their content (the modified proteins) outside the cell. The membrane then goes back to its original state. This is a process called exocytosis. Endocytosis is a similar process which involves the pulling of the plasma membrane inwards so that the pinching off of a vesicle from the plasma membrane occurs and then this vesicle can carry its content anywhere in the cell. 2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis. The phospholipids in the cell membrane are not solid but are in a fluid state allowing the membrane to change its shape and also vesicles to fuse with it. This means substances can enter the cell via endocytosis and exit the cell via exocytosis. The membrane then returns to its original state. In exocytosis the vesicles fuse with the membrane expelling their content outside the cell. The membrane then goes back to its original state. Endocytosis is a similar process which involves the pulling of the plasma membrane inwards so that a vesicle is pinched off it and then this vesicle can carry its content anywhere in the cell. 5.1.1 Define species, habitats, populations, community, ecosystems and ecology.
Species: a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Habitat: the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism.

Population: a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time. Community: a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area. Ecosystem: a community and its abiotic environment. Ecology: the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment. 5.1.2 Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph. Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize their organic molecules from simple inorganic substances whereas heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic molecules from other organisms. 5.1.3 Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs. Consumer: an organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed. Detritivore: an organism that ingests non-living organic matter. Saprotroph: an organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion. 5.1.4 Describe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms). A food chain shows the direction of energy flow from one species to another. For example, an arrow from A to B means that A is being eaten by B and therefore indicates the direction of the energy flow.

Figure 5.1.1 - Example of a food chain 5.1.5 Describe what is meant by a food web. A food web is a diagram that shows all the feeding relationships in a community with arrows which show the direction of the energy flow. 5.1.6 Define trophic level. Trophic level: the trophic level of an organism is its position in the food chain. Producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers are examples of trophic levels. 5.1.7 Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web. Plants or any other photosynthetic organisms are the producers. Primary consumers are the species that eat the producers. Secondary consumers are the species that eat the primary consumers and tertiary consumers in turn eat the secondary consumers. 5.1.8 Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

Figure 5.1.2 - Food web

5.1.9 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities. Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities. 5.1.10 Explain the energy flow in a food chain. Producers receive their energy from light energy (the sun) by means of photosynthesis. After this, the energy in organic matter flows from producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers to tertiary consumers. This is because producers will be eaten by primary consumers which in turn will be eaten by secondary consumers and so on. However, between these trophic levels, energy is always lost. All of the trophic levels lose energy as heat through cell respiration. Also, as the organic matter passes from one trophic level to the next, not all of it is digested and so we have loss of energy in organic matter through feces. This energy then passes on to the detritivores and saprotrophs. Another energy loss occurs through tissue loss and death which can happen at any trophic level. Once again, this energy would be passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs as they digest these. Detritivores and saprotrophs in turn lose energy as heat through cell respiration.

Summary:
1. Energy flows from producers to primary consumers, to secondary consumers, to tertiary consumers... 2. Energy is lost between trophic levels in the form of heat through cell respiration, faeces, tissue loss and death. 3. Some of this lost energy is used by detritivores and saprotrophs. These in turn also lose energy in the form of heat through cell respiration. 5.1.11 State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient. Energy transformations are never 100% efficient. 5.1.12 Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled. Energy is not recycled. It is constantly being supplied to ecosystems through light energy and then flows through the trophic levels. As it flows through the trophic levels energy is lost in feces, tissue loss and death. This energy from these losses is passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs. However the energy is then lost from the ecosystem as the remaining energy in the trophic levels and the energy in the saprotrophs and detritivores is lost through cell respiration in the form of heat. As a result, energy needs to be constantly supplied to the ecosystems. Nutrients on the other hand are different as they constantly have to be recycled. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are all examples of nutrients. There is only a limited supply of these as they are not resupplied to the ecosystems like energy. Therefor they have to be recycled over and over. They are absorbed from the environment, used by living organisms and then returned to the environment.

Summary:
Energy is not recycled. Constantly being supplied to the ecosystem through light energy. Energy is lost from the ecosystem in the form of heat through cell respiration. Nutrients must be recycled as there is only a limited supply of them. They are absorbed by the environment, used by organisms and then returned to the environment. 5.1.12 State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. 5.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The carbon cycle (click to expand)

5.2.2 Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records. See video (coming soon) 5.2.3 Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect. The earths mean average temperature is regulated by a steady equilibrium which exists between the energy reaching the earth from the sun and the energy reflected by the earth back into space. The incoming radiation is short wave ultraviolet and visible radiation. Some of the radiation will be absorbed by the atmosphere and some of it will be reflected back from the earths surface into space. The radiation that is reflected back into space is infrared radiation which has a longer wavelength. Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and oxides of nitrogen tend to absorb some of the reflected infrared radiation and re-reflect it back towards the earth. This is what causes the greenhouse effect and it results in an increase in average mean temperature on earth. It is a natural phenomenon. However, since there has been an increase in the green house gases in the past century, this has resulted in an increase of the green house effect leading to higher than normal average temperatures which could lead to disastrous consequences in the future.

Summary:
The incoming radiation from the sun is short wave ultraviolet and visible radiation. Some of this radiation is absorbed by the earths atmosphere. Some of the radiation is reflected back into space by the earths surface. The radiation which is reflected back into space is infrared radiation and has a longer wavelength. 5. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorbe some of this infrared radiation and re-reflect it back towards the earth. 6. This causes the green house effect and results in an increase in average mean temperatures on earth. 7. A rise in greenhouse gases results in an increase of the green house effect which can be disastrous for the planet. 5.2.4 Outline the precautionary principle. The precautionary principle holds that, if the effects of a human-induced change would be very large, perhaps catastrophic, those responsible for the change must prove that it will not do harm before proceeding. This is the reverse of the normal situation, where those who are concerned about the change would have to prove that it will do harm in order to prevent such changes going ahead. 5.2.5 Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect. There is strong evidence that shows that green house gases are causing global warming. This is very worrying as global warming has so many consequences on ecosystems. If nothing is done, and the green house gases are in fact causing the enhanced green house effect, by the time we realize it, it will probably be too late and result in catastrophic consequences. So even though there is no proof for global warming, the strong evidence suggesting that it is linked with an increase in green 1. 2. 3. 4.

house gases is something we can not ignore. Global warming is a global problem. It affects everyone. For these reasons, the precautionary principle should be followed. Anyone supporting the notion that we can continue to emit same amounts or more of the green house gases should have to provide evidence that it will not cause a damaging increase in the green house effect. 5.2.6 Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems. Global warming could have a number of disastrous consequences largely affecting the arctic ecosystems:

The arctic ice cap may disappear as glaciers start to melt and break up into icebergs. Permafrost will melt during the summer season which will increase the rate of decomposition of trapped organic matter, including peat and detritus. This in turn will increase the release of carbon dioxide which will increase the green house effect even further. Species adapted to temperature conditions will migrate north which will alter food chains and have consequences on the animals in the higher trophic levels. Marine species in the arctic water may become extinct as these are very sensitive to temperature changes within the sea water. Polar bears may face extinction as they loose their ice habitat and therefore can no longer feed or breed as they normally would. Pests and diseases may become quite common with rises in temperature. As the ice melts, sea levels will rise and flood low lying areas of land. Extreme weather events such as storms might become common and have disastrous effects on certain species.

5.3.1 Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration.
Natality: increases population size as offspring are added to the population. Immigration: increases population size as individuals have moved into the area from somewhere else and so this adds to the population. Mortality: decreases the population as some individuals get eaten, die of old age or get sick. Emigration: decreases the population as individuals have moved out of the area to go live somewhere else.

5.3.2 Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

5.3.3 Explain the reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases. The sigmoid graph showing the population growth of a species has three phases which are; the exponential phase, the transitional phase and the plateau phase. At the start of the sigmoid curve we can see the exponential phase. This is where there is a rapid increase in population growth as natality rate exceeds mortality rate. The reason for this is because there are abundant resources available such as food for all members of the population and diseases as well as predators are rare. As time passes, the population reaches the transitional phase. This is where the natality rate starts to fall and/or the mortality rate starts to rise. It is the result of a decrease in the abundance of resources, and an increase in the number of predators and diseases. However, even though population growth has decreased compared to the exponential phase, it is still increasing as natality rate still exceeds mortality rate. Finally, the population reaches the plateau phase. Here, the population

size is constant so no more growth is occurring. This is the result of natality rate being equal to mortality rate and is caused by resources becoming scarce as well as an increase in predators, diseases and parasites. These are the limiting factors to the population growth. If natality rate starts to drop then mortality rate will drop too as more resources become available. As natality rate starts to increase again so does mortality rate as resources become scarce. This keeps the population number relatively stable. If a population is limited by a shortage of resources then we say that it has reached the carrying capacity of the environment. Summary: Exponential phase:
1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Rapid increase in population growth. Natality rate exceeds mortality rate. Abundant resources available. (food, water, shelter) Diseases and predators are rare. Natality rate starts to fall and/or mortality rate starts to rise. There is a decrease in the number of resources. An increase in the number of predators and diseases. Population still increasing but at a slower rate. No more population growth, population size is constant. Natality rate is equal to mortality rate. The population has reached the carrying capacity of the environment. The limited resources and the common predators and diseases keep the population numbers constant.

Traditional phase:

Plateau phase:

5.3.4 List three factors that set limits to population increase.

1. Shortage of resources (e.g. food) 2. Increase in predators 3. Increase in diseases and parasites

3.7.1 Define cell respiration Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells to form ATP. 3.7.2 State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP. In cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate with a small yield of ATP. 3.7.3 Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP.

In anaerobic cell respiration the pyruvate stays in the cytoplasm and in humans is converted into lactate which is the removed from the cell. In yeast the pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide and ethanol. In either case, no ATP is produced. 3.7.4 Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP. If oxygen is available, the pyruvate is taken up into the mitochondria and is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. A large amount of ATP is released during this process. 8.2.1 Draw and label a diagram showing the structures of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs.

Figure 8.2.1 - Chloroplast 8.2.2 State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions. Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions. 8.2.3 Explain the light-dependent reactions.

Photosynthesis occurs inside chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment found inside the thylakoid membranes. These chlorophyll molecules are arranged in groups called photosystems. There are two types of photosystems, Photosystem II and Photosystem I. When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light, the energy from this light raises an electron within the chlorophyll molecule to a higher energy state. The chlorophyll molecule is then said to be photoactivated. Excited electron anywhere within the photosystem are then passed on from one chlorophyll molecule to the next until they reach a special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre of the photosystem. This special chlorophyll molecule then passes on the excited electron to a chain of electron carriers. The light-dependent reactions starts within Photosystem II. When the excited electron reaches the special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre of Photosystem II it is passed on to the chain of electron carriers. This chain of electron carriers is found within the thylakoid membrane. As this excited electron passes from one carrier to the next it releases energy. This energy is used to pump protons (hydrogen ions) across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within the thylakoids. This forms a proton gradient. The protons can travel back across the membrane, down the concentration gradient, however to do so they must pass through ATP synthase. ATP synthase is located in the thylakoid membrane and it uses the energy released from the movement of protons down their concentration gradient to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The synthesis of ATP in this manner is called non-cyclic photophosphorylation (uses the energy of excited electrons from photosystem II) . The electrons from the chain of electron carriers are then accepted by Photosystem I. These electrons replace electrons previously lost from Photosystem I. Photosystem I then absorbs light and becomes photoactivated. The electrons become excited again as they are raised to a higher energy state. These excited electrons then pass along a short chain of electron carriers and are eventually used to reduce NADP+ in the stroma. NADP+ accepts two excited electrons from the chain of carriers and one H+ ion from the stroma to form NADPH. If the light intensity is not a limiting factor, there will usually be a shortage of NADP+ as NADPH accumulates within the stroma (see light independent reaction). NADP+ is needed for the normal flow of electrons

in the thylakoid membranes as it is the final electron acceptor. If NADP+ is not available then the normal flow of electrons is inhibited. However, there is an alternative pathway for ATP production in this case and it is called cyclic photophosphorylation. It begins with Photosystem I absorbing light and becoming photoactivated. The excited electrons from Photosystem I are then passed on to a chain of electron carriers between Photosystem I and II. These electrons travel along the chain of carriers back to Photosystem I and as they do so they cause the pumping of protons across the thylakoid membrane and therefore create a proton gradient. As explained previously, the protons move back across the thylakoid membrane through ATP synthase and as they do so, ATP is produced. Therefore, ATP can be produced even when there is a shortage of NADP+. In addition to producing NADPH, the light dependent reactions also produce oxygen as a waste product. When the special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre passes on the electrons to the chain of electron carriers, it becomes positively charged. With the aid of an enzyme at the reaction centre, water molecules within the thylakoid space are split. Oxygen and H+ ions are formed as a result and the electrons from the splitting of these water molecules are given to chlorophyll. The oxygen is then excreted as a waste product. This splitting of water molecules is called photolysis as it only occurs in the presence of light. 8.2.4 Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. Photophosphorylation is the production of ATP using the energy of sunlight. Photophosphorylation is made possible as a result of chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their concentration gradient. During photosynthesis, light is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules. Electrons within these molecules are then raised to a higher energy state. These electrons then travel through Photosystem II, a chain of electron carriers and Photosystem I. As the electrons travel through the chain of electron carriers, they release energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within the thylakoid. A concentration gradient of hydrogen ions forms within this space. These then move back across the thylakoid membrane, down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy released from the movement of hydrogen

ions down their concentration gradient to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. 8.2.5 Explain the light-independant reactions. The light-independant reactions of photosynthesis occur in the stroma of the chloroplast and involve the conversion of carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. The light-independent reactions can be split into three stages, these are carbon fixation, the reduction reactions and finally the regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate. Collectively these stages are known as the Calvin Cycle. During carbon fixation, carbon dioxide in the stroma (which enters the chloroplast by diffusion) reacts with a five-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form a six-carbon compound. This reaction is catalysed by an enzyme called ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (large amounts present within the stroma), otherwise known as rubisco. As soon as the six-carbon compound is formed, it splits to form two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is then used in the reduction reactions. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced during the reduction reactions to a three-carbon sugar called triose phosphate. Energy and hydrogen is needed for the reduction and these are supplied by ATP and NADPH + H+ (both produced during light-dependent reactions) respectively. Two triose phosphate molecules can then react together to form glucose phosphate. The condensation of many molecules of glucose phosphate forms starch which is the form of carbohydrate stored in plants. However, out of six triose phosphates produced during the reduction reactions, only one will be used to synthesise glucose phosphate. The five remaining triose phosphates will be used to regenerate RuBP. The regeneration of RuBP is essential for carbon fixation to continue. Five triose phosphate molecules will undergo a series of reactions requiring energy from ATP, to form three molecules of RuBP. RuBP is therefore consumed and produced during the light-independent reactions and therefore these reactions form a cycle which is named the Calvin cycle. 8.2.6 Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function. The stroma - Contains many enzymes, including rubisco, which are important for the reactions of the Calvin cycle.

The thylakoids - Have a large surface area for light absorption and the space within them allows rapid accumulation of protons. 8.2.7 Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants. The action spectrum of photosynthesis is a graph showing the rate of photosynthesis for each wavelength of light. The rate of photosynthesis will not be the same for every wavelength of light. The rate of photosynthesis is the least with green-yellow light (525 nm-625 nm). Red-orange light (625nm-700nm) shows a good rate of photosynthesis however the best rate of photosynthesis is seen with violet-blue light (400nm-525nm). An absorption spectrum is a graph showing the percentage of light absorbed by pigments within the chloroplast, for each wavelength of light. An example is the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a and b. The best absorption is seen with violet-blue light. There is also good absorption with red-orange light. However most of the green-yellow light is reflected and therefore not absorbed. This wavelength of light shows the least absorption. As we can see, there is a close relationship between the action spectrum and absorption spectrum of photosynthesis. There are many different types of photosynthetic pigments which will absorb light best at different wavelengths. However the most abundant photosynthetic pigment in plants is chlorophyll and therefore the rate of photosynthesis will be the greatest at wavelengths of light best absorbed by chlorophyll (400nm525nm corresponding to violet-blue light). Very little light is absorbed by chlorophyll at wavelengths of light between 525nm and 625 (greenyellow light) so the rate of photosynthesis will be the least within this range. However, there are other pigments that are able to absorb greenyellow light such as carotene. Even though these are present in small amounts they allow a low rate of photosynthesis to occur at wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot absorb. 8.2.8 Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide. A limiting factor is a factor that controls a process. Light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration are all factors which can control the rate of photosynthesis. Usually, only one of these factors will be the limiting factor in a plant at a certain time. This is the factor which

is the furthest from its optimum level at a particular point in time. If we change the limiting factor the rate of photosynthesis will change but changes to the other factors will have no effect on the rate. If the levels of the limiting factor increase so that this factor is no longer the furthest from its optimum level, the limiting factor will change to the factor which is at that point in time, the furthest from its optimum level. For example, at night the limiting factor is likely to be the light intensity as this will be the furthest from its optimum level. During the day, the limiting factor is likely to switch to the temperature or the carbon dioxide concentration as the light intensity increases. So how can these factors have an effect on the rate of photosynthesis? Lets start off with the light intensity. When the light intensity is poor, there is a shortage of ATP and NADPH, as these are products from the light dependent reactions. Without these products the light independent reactions can't occur as glycerate 3-phosphate cannot be reduced. Therefore a shortage of these products will limit the rate of photosynthesis. When the carbon dioxide concentration is low, the amount of glycerate 3-phosphate produced is limited as carbon dioxide is needed for its production and therefore the rate of photosynthesis is affected. Finally, many enzymes are involved during the process of photosynthesis. At low temperatures these enzymes work slower. At high temperatures the enzymes no longer work effectively. This affects the rate of the reactions in the Calvin cycle and therefore the rate of photosynthesis will be affected.
Option G.1 Ecology of Species G.1.1 Outline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species including temperature, water, light, soil pH, salinity, and mineral nutrients. High temperatures denature enzymes and retards growth of plants; the rate of transpiration is also increased. Low temperatures decrease enzyme activity and freezing temperatures inactivate enzymes. Most plants live in moderate temperature zones. Water is needed for enzyme activity, transport, photosynthesis, support, and many other things. There is a low diversity of plants in deserts and polar regions. Light is important for photosynthesis and flowering. Dark areas have small amounts of plants. Soil pH is important for absortion of nutrients. If the soil is acidic, desertification can occur, the use of limestone can neutralize the soil. Salinity has an affect on the absorption through osmosis. High salinity causes plants to lose water through osmosis. Halopohytes live in high salinity. Mineral nutrients are needed for many vital functions. Nitrogen is needed to manufacture proteins, enzymes, nucleotides, vitamins, and other compounds.

G.1.2 Explain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species including temperature, water, breeding sites, food supply and territory. High animal distribution according to temperature is found in the tropical rain forest due to the suitability of temperature and high availiability of producers as starters of food chains and webs. Water is needed for vital functions, so there is low animal distribution is deserts. Breeding sites are needed for growth and protection of young. High animal diversity is found in areas with varied topographical nature. Food supply is important for survival since animals are heterotrophs. High animal diversity is once again found in the rain forest. Some animals are territorial and need large areas for feeding, mating, and protecting their young. Some are territorial during breeding season and occupy areas to prevents others from approaching them. There is high animal distribution where there is room to occupy territoryand defend against other members of the species.

G.1.3 Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of overlap.

G.1.4 Explain what is meant by the niche concept, including an organism's spatial habitat, its feeding activities and its interactions with other organisms. No two species can live in the same niche, therefore there is competition for the resources of the land and only one species will survive. A niche is the total factors, biotoic and abiotic to one species.

G.1.5 Explain the principle of competitve exclusion. First proposed by Lokta and Volterra, competitive exclusion is where two species need the same resources and will compete until one species is removed. Inevitably, one would be more capable of gathering more resources or reproducing more rapidly until the other was run out of existence. Later experiments with bacteria populations in the lab of Russian ecologist G.F. Gause demonstrated this concept scientifically. This principle was termed competitive exclusion.

Option G.2 Ecology of Communities G.2.2 Explain the following iunteractions between species, giving two examples of each: competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism, and mutualism. Competition is when two species need the same resource such as a breeding site or food. It will result in the removal of one of the species. Bacteria will display this manner. Herbivory is the relation between an animal and a plant. Different animals feed on different plants. Deer feed on tree leaves, rabbit feed on grass, giraffes on trees. Predation is the relation between the predator, which is usually bigger, and the prey, which is usually smaller. An

example would be a fox and a rabbit. Parasitism is the relation between the host and the parasite. The parasite causes harm to the host to get food and other resources. Examples of parasites are some viruses, fungi, worms, bacteria, and protazoa. Mutualism is where two members of different species benefit and neither suffers. Examples include rumen bacteria/protazoa that digest cellulose in the digestive systems of cows, providing the cow with an energy source and the bacteria with a stable habitat. Lichens and Chlorella/Chlorohydra, an algae, also exhibit such a relation. The lichen provide an means of attaching to the surface, and the algae photosynthesize to produce a added source of sugars and nutrients. G.2.2 Define gross production, net production, and biomass. Gross production is the amount of material fixed by plants in the process of photosythesis. Net production is the amount of material that stays in the body of the plant after spending some material on respiration. Biomass is the dry weight of organic matter comprising a group of organisms in a particular habitat.

G.2.3 Calculate values for gross production, net production, and biomass from given data. Gross Production - Respiration = Net Production

G.2.4 Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels. It is difficult due to the fact that some organisms can be secondary, tertiary, and may be quaternary consumers at the same time, such as humans. It is difficult to place them on a certain level of the food pyramid. For this reason, an alternate method of classificationthe food web- has been developed. The food web displays relationships not as a simple hierarchy but rather a complex network, with the various feeding relationships between species existing as connections and the animals themselves existing as the hubs.

G.2.5 Explain the small biomass and low numbers of organisms in higher trophic levels. There is small amount of organisms in the higher trophic levels because as the levels get higher, the amount of energy from feeding on the level below them is very low, making it difficult to survive. Energy is lost between levels in the form of heat (respiration), waste, and death.

G.2.6 Construct a pyramid of energy given appropriate information. The lowest bar of the pyramid of energy represents gross primary productivity, the next bar is the energy ingested as food by primary consumers, and so on. The units are energy per unit area per unit time.

G.2.7 Describe ecological succession using one example

Ecological succession is the gradual change in the composition of a community with time in an ecosystem. If succession occurs in a lifeless area, it is primary succession. It can start after things such as volcanoes, fire or flood. Lichens inhabit a rock and over time, the face of the rock changes. This makes the rock now inviting to mosses. Later, ferns arrive through the activity of their roots, causing furthur changes to the rock, so soil formation starts to occur. Then flowering trees grow, then conifers, and other larger trees.

G.2.8 Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment with reference to the changes occurring during ecological succession to climax communities. Living organisms can help with soil development, as a plant grows, their roots grow deeper down and break rock into small particles, helping soil formation. Plants enrich the soil with minerals as they die and decompose. The plant roots hold the soil particles together, preventing soil erosion. Plants can grow heavily in a certain area that might result in blocking river flow and altering its direction. Plants can contribute to the water cycle through the process of transpiration. The water that evaporates from the leaves condenses and comes down in the form of rain. The presence of organic materials in the soil and the presence of roots and root hair help in the retention of water and slows down drainage.

Option G.3 Biodiversity and Conservation G.3.1 Discuss reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an example. Reasons should include ethical, ecological, economic, and aesthetic arguments. Biodiversity is highest in the tropical rainforests. Ethical reasons for conserving biodiversity are that all species have a right to live on this planet. Ecological reasons are that species live with great interaction and dependence on each other. If one species dies out, a food chain is disrupted, therefore disrupting all of the other species as well. Aesthetic reasons are that the tropical rain forest is one of the most beautiful attractions on this planet. There is variety everywhere in the rainforest. Economic reasons are that the rainforest is a source of materials important to human life. Medicinal substances can be taken from a veriety of plants in the rain forest, and ecotourism offers a new source of funds for the many impoverished nations these forests exist in.

G.3.2 Outline the factors that caused the extincion of one named animal and one named plant species. The Arizona Jaguar became extinct due to an increased demand for its fur. As the human population increased in the areas inhabited by the jaguar, the hunting and shooting increased and the last of this rare animal was shot in 1905 in New Mexico. The Fluffy groundsel is a kind of herbal plant with clusters of yellow flowers. It became extinct because of farming, building, road construction and other sorts of human impact in the American Soutwest.

G.3.3 Outline the use of the Simpson diversity index.

D = (N(N-1))/(summation of n(n-1)). D is the diversity index, N is the total number of organisms of all species found, n is the number of individuals of a particular species. The Simpson diversity index is a measure of species richness. A high value of D suggests a stable and ancient site and a low D value could suggest pollution, recent colonization or agricultural management. The index is mormally used in studies of vegetation but can also be applied to comparisons of animal (or even all species) diversity.

G.3.4 Explain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change. Indicator species are highly sensitive to environmental changes and their populations increase or decrease significantly depending on changes in the enironment. It is a good indicator of change. Biotic indices, the numbers of organisms in the indicator species populations, can be measured directly so they are easy to keep track of.

G.3.5 Outline the damage caused to marine ecosystems by the over-exploitation of fish. If the population of fish is overexploited and the number of adult fish fall below a critical level, spawning fails witch can destroy the fish industry and the fish population.

G.3.6 Discuss the international measures that would promote the conservation of fish. International measures that could be taken are monitoring of stocks and of reproduction rates, quotas for catches of species with low stocks, moratoria on catching endangered species, minimum net sizes, so that immature fish are not caught, and banning of drift nets, which catch many different species of fish indiscriminately.

G.3.7 Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic nature reserves). These are places where the animal is found in its own natural habitat and is not allowed to be overtaken by humans and their activities. This keeps the animals out of danger zones and allows them to live and reproduce naturally in its own environment. Most animals typically tend to survive at a much greater rate using in situ conservation, and preserving their habitat allows other species to live there also, thus preserving other animals and biodiversity.

G.3.8 Outline the management of nature reserves. A nature reserve is maintained by controlling alien species. Those that are not originally supposed to be in the area are not allowed to be in there. They restore degraded areas where human impact has destroyed the ecosystem by methods such as reforestation and species reintroduction. They promote the recovery of threatened species. They also control the exploitation by humans. Logging is controlled along with land clearing. If trees are cut down, more are planted.

G.3.9 Outline the use of ex situ conservation measures including captive breeding of animals, botanic gardens, and seed banks. For captive breeding, animals kept in zoos or parks are allowed to reproduce in order to give them a chance to increase in number, with the possibility of eventually releasing some of the offspring into the wild. Botanic gardins are where most of the known plant species are planted in controlled environments to maintain their species. Seed banks are where seeds are kept, since they stay in good condition for thousands of years.

G.3.10 Discuss the role of international agencies and conservation measures including CITES and WWF. The IUCN works on conserving biological diversity and protecting species and their habitats. CITES aims to control and regulate cross-border trade in wildlife and wildlife products. WWF attempts to save biodiversity and wildlife. They try to keep areas clear of being cut down by buying large pieces of land and establish them as nature reserves. In Rio de Janeiro, a convention was held to discuss and begin to conserve biological diversity, and to sustain use of its components and the fair sharing of the benefits arising from its utilization (including genetic resources).

Option G.4 The Nitrogen Cycle G.4.1 State that all chemical elements occuring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles and that these cycles involve water, land and the atmosphere. All chemical elements occuring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles and these cycles involve water, land and the atmosphere.

G.4.2 Explain that all biogeochemical cycles summarize the movement of elements through the biological components of ecosystems (food chains) to form complex organic molecules, and subsequently simpler inorganic forms which can be used again. Biogeochemical cycles are the cycling of compounds in an ecosystem. Free nitrogen, biomass nitrate, that goes into plants and bacteria through the process of nitrogen fixation. Other bacteria also release free nitrogen back into the air. If plants die, deamination occurs, ammonia is formed, oxidation occurs, nitrate is formed, more oxidation occurs, more nitrate is formed, then it can follow this path through another plant again or go to bacteria. This nitrogen cycle is not the only one present in an ecosystem that returns complex molecules to simple and simple to complex over and over again. The vast majority of other organic substances, such as amino acids, also are recycled in this manner, thus allowing ecosystems to survive without a constant influx of new organisms or nutrients. < /UL> G.4.3 Explain that chemoautotrophs can oxidize inorganic substances as a direct energy source to synthesize ATP. o Only bacteria can make their food through chemoautotrophy. They create chemical reactions utilizing inorganic substances, such as nitrates, ammonia and sulfur. The

oxidization of these substances results in energy. The energy is then used to fix carbon dioxide into glucose. G.4.4 State that chemoautotrophy is found only among bacteria. o Chemoautotrophy is found only among bacteria.

G.4.5 Draw a diagram of a nitrogen cycle.

G.4.6 Outline the roles of Rhizobium, Azobacter, Nitrosomonous, Nitrobacter and

Pseudomonas dentrificans in the nitrogen cycle.

o Rhizobium is a nirogen fixing bacteria that can create nitrate. Azobacter does the same thing. Nitosomonous oxidizes ammonia to form nitrite. Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrite to form nitrate. Pseudomonas is a dentrifying bacteria that creates free nitrogen in the air from nitrate. The first four of these take inorganic nitrogen compounds found in the soil and transform them into a substance that can be used by plants. The last serves the same purpose- cycling nitrogen out of the soil- but instead transforms nitrogen compounds in the soil into atmospheric nitrogen.

G.4.7 Describe the conditions that favor dentrification and nitrification.

A harmful type of bacteria is called dentrifying bacteria. This breaks nitrate into free nitrogen. This decreases soil fertility and plant growth in these soils becomes poor. This kind of bacteria is usually found in water logged soils. Water logging results in poor aeration and deficiency of oxygen in the soil. Nitrification occurs in ploughed soil because then the oxygen gets into the soil and makes it unfavorable for dentrifying bacteria.

G.4.8 Discuss the action taken by farmers/gardners to increase the nitrogen fertility of the soil including fertilizers, plowing /digging and crop rotation (use of legumes). o Farmers plough the soil to make air between the soil particles. The oxygen makes it an unfavorable condition for dentrifying bacteria, thus preventing them from removing nitrogen compounds needed for plant growth from the soil. Fertilizers are another option used to ensure proper nitrogen levels in the soil: processed from inorganic nitrogen, they provide a guaranteed heavy source of nitrogen compounds to plants. However, they have a tendency to leach out of the soil rapidly, and can often harm to the surrounding environment. The final method, crop rotation, involves rotating crop planting between the crop the farmer wishes to grow and some kind of legume crop. Legumes form symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, allowing these bacteria to produce their own source of nitrates from inorganic or atmospheric nitrogen. Under favorable conditions, these plants can produce enough excess nitrogen that it renews the soil's store of nitrates capable of being used by plants next year. The following year, non-legume crops are planted on the field the legumes previously grown on.

Option G.5 Impacts of Humans on Ecosystems G.5.1 Describe the role of atmospheric ozone in absorbing ultra violet (UV) radiation. The ozone absorbs UV light, and the molecules of the ozone layer are broken into 3 oxygen atoms. The atoms of oxygen are highly reactive and they combine again to form ozone. In doing this, they release heat. This results in the conversion of UV light energy into heat energy.

G.5.2 Outline the effects of UV radiaiton on living tissues and biological productivity. UV radiation can kill phytoplankton, the sea-going organisms that account for a significant portion of net photosynthesis that occurs in the biosphere. The radiation can also retard growth of terrestrial plants by slowing their rate of photosynthesis, usually a result of radiative damage and subsequent mutations caused in plant leaves. High levels of UV light can also kill symbiotic bacteria that fixes nitrogen in the root nodules of legumes. UV rays cause skin cancer in humans in prolonged exposure or in very high dosages, and can also weaken and potentially destroy the cells of the immune system.

G.5.3 Outline the chemical effect of chlorine on the ozone layer.

Chlorine reacts with ozone and breaks it irreversibly into oxygen. One chlorine can break thousands of ozone molecules. This leads to depletion of the ozone layer and the passage of UV light through the ozone hole.

G.5.4 Discuss methods of reducing the manufacture and release of ozone depleting substances including recycling refrigerants, reducing production of gas-blown plastics and using CFC-free propellants. To reduce the release of ozone depleting substances, filters can be fitted on factory chimneys to absorb and react with gases before they escape into the atmosphere, desulfurisation (removal of sulfur) of gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere, using alternative sources of energy such as wind, hycroelectric, waves, solar, tidal, geothermal and others, use of methane and alcohol as fuels since they do not release sulfur and other harmful gases into the atmosphere. Two of the largest sources of ozonedepleting substances come from the production of recycling refrigerants and the use of chlorfluorocarbons (CFCs) for propellants in spray cans, hairspray, etc. In order to reduce these sources, a ban on CFC-based propllents has been enacted, and most corporations now recycle the refrigerants used rather than produce entirely new ones.

G.5.5 Outline the consequences of releasing raw sewage and nitrate fertilizer into rivers. Water polluted by raw sewage and nitrate fertilizers will become rich in nutrients (called eutrophication). The algae absorb large amounts of nitrates and this results in a quick growth and reproduction of these algae and so the ecosystem becomes overpopulated with algae (algal blooms). This blocks the sun from reaching the photosynthesizers at deeper levels and blocks the entry of carbon dioxide and oxygen from the atmosphere. The algae hit their carrying capacity and start to die quickly encouraging the growth of bacteria which increase the biochemical oxygen demand. They consume a large amount of oxygen and this results in deoxygenation and aerobic organisms starts to die. Finally, anaerobic bacteria such as disease causing bacteria and some parasties come in. This makes it a bad spot for anything to survive in. Raw sewages can also release pathogens into the bathing and drinking water supplies, causing the risk of human and animal infection when this water is used.

G.5.6 Outline the origin, formation and biological consequences of acid precipitation on plants and animals. Acid precipitation occurs primarily because of the presence in the atmosphere of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides that react with water in the air to form acids. It can come from smokestacks and industries. Once it falls, it can affect the solubility of minerals in the soil. It can lower the pH of lakes and contaminate freshwater habitats. It affects fish, amphibians and aquatic invertabrates the most, due to the destruction of their freshwater lake and river environment.

G.5.7 State that biomass can be used as a source of fuels such as methane and ethanol.

Biomass can be used as a source of fuels such as methane and ethanol.

G.5.8 Explain the principles involved in the generation of methane from biomass, including the conditions needed, organisms involved and the basic chemical reactions that occur. Organic rubbish such as remains of food, are placed in a sealed container. Methanogenic bacteria such as methanobacillus and methanococcus are added. The container must be sealed to ensure anaerobic reactions. Bacteria decompose organic material in the rubbish to methanoate, ethanoate or methanol. Bacteria use these things as a source of hydrogen (electrons). The hydrogen is used to reduce carbon dioxide into methane. The methane is then released. This can be a source of fuel in factories and industries.