Unused

Radio Frequency (RF) Measurement and Control
Project Report (TECQ001)

International SEMATECH
Technology Transfer 96063138C-ENG
1998 SEMATECH, Inc.
SEMATECH and the SEMATECH logo are registered service marks of SEMATECH, Inc.
Product names and company names used in this publication are for identification purposes only and may be trademarks or service
marks of their respective companies
Radio Frequency (RF) Measurement and Control Project Report
(TECQ001)
Technology Transfer # 96063138C-ENG
International SEMATECH
September 10, 1998
Abstract: This document is a revision of 96063138B-ENG. It describes the technical achievements of the
Plasma Etch Technology Radio Frequency (RF) Power Measurement and Control Project
(TECQ001), which spanned two years from mid-1994 to mid-1996. The document details the
conception, design, development, and prototyping of an advanced concept RF power delivery
system, which incorporates new technologies. Background information, detailed circuitry and
component designs, and mathematical examinations are included. Additional reduction-to-practice
assembly and circuit tuning information can be obtained by contacting the SEMATECH project
manager or the SEMATECH Calibration Laboratory. Revision C changes the classification of the
document from SEMATECH Confidential Restricted to SEMATECH Non-Confidential and
includes a Foreword describing the technical developments for which SEMATECH has applied
for patents.
Keywords: Equipment Performance, RF Sensors, Plasma Etching, Etching Equipment, Electrical
Measurement
Authors: Tony Moore (SEMATECH/ORNL); Gil Yetter (SEMATECH); Travis Spratlin (ORNL); Charlie
Nowlin (ORNL)
Approvals: Gil Yetter, Author/Project Manager
Ray Delk, Director, Internal Technical Support
Jeanne Cranford, Technical Information Transfer Team Leader
iii
Technology Transfer #96063138C-ENG International SEMATECH
Table of Contents
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY....................................................................................................... 1
2 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Logistical Approach.......................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Technical Overview.......................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Vision of the Future .......................................................................................................... 7
3 ANALYTICAL RF POWER METROLOGY.......................................................................... 8
3.1 Analytical RF Sensor Based on First Principles............................................................... 9
3.1.1 Current Signal Sampling Component of RF Sensor ............................................ 17
3.1.2 Voltage Signal Sampling Component of RF Sensor............................................ 23
3.1.3 Integrated RF Sensor Analysis............................................................................. 31
3.2 Harmonic Filtering.......................................................................................................... 34
3.3 Detector Electronics........................................................................................................ 42
3.3.1 Phase Detector Method........................................................................................ 43
3.3.2 I-Q Detector Method............................................................................................ 51
4 POWER DELIVERY SYSTEM............................................................................................. 58
4.1 Saturable Reactor Technology........................................................................................ 59
4.2 No Moving Parts, Fast Matching Network Design......................................................... 63
5 A UNIQUE COMPUTER CONTROL STRATEGY............................................................. 72
5.1 Architecture and Design Strategy................................................................................... 72
5.1.1 The Software Story .............................................................................................. 72
5.1.2 Computer Hardware Design................................................................................. 73
5.1.3 Computer Software Design.................................................................................. 73
5.2 Implementation ............................................................................................................... 75
5.2.1 Hardware Implementation.................................................................................... 75
5.2.2 Software Implementation..................................................................................... 75
5.2.3 RF User Interface................................................................................................. 78
5.2.4 Query Module ...................................................................................................... 83
5.3 Computer System Lessons Learned................................................................................ 84
5.3.1 Use a Real-Time Operating System..................................................................... 85
5.3.2 Use Proven Hardware .......................................................................................... 85
5.3.3 Use a User Interface Builder................................................................................ 85
5.3.4 Query InterfaceSeparate Conversations........................................................... 86
5.3.5 Integrate Early and Often..................................................................................... 86
5.4 RF Computer Control System Requirements that Guided the Project ........................... 86
6 OVERALL RF POWER MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................... 87
7 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................... 93
APPENDIX A Derivation of Current Loop Sensor .................................................................. 94
A.1 Basic Theory................................................................................................................... 94
A.2 Solution for Two Coaxial Conductors ............................................................................ 98
A.3 References..................................................................................................................... 102
APPENDIX B Derivation of Voltage Pickup Probe Sensor................................................... 103
iv
International SEMATECH Technology Transfer # 96063138C-ENG
List of Figures
Figure 1 Evolution of the RF Sensor Prototypes ................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Completely Assembled RF Sensor with a Clear Housing....................................... 5
Figure 3 RF Sensor Components........................................................................................... 9
Figure 4 RF Sensor Components With the Current Loop Inside the Hollow Center
RF Power Conductor............................................................................................. 10
Figure 5 Cross Section of RF Sensor to Show Current Pickup Loop and Voltage
Pickup Probe Placement........................................................................................ 11
Figure 6 RF Sensor with N-Type Connectors ..................................................................... 12
Figure 7 Sensor Assembly with 1/4-20 Bolt Connections .................................................. 12
Figure 8 Hollow Center Conductor Positioned in Sensor Body.......................................... 13
Figure 9 Voltage Pickup Assembly Positioned in Sensor Body.......................................... 13
Figure 10 Current Pickup Loop and Teflon Insulator Installed in Sensor Body,
Penetrating the Hollow Center Conductor ............................................................ 14
Figure 11 Sensor Assembly with Teflon Center Conductor Positioning End Pieces............ 14
Figure 12 Sensor Assembly with Metal End Plates Installed................................................ 15
Figure 13 Sensor Assembly with N-Type Connectors Installed ........................................... 15
Figure 14 Sensor Assembly with Screws Installed ............................................................... 16
Figure 15 Assembled RF Sensor ........................................................................................... 16
Figure 16 Exploded View of RF Sensor................................................................................ 17
Figure 17 Magnetic Flux Space............................................................................................. 18
Figure 18 Magnetic Flux Linked Area .................................................................................. 18
Figure 19 RF Power Magnetic Energy Coupling Area ......................................................... 19
Figure 20 Magnetic Flux Illustration of Fundamental Laws ................................................. 19
Figure 21 Linked Magnetic Flux Geometric Area ................................................................ 20
Figure 22 Network Analyzer Plot of Magnetic Field Signal Coupling Response................. 22
Figure 23 Schematic Representation of Current Pickup Loop.............................................. 22
Figure 24 Schematic Illustration of Voltage Sensor.............................................................. 23
Figure 25 Network Analyzer Plot of Voltage Pickup Symmetry by Superimposing
Forward and Reverse Repsonse Data.................................................................... 24
Figure 26 Geometric Relationship for Voltage Sensor Plate................................................. 25
Figure 27 Schematic Illustration of the Realized Voltage Probe/Divider Circuit ................. 25
Figure 28 Schematic Representation of Thevinin Current Perspective................................. 25
Figure 29 Transform to a Voltage with Series Impedance Schematic .................................. 26
v
Figure 30 Simplified Voltage Sensor Schematic................................................................... 26
Figure 31 Voltage Probe Design Space................................................................................. 28
Figure 32 Voltage Probe Radial Geometry Illustration......................................................... 28
Figure 33 Voltage Probe E Field Coupling Illustration......................................................... 29
Figure 34 Network Analyzer Plot of Voltage Pickup Coupling Reponse............................. 30
Figure 35 Network Analyzer Plot of Current Loop Pickup Symmetry by Plotting of
Forward and Reverse Current Responses.............................................................. 32
Figure 36 Network Analyzer Plot of N-Type Barrel Insertion Loss at 13.56 MHz .............. 32
Figure 37 Network Analyzer Plot of RF Sensor Insertion Loss at 13.56 MHz..................... 33
Figure 38 Network Analyzer Plot of an N-Type Barrel VSWR at 13.56 MHz..................... 33
Figure 39 Network Analyzer Plot of RF Sensor VSWR at 13.56 MHz................................ 34
Figure 40 TDR Impedance Plot of an RF Sensor Prototype ................................................. 34
Figure 41 Complete Dual Channel RF Harmonic Filter........................................................ 35
Figure 42 Dual Channel RF Harmonic Filter with Cover Off............................................... 35
Figure 43 Initial Harmonic Filter Design Schematic............................................................. 36
Figure 44 Final Harmonic Filter Design Schematic.............................................................. 37
Figure 45 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Frequency Response ........................ 37
Figure 46 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Bandpass Insertion Loss................... 37
Figure 47 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Phase Shift at 13.56 MHz................. 38
Figure 48 Differential Phase versus Temperature for the Two Filter Channels.................... 39
Figure 49 Network Analyzer Plot of the Input Impedance of the Harmonic Filter............... 40
Figure 50 Network Analyzer Plot of the Output Impedance of the Harmonic Filter ............ 40
Figure 51 Silkscreen Layout of PCB for Dual Filter Assembly............................................ 41
Figure 52 Layout of the Components of the Dual Harmonic Filter Assembly ..................... 41
Figure 53 Schematic of Harmonic Filter ............................................................................... 42
Figure 54 Complete Phase Detector Assembly ..................................................................... 44
Figure 55 Phase Detector with Cover Off ............................................................................. 44
Figure 56 PD4 Phase Detector Linearity Plot........................................................................ 45
Figure 57 PD4 Magnitude Detector Linearity Plot................................................................ 45
Figure 58 Silkscreen Layout of the Top Side of the PD4 Phase Detector PCB.................... 46
Figure 59 Silkscreen Layout of the Bottom Side of the PD4 Phase Detector PCB............... 46
Figure 60 Layout of the Components on the Top Side of the PD4 Phase Detector .............. 47
Figure 61 Layout of the Components on the Bottom Side of the PD4 Phase Detector......... 48
vi
Figure 62 Schematic of PD4 Phase Magnitude Detector ...................................................... 49
Figure 63 Complete I-Q Detector Assembly......................................................................... 51
Figure 64 I-Q Detector Assembly with Cover Off ................................................................ 52
Figure 65 I-Q Detector Modeled and Measured VARS Data Superimposed........................ 53
Figure 66 I-Q Detector Linearity Performance ..................................................................... 54
Figure 67 Silkscreen Layout of the Top Side of I-Q Detector PCB...................................... 54
Figure 68 Silkscreen Layout of the Bottom Side of I-Q Detector PCB................................ 55
Figure 69 Layout of Components on the Top Side of I-Q Detector PCB............................. 55
Figure 70 Layout of Components on the Bottom Side of I-Q Detector PCB........................ 56
Figure 71 Schematic of I-Q Detector..................................................................................... 57
Figure 72 Complete Saturable Reactor.................................................................................. 59
Figure 73 Classical Implementation of Saturable Reactors................................................... 60
Figure 74 Complete Saturable Reactor.................................................................................. 61
Figure 75 Cutaway of Saturable Reactor Showing RF Inductor Coil ................................... 62
Figure 76 Illustration of RF Bucking Wiring Method........................................................... 63
Figure 77 Ampere Turns versus R, Q, and X Data for a Saturable Reactor Design
that had Two RF Turns per Core (used on the first matcher prototype) ............... 64
Figure 78 Saturable Reactor Assembly ................................................................................. 64
Figure 79 Interior of the High Speed RF Matching Network Prototype ............................... 65
Figure 80 Matching Network Operating Profile Plot ............................................................ 65
Figure 81 Prototype Matcher Design..................................................................................... 66
Figure 82 RF Match Network Tuning Control Current versus Tuning Range Plot .............. 67
Figure 83 Final Matcher Design............................................................................................ 67
Figure 84 Match Network Input Transformer Assembly ...................................................... 69
Figure 85 Match Network Output Transformer Assembly.................................................... 69
Figure 86 RF Matcher, Saturable Reactor Current Drive Regulator Schematic ................... 70
Figure 87 Matcher RF Deck Schematic................................................................................. 71
Figure 88 System Block Diagram of Hardware .................................................................... 74
Figure 89 Logical Design ...................................................................................................... 74
Figure 90 Physical Design..................................................................................................... 75
Figure 91 RF Measurement and Control Design................................................................... 76
Figure 92 RF User Interface Design...................................................................................... 78
Figure 93 Main Panel............................................................................................................. 79
vii
Figure 94 System Level Control Panel.................................................................................. 80
Figure 95 Operation Mode Panel........................................................................................... 80
Figure 96 Edit Sensor Calibration Panel ............................................................................... 81
Figure 97 Dynamic Display of Sensor/System Data Panel ................................................... 82
Figure 98 Data Archive Panel................................................................................................ 82
Figure 99 Performance Plot of the Complete RF Power Delivery System into a
Dynamic Step Change Plasma Simulating Linear Load ....................................... 88
Figure 100 Performance Plot of the Complete RF Power Delivery System Tuning
Control Signals (see Figure 99)............................................................................. 89
Figure 101 RF Power Delivery System Block Diagram......................................................... 89
Figure 102 Expanded Time Scale Performance Plot of the First Event (see Figure
100) Showing the Speed of Tuning and Power Delivery Control Accuracy ........ 90
Figure 103 Expanded Time Scale Plot of the Tuning Control Signals at the First Event
(see Figure 102)..................................................................................................... 90
Figure 104 Expanded Time Scale Performance Plot of the Second Event (see Figure
100) Showing the Speed of Tuning and Power Delivery Control Accuracy ........ 92
Figure 105 Expanded Time Scale Plot of the Tuning Control Signals at the Second
Event (see Figure 104) .......................................................................................... 92
Figure 106 RF Match Network Efficiency and Load Reactance Plot ..................................... 93
Figure 107 Surface Charge Boundary ..................................................................................... 95
Figure 108 Concentric Coaxial Conductors ............................................................................ 95
Figure 109 Magnetic Pickup Loop Representation ................................................................. 95

List of Tables
Table 1 Parts List for Harmonic Filter ............................................................................... 42
Table 2 Parts List for Phase Detector................................................................................. 50
Table 3 Parts List for I-Q Detector..................................................................................... 58

viii
Acknowledgements
Funds were made available from the Internal Technical Support (ITS) and Etch Divisions for
additional test equipment and prototyping efforts, which greatly helped the success of the
project. The manpower issue was never really resolved, mostly because talented RF engineers
are rare within the semiconductor industry. We utilized a variety of fabrication companies to
assist us where possible, borrowed folks from other SEMATECH departments and even had the
services of a retired ORNL employee who loves technical puzzles. The team changed its make
up from time to time, while the core team remained largely the same. Many long nights and
weekends were contributed by everyone, because we believed in the objectives at hand. In order
to stay focused, we often could not respond to unexpected management requests such as
variations of project-related gantt charts and rewordings of the initial plan or status reports. We
often used a hide-out office area located over the SEMATECH clean room between air handlers
and often resorted to staying at home to be able to focus on serious design problems. From time-
to-time, emails, phone calls, and pagers had to be left in the accumulate mode. Even worse were
the temptations to do many more variations of virtually every component we worked on.
Somehow, we somehow managed to resist the majority of our own temptations as well as the
requests from observers.
Norm Williams of the Plasma Etch Diagnostics department was the primary technical driver of
this area of investigation and was responsible for developing the scope of this project. Dick
Anderson, who previously worked with Norm at SEMATECH, had returned to ORNL where he
located Tony Moore and also provided a strong influence during contract negotiations and the
establishment of the Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) under which
the project was conducted. Tom Shannon, in the SEMATECH Contracts department, provided
guidance and many long hours of effort to formalize the final contract and memorandums
between SEMATECH, ORNL, Martin Marietta Energy Systems (later to become Lockheed
Martin Energy Research), DOE Washington, and Sandia National Laboratories.
The core team was lead by Tony Moore of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the first assignee
from a national laboratory. He was successfully integrated into our engineering culture while he
accomplished his goals. Tony has the capability of driving right to the crux of a problem, while
shedding all of the superfluous baggage. Tonys unique technical insight allows him to envision
solutions and inventions that solve problems and also survive the all too critical peer review
process while withstanding the test of time. He pursued his vision with tenacity while being
constantly mindful of contract deadlines and the fact that he represented the Instrumentation and
Controls Division back at ORNL as the first ambassador to SEMATECH. He left a lasting and
positive impression on everyone with whom he interactedthe technical staff of SEMATECH,
SEMATECH member companies, and the plasma etch system supplier SEMI/SEMATECH
member companies.
Our thanks to Tony and we wish him well upon his return to the ORNL technical staff in the
Instrumentation and Controls division.
ix
Tony coordinated a shadow team of staff members back at ORNL, keeping them busy working
on many of the technical aspects of the devices that were developed. Dennis Sparks was perhaps
the most valuable member in terms of total time spent on the project. Dennis is also the identified
co-inventor in the patent process on the analytical RF power sensor with Tony. Charlie Nowlin,
Tonys previous manager who retired from ORNL and attained the distinction of a Professor
Emeritus at ORNL, contributed thoughtful analysis on the mathematical model of the voltage
pickup portion of the sensor. Travis Spratlin conducted extensive modeling on the current pickup
portion of the sensor. Phil Ryan contributed modeling expertise from another vision of the
concepts. Bill Holmes spent many a day with us in Austin helping us turn circuit diagrams drawn
on the back of napkins into printed circuit boards, while training the Cal Lab technicians in how
to do it themselves in the process. Dan Hoffman and John Caughman contributed towards the
testing of functional prototypes and the initial work on a contingency plan to pursue high-speed
actuation of a vacuum variable capacitor design.
During Tony Moores assignment at SEMATECH, he was part of the Calibration Laboratory
staff working closely with Gil Yetter, the Section Leader. Gil was instrumental in the
management of this project from the conception stageworking with Norm Williamsall the
way through the end of the project. Gil relieved Tony of all of the management and logistical
functions to allow Tony to maintain a constant technical focus in order to stay on schedule. The
Cal-Lab technicians (Trace Beck, Craig Lopp, and Tim Folliet) provided Tony with fabrication
and test assistance throughout virtually every phase of the project. Cal-Lab part time student
interns (Scott Bushman and Scott Sparks) assisted Tony with a variety of services ranging from
custom software needs for bench test purposes to conducting experiments on a plasma reactor at
the University of Texas in Austin.
The project would not have been possible without the direct help of Norm Willliams and the
Etch Division directors, Ken Maxwell and John Martin. Ray Delk, director of the ITS
department, assisted the project team when possible to keep it on track and to provide additional
resources where needed. It must be stated that, in every aspect, this project was conducted as if it
were part of the Etch department and its staff, even though it resided in the Calibration
Laboratory, which is a support organization. The Plasma Etch FTAB monitored and ranked the
project quarterly.
The computer architecture team was led by Bob Flegal at SEMATECH and by Steve Hicks from
ORNL. Kathy Lewis and Abel Mireles of SEMATECH assisted Bob Flegal, while Ganesh Rao
assisted Steve Hicks back at ORNL, programming with a duplicate system. Steve visited
SEMATECH often, staying for extended periods, to perform operational tests that complimented
the routine FTPing of software modules back and forth to SEMATECH from ORNL, working
with Kathy Lewis. Ganesh worked some very long hours (often late into the nights) as the last
technical milestone approached when all the systems pieces were being integrated. His drive
and dedication, as the final hour of the deadline approached, literally saved us from being late.
The initial assistance we received from Charlie MeLear at Motorola was very valuable, even
though we later abandoned the equipment set on which he specialized.
Members of the SEMATECH Plasma Etch Diagnostics department, Victoria Resta and Dave
Rasmussen, provided assistance a number times and we thank them very much for doing so.
Paul Miller of Sandia National Laboratories provided technical insight and performed an analysis
on a prototype RF Sensor. His contributions were very valuable because they helped to monitor
our progress from another perspective.
x
Karen Blair, the administrative support for the Cal Lab, provided a wide range of services that
started with the project proposal all the way to this document. Sandra Strickland provided
significant assistance in preparing this documentation, working with the team members. Mike
Pendley, who recently joined the SEMATECH Cal Lab as an RF engineer, has assisted greatly in
this document as he transitions into his role of assuming Tonys project efforts.
Overall, these people contributed more energy towards the completion of the project objectives
than was ever expected to be required at the onset. A true team commitment to quality and
meticulous scientific rigor was ingrained into the fabric of the team by the technical leadership of
Tony Moore. All of the team members agree that the constant developments of demonstratable
working prototypes provided the tangible image needed to rally around and also pulled us
through difficult times as deadlines approached. We could see our progress unfold, which made
us feel like we were a part of something and that it was a part of us.
We exceeded most contract performance specifications, while meeting all contract deadlines, On
Time, On Target, and Together.
_______________________________________________________________
I want to personally thank everyone who worked on this project.
Gil Yetter
Project Manager/Section Leader
SEMATECH Calibration Laboratory
xi
Foreword
During the course of this RF technology project conducted at SEMATECH from 1994 to 1996
entitled TECQ001, RF Power Measurement and Control Project, intellectual property was
developed that resulted in applications for US patents. The following RF components were
developed:
A quantitative RF sensor based on first principles (two patents to issue in Fall,
1998)
A phase stable, temperature compensated harmonic filter
An accurate phase and magnitude detector
An accurate In phase Quadrature (IQ) detector
An electronically variable RF inductor/13.56 Mhz saturable reactor (patent issued:
Titled Self Isolating High Frequency Saturable Reactor, Dated June 23, 1998)
A fast matcher topology to demonstrate the saturable reactor
A high speed dual processor computer architecture to operate the integrated
Fast/Accurate RF power delivery system
Because of the intellectual property concerns associated with patent applications, the
SEMATECH Technology Transfer document was released initially as a SEMATECH Restricted
Confidential document issued by name and serial number. The document was distributed to the
SEMATECH Radio Frequency Advisory Group (RFAG) member company staff members, and
to the RFAG SEMI/SEMATECH suppliers who had signed a specific intellectual property non-
disclosure agreement for the document. Revision C of the document changes the classification to
SEMATECH Confidential.
The document covers all aspects of the project, including the technical developments for which
SEMATECH has applied for patents, and others for which SEMATECH has not applied for
patents. Specifically, SEMATECH is pursuing patents on the RF sensor itself, but not on the
associated signal detection or filtering electronics. Similarly, SEMATECH has patented the
saturable reactor, but not the match topology or computer architecture that was developed to
demonstrate it.
The RF sensor prototypes are quantitative in nature and were limited in scope to achieve the
goals of the project. It should be noted that the sensor design is scaleable to impedance and
signal coupling ratio requirements. The saturable reactor variable inductor offers a no moving
parts RF tuning technique at 13.56 Mhz and can also be scaled to accommodate a number of
system requirements. The unpatented associated electronics that were developed offer several
significant advances in the RF sensor signal phase handling and detection areas. The integrated
system incorporating the matcher topology, developed to demonstrate the saturable reactor
technology, offers an example of an alternative tuning and power control technique.
SEMATECH can assist you with commercializing either the patented or the unpatented devices.
SEMATECH used more than one resource to assist us in fabricating our prototypes and these
suppliers may, in turn, be able to assist you if needed.
The integrated prototype RF system demonstrated a fast and accurate RF measurement and
power delivery capability into a load with less than 1 watt of variability while being challenged.
During demonstrations of the system, the response speeds for tuning/power solutions were on the
order of about 5 to 7 milliseconds. In order to collect realistic performance data, a linear plasma
xii
simulating load was developed as a surrogate to reasonably represent typical load conditions.
To provide a tuning speed challenge, the reactive component of the surrogate load was step-
changed rapidly between an impedance change from 4 ohms real (j15 ohms imaginary) to
4 ohms real (j25 ohms imaginary) and back.
These technology advances and others have been developed through a collaborative relationship
with the RF engineering staff members at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and at SEMATECH to
assist and facilitate improvements in the semiconductor supplier base. Currently, Oak Ridge can
provide engineering assistance to suppliers desiring to implement a wide range of RF design
enhancements. For instance, one way the Oak Ridge staff can provide assistance is through the
RF sub-system testing facility at Oak Ridge, which provides a means of exercising designs
against realistic challenges. Another way is by extended visits to your facilities by Oak Ridge RF
technologists to address your RF issues and to assist you in acquiring the resources that meet
your needs.
1
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An advanced concept RF power delivery system was conceived, designed, developed, and
reduced to a functional working and demonstrable prototype. The RF power system incorporates
two unique technologies, now undergoing the patent process. The development of an analytical
RF power sensor based on first-principle concepts and not on conventional calibration practices
is a significant achievement. The other device is a unique electronically variable RF inductor that
obtains RF-matching network speeds in a few milliseconds. The device is based on a novel
advancement of saturable reactor technology; it too is undergoing the patent process. The
performance of the completed RF power delivery system achieved RF matching network speeds
on the order of 5 to 7 ms and held power levels, delivered into a plasma simulating load, to
within less than a watt of RF power variation, while being subjected to a dynamically varying
step response load change.
As a result of this project, other projects in related RF technologies are now in progress between
ORNL and the Etch division of the SEMATECH Interconnect department. The invention of the
analytical RF sensor has inspired technical staff members at the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) to request detailed information and the loan of a prototype for
investigating the possibility for its use as a new national standard. A plan to address a number of
requests for access to these technological achievements is being developed for review at the
Plasma Etch FTAB (at their request) and may be realized as some form of follow-on work to this
project.
All of the project milestones were on time and specifications were met or exceeded.
Revision B of this document replaced two figures with more descriptive versions and corrected
the W symbol (used in two of the tables) to an symbol. Revision C changes the
classification of the document from SEMATECH Confidential Restricted to SEMATECH
Non-Confidential and includes a Foreword describing the technical developments for which
SEMATECH has applied for patents.
2 INTRODUCTION
This document serves as the complete documentation of the Radio Frequency (RF) Power
Measurement and Control Project (TECQ-001). The project was conducted in the SEMATECH
Calibration Laboratory (in the Internal Technical Support division) in close collaboration with
the Plasma Etch Diagnostics department (in the Interconnect division).
The principal supplier for this project was the Instrumentation and Controls Division of Oak
Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. A technical staff member was
assigned to SEMATECH for the two-calendar-year duration of the project (mid-1994 through
mid-1996) and was the first-ever national laboratory assignee to SEMATECH. Many other
members of the technical staff at ORNL interfaced with this project through the on-site assignee
at SEMATECH, which greatly contributed to the projects successful completion.
This document provides a relatively complete set of engineering-level documentation for all
aspects of the project. Detailed blueprints and reduction-to-practice assembly and circuit tuning
information will be contained in a future document. Periodic progress reports presented to the
SEMATECH Radio Frequency Advisory Group and the Plasma Etch Focus Technical Advisory
Board (FTAB) received favorable criticism throughout this project; however, this is the first
2
formally published documentation. This document includes background information, detailed
circuitry and component designs, thorough mathematical examinations, and graphic illustrations
and photographs.
The initial premise for the negotiations with the technical staff in the Instrumentation and
Control Division at ORNL was to advance the state-of-the-art in RF power delivery and
measurements as applied to semiconductor wafer plasma etchers. It is widely accepted that
ORNL is a leader in instrumentation technologies and the reduction to practice applications of a
wide variety of advanced engineering disciplines. We believed that the chances of success for
this project would be greatly enhanced by leveraging the national laboratory resources. Actual
contract relations and resources were funded under the SEMATECH/Sandia National
Laboratories Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) and were accounted
for like the other projects managed and conducted at Sandia, although Sandias involvement was
minimal.
2.1 Logistical Approach
Previous efforts by two team members at SEMATECH (Norm Williams and Jim Spain) yielded
an approach for better understanding the boundaries of quantitative RF metrology as applied to
plasma wafer processing. Norms work produced two U.S. patents based on a calibrated RF
sensor supported by expensive and physically large laboratory grade instruments. The patents are
identified as #5,467,013 dated November 14, 1995 and #5,472,561 dated December 5, 1995;
both are entitled Radio Frequency Monitor for Semiconductor Process Control. Although each
patent has the same title, the earlier patent focuses on the sensor design, while the later patent
focuses on data interpretation correlated to plasma energetics. It was obvious that the technology
would need further development if there was to be any hope that the measurement techniques
could be realized in the commercial world. Initial discussion with ORNL focused on the
development of a miniature version of the Hewlett Packard (HP) Vector Voltmeter, commonly
known as a signal detector or phase and magnitude detector. The physical size of the HP
instrument was considered one of the important issues to resolve. The harmonic filter portion of
the signal processing equipment was quickly identified as a potential show stopper if the
1% accuracy goal was to be achieved. Discussions regarding the RF sensor calibration practices
applied to prior sensor development work directed team efforts toward developing an inherently
accurate RF sensor based on first principles. The team believed that an analytical sensor based on
first principles should ensure that the 1% accuracy goal be met with certainty. However, the new
sensor would also provide a way to minimize conjecture over any data collected from the RF
engineers within the semiconductor community. Having arrived at a consolidated plan to develop
and integrate the various components of an RF metrology system, it was noted that a superior
measurement instrument will tell the user only how bad things are, so the team pursued an
additional aggressive goal for a high-speed (no moving parts) RF matching network. The
benefits of using a high-speed RF matching network operating in the millisecond tuning range
that would be integrated with the proposed highly accurate RF sensor were numerous. These
benefits included a highly accurate, high-speed integrated RF power delivery system that would
help to reduce chamber-to-chamber matching issues, process variability from wafer-to-wafer and
from lot-to-lot, and increase wafer throughput.
Because of the complex and aggressive nature of this project (to develop technologies to solve
significant problems in the plasma etch wafer processing RF power delivery area), the team
pursued parallel engineering designs as contingencies to ensure the success of the project.
3
The RF sensor design described in this document is the first-principles approach, while the other
contingency sensor design is similar in construction, but requires calibration. Both sensor designs
were successfully realized in working prototypes (Figure 1). The calibrated RF sensor design and
its variants are being developed into a patent position by ORNL in the Fusion Energy
department. Future documentation will describe the other sensor design and also many of the
lesser details of the project that are not fully described in this document.
Figure 1 Evolution of the RF Sensor Prototypes
The harmonic filter was deemed to be low risk, thus no alternative was investigated. The
harmonic filter design that evolved met all the expectations of the contract and passed peer
review. This device is not patentable and represents an engineering design optimized for phase
relationship stability between two signal paths, one for the sampled RF current signal and the
other for the sampled RF voltage signal.
The development of an RF signal processing device that could meet the laboratory grade
performance of the HP Vector Voltmeter was challenging and required the development of two
different solutions, each of which works very well. The main intent of the engineering effort for
the signal processors was to reduce to practice a highly accurate, physically small and low cost
alternative to the laboratory instruments, dedicated to the operating frequency range of interest to
plasma etch at 13.56 MHz. RF signal processing devices commonly used in the semiconductor
industry are often identified as phase/mag units. The name stands for the measurement of the
phase differential between two RF signals and the magnitude of each. The team developed a
highly accurate phase/mag detector circuit that we named PD4, which stands for phase detector
version 4. The other device we developed was adapted from the communications industry and is
commonly known as an in-phase/quadrature phase detector, from which came the name I-Q
detector. Neither of these circuits was viewed to be patentable technology since each represents
refinements and application specific optimization. It should be noted that the use of an I-Q
detector circuit, which is common in communications applications, is a novel idea in the
semiconductor industry and in precision RF power metrology. Both detector circuits provide DC
voltage output signals that are proportional to RF parameters entered into a computer with an A
4
to D interface. The algorithms used to reduce the measured parameters into engineering units for
diagnostic observation or control use are fairly straightforward mathematical implementations.
The significant difference between each approach is that the PD4 device has high-volume
production parts and should be cheaper to construct. However, it requires more signal strength
and the computer must do more calculations to achieve what the other device, the I-Q detector,
does with a more expensive set of components and less computer time to generate the same
engineering data. The team believes that both approaches have merit for use.
The desire to develop a high speed RF matching network, which could operate in the envisioned
time frame, necessitated the pursuit of two approaches because of the risk of failure. Because of
early successes with a low-power prototype, efforts to develop a fast actuator for a vacuum
variable capacitor were abandoned. The development of the electronically variable inductor was
the main goal of the RF matching network portion of the project, while the fast RF matching
network, designed to meet the objectives of this project, is only one possible design
implementation that could be put to use.
The contract-stretch goal for the development of a low impedance RF generator was achieved,
but will be described in a future document. The idea for the low-impedance generator was to be
able to incorporate the generator inside the RF match network and completely eliminate the 50
cable environment. This concept seemed too radical for many of our peers in light of traditional
practices. Although we successfully operated the generator in a low-impedance mode, we
converted it to the 50 output mode so that demonstrations of the entire power delivery system
could be reviewed as a modular set of items that could be used independently. This proved to be
a good decision since some members of the SEMATECH community expressed interest in either
the measurement or the matcher portions of the project, but not necessarily the entire integrated
system.
Patent applications have been prepared for the analytical RF power sensor and the saturable
reactor used in the fast RF match network. Possible patent positions on some of the supporting
electronics were not investigated.
2.2 Technical Overview
The invention of the analytical RF sensor based on first-principles behavior is a significant
breakthrough, because it provides a metrology capability free from conventional calibration
practices. Rarely does a measurement technique offer the possibility of being both a national
standard and a common component in field use. The sensor is a voltage and current sampling
device that incorporates a unique current pickup coil that couples 100% of the RF magnetic flux
field. The initial prototypes have proven very accurate in terms of the laboratory bench test data,
as compared to modeled predictions based on current loop area measurements within 0.2 dB at
13.56 MHz. The sensor exhibits a wide operational bandwidth from 1 MHz to nearly 1 GHz with
a linear 20 dB/decade frequency response. While it is true that the intended frequency domain is
13.56 MHz, the broadband response demonstrates the design intended to minimize undesirable
parasitic effects. Developing a sensor that exhibits the least perturbation to a given application
was perhaps the most challenging technical problem to engineer into the sensor design. While
the sensor is certainly invasive because of its fixed physical form, we focused on minimizing the
degree to which it is obtrusive. The sensor has been fabricated for the 50 RF transmission-line
environment and exhibits electrical characteristics equivalent to a 3-inch length of common RF
power cable. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) measurements and voltage standing wave ratio
5
(VSWR) datasets support this achievement. It must be stated that the use of a sensor designed for
50 impedance in a position prior to the RF matching network is obviously a good choice;
however, the use of a 50 sensor in the post-RF matching network location represents a
compromise. The sensor can be scaled to other impedance values to better optimize application
requirements; however, project time limits did not permit such investigation. For the purpose of
this project, the overall load effects of the 50 impedance design to the RF match network were
expected to be < 12%. In fact, the completed power delivery system dealt with any installation
effects by controlling delivered power to the plasma-simulating load.
This technological achievement has inspired members of the technical staff at NIST to request
detailed technical information and the loan of a prototype for studies that might lead to the
adoption of the design as a national standard. Mechanical design attributes have been
demonstrated to be robust and commercially viable.
The analytical RF sensor (Figure 2) required the development of some novel electronics signal
processing circuits that perform to laboratory grade performance. The special RF harmonic filter
and the two different RF signal detection devices were designed to provide an integrated
approach that was small in form and tailored to 13.56 MHz plasma etch applications. Two
designs were pursued as contingencies, resulting in both techniques working quite well. Each RF
detector design, as well as the RF harmonic filter, was fabricated with commercial viability in
mind in terms of size, complexity, and cost.
Figure 2 Completely Assembled RF Sensor with a Clear Housing
6
A dual-channel harmonic filter was developed to remove unwanted harmonic energy from the
RF signal being measured. The intent of the design was to develop clean sinusoids of the
fundamental frequency of interest at 13.56 MHz and preserve the phase relationship between the
RF power sampled voltage and current waveforms from the analytical sensor outputs. Prior art in
use optimized other performance attributes such as a high Q passband and neglected phase
stability. Thermal effects on harmonic filter performance can cause differential phase
relationship shifts of many degrees of phase angle, resulting in large effects on computed RF
power. This effort to develop an improved filter technique was necessary because of the high
differential phase angles (85 to 89) between the current and voltage waveforms that are
encountered in post-RF match network locations where small phase changes represent large
effects in calculated RF power. Also, post-match locations as well as cleanroom service area
ambient conditions, present unwanted thermal problems. The dual path RF harmonic filter
developed in this project provides good filtering and phase stability over a wide temperature
range.
The invention of the electronically variable inductor known as a saturable reactor that operates at
13.56 MHz has raised the status quo from prior art that was limited to an order of magnitude
lower operating frequency at 1.8 and 2.0 MHz in RF matching network applications. The crux of
the invention is the novel approach to minimize the undesirable electrical coupling between the
RF coils and DC control current field coils by a unique winding pattern applied to a pair of
toroidal ferrite cores.
The reason for this unique approach was conceived because either an electronically variable
capacitor or a variable inductor was needed for this application. Electronically variable
capacitors were quickly dismissed because of a variety of shortcomings and parasitic effects (i.e.,
harmonics). The desire for an inductor design fueled the search for a method to vary the core
material permeability of an inductor electronically. Conventional transformer configurations
were undesirable because the primary and secondary winding are normally ratio coupled. We
needed a transformer-like device in which the control windings are not coupled to the active RF
winding. This desired and unusual mode of required operation caused our device to not operate
like a transformer. The fundamental idea of using a variable magnetic field to control the
permeability of an inductor core material is well known in the municipal AC power utility
industry in the form of a saturable reactor; however, the operating frequency limitations render
them unusable above a few hundred hertz. The next closest design solution was developed at
Applied Materials using saturable reactor technology that operates at 1.8 to 2.0 MHz with a
ferrite bar core material.
The solution to our problem came after a series of design attempts that led to a novel combin-
ation of two toroidal transformer cores with the RF windings cross wound or interleave wound
and folded over onto a single axis for adding the DC control windings. Each set of windings
decouples or prevents coupling between each opposed winding turn by turn. This is the electrical
property that prevents interwinding capacitance from spoiling the high frequency response and
allows construction of a saturable reactor that operates at 13.56 MHz. Each of the windings is
orthogonal to each other. The DC control current windings provide the magnetic field to change
the permeability of the toroid core material independent of the RF power conducting inductive
windings, which only sense the change in permeability and respond with a change in inductance.
Temperature effects have been insignificant enough that there was no need to add yet a third set
of orthogonal windings to monitor temperature effects and compensate for them. A set of initial
studies was conducted, but not completed because of project time limitations and because the
7
final system design worked well without a temperature compensation circuit. Because the project
contract goal was to achieve a high-speed RF matching network capability, refinements for
aspects such as efficiency and thermal energy losses were not optimized. Unlike other saturable
reactor approaches, the thermal losses that result in this saturable reactor design primarily
originate in the DC current windings used to shift the permeability and not in the RF inductance
coil windings.
The saturable reactor has been incorporated into a functional RF matching network that was
tested at 1000 W and above for extended periods into a plasma simulating linear load of
4-j20 . To perform laboratory bench tests of the various components and the complete RF
power delivery system, a special test load was fabricated to simulate the linear portion of a
plasma load. The simulator is comprised of non-inductive sintered high-power resistors and a
vacuum variable capacitor. The addition of a solenoid actuated vacuum switch and a small
ceramic capacitor provided a means to shift the load conditions through a reasonably large range
of reactance, thereby providing a wide set of operating conditions for the RF power delivery
system to perform against as a stress test. Designs for additional circuitry to supply a mechanism
to generate the non-linear aspects of a plasma into the simulator load and concepts to use the
simulator in a calorimetry mode are being pursued.
Tests conducted with load step changes from 4-j24 to 4-j14 , which represents a significant
operating space to stress the match network design, demonstrated a tuning speed on the order of
5 to 7 ms. Combined with RF generator power control, the delivered power to the plasma
simulating load was held constant to within 1 W of setpoint at both load conditions presented
at each excursion of the step change.
To achieve the integrated system performance that has yielded these RF tuning speeds and stable
power delivery levels, a novel computer architecture approach had to be employed. A dual-
processor DOS architecture was developed based on a unique modular interface code strategy
developed by SEMATECHs MSD/FI department and implemented by a team of SEMATECH
and ORNL computer specialists. The strategy solved the essential problem of determining how
to have one processor operating the analog input and output duties based on a control algorithm
and not be hampered by overhead duties associated with data handling and user interfaces. This
strategy has proven to be robust and is portable to other computer architecture environments
where multi-processors and high operating speeds present performance problems.
2.3 Vision of the Future
The successful completion of this project has generated many requests from the SEMATECH
and SEMI/SEMATECH engineering community to learn more about this technology by using
beta site evaluations. Plans to address these requests are being prepared for review in appropriate
forums at SEMATECH.
Due in part to the early success of this project, a number of other contracted interactions with
ORNL have been spawned in the plasma etch RF area with the Fusion Energy division. The
technical capabilities within the ORNL Fusion area are very impressive because they provide
worldwide RF engineering resources in the design of RF power delivery systems with ranges as
high as 32,000,000 W of RF power, at the same frequency range as our industry commonly uses
in plasma etch systems. The simplest way to highlight the importance of their methodologies is
to say that a portion of a percent error at their power levels can destroy a lot of expensive
equipment, not to mention the loss of an experiment. It is believed that the RF engineering
8
infrastructure in the semiconductor industry will benefit from the many interactions that are now
beginning with this largely untapped national resource.
The SEMATECH Radio Frequency Advisory Group (RFAG) forum has been a significant force
in bringing together many of the fragmented group of RF reseachers within the semiconductor
industry and is beginning to develop a strategic long-range focus. To date the RFAG has
developed ideas for a consumer reports-type of RF component testing laboratory and for
standardized testing procedures. This concept was presented at the SEMATECH Etch FTAB
meeting and was ranked highly. As a result, a project at ORNL Fusion is underway to address
those goals. Future RFAG meetings may serve the industry well as we move toward larger wafer
sizes that will require significantly different RF power delivery solutions.
3 ANALYTICAL RF POWER METROLOGY
The RF sensor design was guided by several requirements that were developed at SEMATECH
and were based on industry experience with existing RF sensors and with sensors developed and
tested at SEMATECH. The RF sensor development had three major goals. First, the sensor
should be designed as a metrology standard rather than a calibrated device. Second, the sensor
design must be highly unobtrusive so that the device can be easily incorporated into a variety of
semiconductor manufacturing tools. Finally, the sensor must provide a sufficiently accurate set
of RF electrical parameter measurements that would support feedback control for RF power
generators as well as provide data for process diagnostics. This data could then be used for
minimizing process variations, thus maximizing yield from a delivered RF power standpoint.
For a sensor to have an accuracy that is to be considered a reference standard, it should have its
response characteristics defined by first principles. Properties that are calculated from elemental
physical characteristics such as the zero state transition of Cesium, which is used as a time
standard, is a good example of first-principle standards. This is the preferred method
metrologists seek to use when developing a reference standard. The implication of this approach
is non-trivial, and it placed constraints on our sensors geometry and construction (Figure 3). In
the design of RF sensors, the preferred method of measuring the RF current component in an RF
power conductor is to measure the magnetic field that surrounds the conductor. This requires that
a coil be inserted in this field and the voltage generated is a function of the current in the
conductor. Likewise, to measure the RF voltage present on an RF power conductor, it is
necessary to place a probe on or near the conductor. Typically, these probes take one of two
forms, a resistive or a capacitive probe. A capacitive probe was chosen for this project. These
choices require adherence to physical equivalencies and symmetry so that the equations used to
define that sensor can be solved in closed form. Careful consideration of the configuration of the
various components is also required to ensure that the stray circuit parameters are minimized to
the point that they are negligible, or are incorporated within the design to preclude any
unpredicted responses. The approach taken was to minimize stray RF fields by constructing the
voltage and current pickups using transmission line design practices where possible, so that the
impedance of them is known and controlled. The design approach also allows for the sensing
elements to be small and rigidly constrained so that the geometry and hence, the signal response,
is stable.
9
3.1 Analytical RF Sensor Based on First Principles
The RF sensor design approach evolved from the need to remove the ambiguity associated with
the coupling of the magnetic field pickup coil that has plagued calibration and accuracy
determinations. It has been recognized that the current signal sampling was the problem to focus
on since voltage sampling techniques have been highly evolved since the primary problem was
the amount of coupling that a coil would have when in proximity to the main power conductor. It
was thought that finding a way to fix the amount of flux linkage or to link all of it was the proper
approach. The idea of sampling from all of the magnetic energy was realized when an air
dielectric RF power transmission line section was fabricated with a hollow center conductor that
allowed for the insertion of a single turn pickup coil (Figure 4) from the outer wall of the RF
transmission line section through the air gap and into the middle conductor. The form of the
single turn coil was fabricated so that the area of the linked magnetic field is a rectangle that can
be easily measured by conventional machinist tools. The coil design is unique in that it
incorporates a Faraday shield around the pickup coil to maximize the suppression of capacitively
coupled signals proprotional to the line voltage, while not disturbing the magnetic induction
associated with the current flowing through the hollow center conductor.
Figure 3 RF Sensor Components
10
Figure 4 RF Sensor Components With the Current Loop Inside the Hollow Center RF
Power Conductor
The pickup coil has been designed to a 50 device and thereby does not require special signal
impedance matching circuitry. The induced 90 shift in the sampled magnetic field is
complemented by the unique voltage pickup probe (Figure 5) that is also a 50 device. The
nature of the voltage pickup probe shifts the voltage signal by 90 and in combination with the
current coil signal shift, the overall sampled signals have the same characteristic relationship as
the main power RF transmission line being sampled. Figure 6 is an illustration of a complete
sensor. Figure 7 is an illustration revealing the inner components of a sensor with 1/4-20 bolt
connection end pieces.
Figure 8 through Figure 15 provide sequential assembly steps for an RF sensor, concluding in an
exploded view of all components (Figure 16).
11
Figure 5 Cross Section of RF Sensor to Show Current Pickup Loop and Voltage
Pickup Probe Placement
12
Figure 6 RF Sensor with N-Type Connectors
Figure 7 Sensor Assembly with 1/4-20 Bolt Connections
13
Figure 8 Hollow Center Conductor Positioned in Sensor Body
Figure 9 Voltage Pickup Assembly Positioned in Sensor Body
14
Figure 10 Current Pickup Loop and Teflon Insulator Installed in Sensor Body,
Penetrating the Hollow Center Conductor
Figure 11 Sensor Assembly with Teflon Center Conductor Positioning End Pieces
15
Figure 12 Sensor Assembly with Metal End Plates Installed
Figure 13 Sensor Assembly with N-Type Connectors Installed
16
Figure 14 Sensor Assembly with Screws Installed
Figure 15 Assembled RF Sensor
17
Figure 16 Exploded View of RF Sensor
3.1.1 Current Signal Sampling Component of RF Sensor
For the design criteria of the current sensor portion of the device, a current pickup loop must be
of a known size and fundamental in response. Secondary effects of stray capacitance and
inductance must be minimized and quantified. This must be done to allow the application of first
principles to the design.
Faradays law says that th electromotive force (EMF) (voltage) induced in a conducting loop is
the negative of the time derivative of the magnetic flux enclosed by the loop. In theory, it follows
that if one could link all the flux produced along a known length of wire carrying an AC current,
then one could know explicitly what the current is by measuring the voltage in the loop. This
approach is typically used at low frequencies by employing an iron core to capture the flux and
routing it through a sense winding having multiple turns so the flux is linked enough times to
provide a usable voltage. This same approach has also been used in RF current sensors using
ferrite toroids; however, core losses and non-linearities, as well as high winding inductance and
distributed capacitance, obfuscates a direct first principle link to the current being sensed. The
presence of a core also adds inductance to the conductor carrying the current making the sensor
obtrusive. The industry has experienced occasional difficulties with some of these toroidal
current transformers catching fire because of the losses that occur in the core when exited by
large RF currents. Departure from the first-principle concept introduces errors that cause each
sensor to require calibration. Previous sensor designs followed traditional design concepts
commonly used in the communications industry. These designs, once calibrated for a specific
application, were adequate for the measurement of power from a generator to a relatively well-
matched load. To that end, these sensors have found some use in this industry to measure the
power from the generator to the RF matching networks. Accurately measuring the power
18
delivered from the match network output to the load using traditional sensors is very difficult
(i.e, prior SEMATECH patents).
The question becomes, how can one build a circuit to link all the flux (Figure 17) and remain
true to the concept of first principles? The answer comes from a judicious application of
Amperes Law, which states that the integral of the magnetic flux density around a closed path is
equal to
o
times the net current across the area enclosed by the path. This means that in a
coaxial transmission line, where the currents on the inner and outer conductors are equal and
opposite, the flux is zero outside the outer conductor of the line.
Figure 17 Magnetic Flux Space
In other words, the flux exists only between the inner and outer conductor. Further, if the inner
conductor were hollow, then the flux inside the hollow center of the inner conductor would be
zero also since all the current flows on the outside surface of the inner conductor.
Therefore, if one could pass a wire loop (Figure 18) through the outer conductor across the
dielectric through the inner conductor and back out again, one could link all the flux over a
precisely known area (Figure 19) associated with the current in the coax, and the loop voltage
can be analytically determined from fundamental laws.
Figure 18 Magnetic Flux Linked Area
19
Figure 19 RF Power Magnetic Energy Coupling Area
The derivation of the coupling in S.I. units for such a loop is as follows:
For a long wire carrying a current I, the differential magnetic flux density (dB) at a radius (r)
from the wire and distance (S) from a unit of moving charge is derived from Biot-Savart Law
(Figure 20):
2
4 S
ds Id
dB
o

Figure 20 Magnetic Flux Illustration of Fundamental Laws

20
Recall that the vector cross product is the product of the length of the two vectors times the sine
of the subtended angle in the direction normal to their plane (right hand rule)
( )
2
sin
4
S
d I
dB
o
l
.
B, therefore, would equal the integral of dB along l from l=- to +. Evaluation of this integral
becomes much more convenient if the expression is rewritten in terms of r and . From the
diagram
sin
r
S and
tan
r
l differentiating l with respect to gives
2
sin
r
d l substituting
into the above equation and integrating gives
( )

d
r
r
I
B
o
o
2
2
2
sin
sin
sin
4

1
]
1
o
o
o
o
r
I
d
r
I
B cos
4
sin
4
So,
r
I
B
o
Now to get the flux () over a square area (Figure 21) of the pickup loop inside the coax where
B is non-zero, namely between the outer surface of the inner conductor and the inner surface of
the outer conductor, and then we integrate B over a radius of a to b along a length L.
drdl
r
I
dA B
o
L
o
b
a
n
1
]
1

b
a
L
o
o
r
dr I
l
2
[ ]
2
ln
ln
2
,
_

a
b
IL
r
IL
o
b
a
o
Figure 21 Linked Magnetic Flux Geometric Area
21
Now applying Faradays Law
dt
dI a
b
L
dt
d
emf
o
2
ln
,
_
Now for ) cos( t I I

o
, where is the radian frequency = , 2 f
[ ] ) sin( ln ) sin(
2
ln
t f
a
b
L t
a
b
L
emf
o o
o o

,
_
which in phasor form is

o o
L
a
b
f j ln .
However, this is not simple to implement. The above analysis ignores the fact that the pickup
loop would also be subject to capacitive coupling to the inner conductor, which would corrupt
the current signal as soon as the inductance of the pickup loop becomes non-zero. This problem
is handled by using a coaxial pickup loop so that the outer conductor of the pickup loop is
grounded to the outer conductor of the power carrying coax at both ends. A small cut in the
pickup loops shield allows it to act as a Faraday shield, effectively keeping the electric field
from reaching the center conductor of the pickup loop while allowing the magnetic field, which
is only proportional to the current, to be completely linked. The split in the pickup coaxs outer
conductor prevents the flow of inductively driven current in the shield so that the magnetic flux
is not excluded from the center conductor of the loop. Experimentally, we determined that the
small cut in the pickup loop shield must be in the exact center of the loop and both external ends
must be terminated in the loop coaxs characteristic impedance, or the propagation delay of the
sensed signal for currents traveling in opposite directions in the power coax will not match,
which in turn implies a phase error in the net current signal. This error cannot be tolerated as it
results in a measurement error, which is dependent on the standing wave ratio (SWR) on the line
and would depart from our goal of a design based on first principles (Figure 22). So, the loop
shield must be cut in the exact center and the cut should be as narrow as possible, no more that 1
mm wide. This also implies that the ends must be well terminated in a 50 resistance and the
leads must be kept very short to minimize stray inductance.
The pickup loop circuit (Figure 23) can be described as two sections of terminated coax with a
series voltage source in the middle.
The current probe is assembled using a set of fabrication jigs so that the precise dimensions
required for the loop are maintained. Modeling of the current probe electrical performance based
on the mechanical measurements shows < 0.2 dB error from the measured data. Test data
collected from the small set of prototypes that we have had fabricated demonstrated that the
mechanical design is robust. Signal sampling levels from sensor to sensor matched to
approximately within 0.1 dB. Also, routine disassembly and reassembly demonstrated no shift
on signal sampling levels.
22
Figure 22 Network Analyzer Plot of Magnetic Field Signal Coupling Response
Figure 23 Schematic Representation of Current Pickup Loop
Taking into account the external loading to terminal voltage,
2
ln
o o
T
I
a
b
fL j
V
,
_
and finally the

current
,
_
a
b
fL
V j
I
o
T
o
ln
2
.
A detailed analysis of the current loop using Maxwells equations is shown in Appendix A.
To make the sensor manufacturable, we cut a slit in the center conductor rather than two small
holes. There was no measurable difference between the slit for the loop and the penetration at
two distinct points. This also allows a Teflon sheath to be fabricated, which encloses the loop
and prevents voltage breakdown between the loop shield, which is at ground potential, and the
center conductor, which may be at a very high potential. This also allows the loop to be mounted
on a printed board, allowing very repeatable construction and accurate termination as well as
making the loop removable and the sensor much easier to assemble and disassemble.
23
The use of carefully configured coupled transmission lines, which is necessary to produce an RF
sensor with first-principles coupling, also results in a sensor that is passive, is totally linear,
dissipates no power, and is as unobtrusive as an equivalent length of air dielectric coaxial
transmission line would be. Because of the effects of the current pickup loop and the voltage
pickup capacitor and their associated mounting structures, the diameter of the center conductor
near the pickups was reduced to maintain a constant 50 characteristic impedance.
3.1.2 Voltage Signal Sampling Component of RF Sensor
Sampling the voltage accurately is also difficult. Most resistors and capacitors have parasitic
impedances associated with them, as well as voltage and power limits. Smaller components have
less parasitic impedance, but also have lower power and voltage limitations. Since the current
sensor actually senses the derivative of the current, it is desirable to have a differentiating voltage
sensor as well so that phase corrections after the sensor can be avoided (Figure 25). This
configuration also avoids the need for a high impedance amplifier to avoid introducing signal
errors from loading effects.
The voltage sensing arrangement then became a C-R differentiator circuit (Figure 24) where V
s
is the voltage being sensed and
RC j
RC j
V
c j
i
R
R V
V
s
s
t
1
.
Figure 24 Schematic Illustration of Voltage Sensor
24
Figure 25 Network Analyzer Plot of Voltage Pickup Symmetry by Superimposing
Forward and Reverse Repsonse Data
Now, if 1/c is much larger than R, then V
t
jRCV
s
, which is the same form as the current
signal and the phase shift is taken care of. The question then becomes how can such a circuit be
realized without parasitic elements and the imperfections of manufactured capacitors. Trans-
mission lines again come to the rescue with their property of characteristic impedance. By
terminating a transmission line in its characteristic impedance, one is able to present that
impedance to a source at any distance from the actual load; therefore, parasitic inductance and
capacitance associated with connecting the source to the load is minimized. A parallel plate air
dielectric capacitor (Figure 26) is very nearly an ideal capacitor when the plate dimensions are
small with respect to a wavelength. The plate is then brought into proximity of the center
conductor of the power carrying coax of the sensor assembly and positioned opposite the center
of the current pickup loop.
Getting back to first principles, the details are as follows. The voltage to be sensed V
s
is divided
between the capacitance from the center conductor to the sensor plate C
i
and the capacitance
between the sensor plate and the outer conductor C
o
(Figure 27).
25
Figure 26 Geometric Relationship for Voltage Sensor Plate
Note: Since
i
C j
R
1
<< and even further
o
C j
1
< we expect R to swamp C
o
and V
to be R C V j
i s
.
Figure 27 Schematic Illustration of the Realized Voltage Probe/Divider Circuit
It is convenient to determine a Thevinin equivalent (Figure 28) for this source. This
transformation yields a Thevinin current source of
Ci j
I
V
s
driving C
i
and C
o
in parallel.
Figure 28 Schematic Representation of Thevinin Current Perspective
26
Transforming this back to a voltage source with series impedance (Figure 29) gives the following
Figure 29 Transform to a Voltage with Series Impedance Schematic
which simplifies to (Figure 30)
Figure 30 Simplified Voltage Sensor Schematic
which we then load with R = to Z
0
of the sensor probe coax. The terminal voltage (V
T
) is then as
follows
( )
( )
1
]
1
+ +
+
+
+
o i
i
s
o i
o i
i s
T
C C R j
RC j
V
C C j
R
C C
R C V
V
1
1
separating into real and imaginary parts
( )
( ) 1
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
2 2 2
2 2
1
o i
i o i i
s T
C C R
RC j C C C R
V V

observing that
( )

,
_
+ +
i
o
i o i
C
C
C C C 1 and defining a geometry constant
i
o
g
C
C
K ,V
T
can be written
( )
( ) ( ) 1
1
]
1
+ +
+
+ +
+
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1
g i
i
g i
g i
s T
K C R
RC j
K C R
K C R
V V
now letting
i
o
RC
1
,
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+ +
+
+ +
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1 1
1
g
o
o
g
o
o
g
s T
K
j
K
K
V V
27
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
g
o
o
g
g
o
o
g
g
s
T
K
K j
K
K
K
V
V
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
g
o
g
o
g
o
g
s
T
K
K
j
K
K
V
V
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
o
g
g
o
g
o
g
s
T
K
K
j
K
K
V
V
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
2
[ ]
[ ] ( )
g
o
T
T
VT
K V
V
+

1
tan
Re
Im
tan
1 1
and
( )
( )
( )
( )

,
_
,
_
+
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+
g
o
o
g
g
o g
s
T
K
K
K
K
V
V
1
tan sin
1
1
1
1
1
For a coupling factor of -60dB,

o
is 1000 times greater than and within 0.1%, V
T
jV
5
RC
i
,
and
i
T
s
RC
jV
V
.
28
Next, we need to get at the capacitance in terms of the physical dimensions (Figure 31). Fields
texts
1
give the capacitance per unit length of a cylindrical coaxial capacitor an
,
_
a
b
n l
2
where
Figure 31 Voltage Probe Design Space
b is the major radius and a is the minor radius. At first glance, a model of the voltage probe
would appear to be two short coaxial capacitors connected in series with a small subtended angle
(Figure 32) rather than 2 radians. C
i
would then be
a
n
C
i
l
l
and C
o
would be
,
_
b
n l
l
.
Figure 32 Voltage Probe Radial Geometry Illustration
1.1.1
1
Rao, N. Narayana, Basic Electromagnetics with Applications, Prentice Hall 1972, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 382.
29
This simple model, however, neglects that the pickup plate is very short as compared to the
length of the power-carrying cylinders and that it is held to near ground potential by its load
resistor R = 50 . Under this condition, the electric flux lines from the center conductor have
access to the rear side of the pickup plate as well as the side facing the center conductor and the
ground potential at the outer wall is far away compared to the ground potential at the back side of
the pickup plate. Under this condition, nearly all the flux lines (Figure 33) originating near the
plate terminate on the plate and both sides of the plate contribute to C
i
, while C
o
is very nearly
zero.
Figure 33 Voltage Probe E Field Coupling Illustration
The exact model for C
i
becomes almost intractable, but can be approximated as

,
_
a
n

l
l 2
and K
g
gets very small.
The voltage probe is assembled on a machinist micrometer threaded rod that allows for a precise
measurement of the distance from the center conductor. The voltage probe is also based on first
principles, although the mathematical reduction for this application will require a numerical
approach and has not been completed at the time of this publication.
To evaluate the accuracy of the model, an HP8753C network analyzer was used to set a sensors
voltage coupling at -60 dB, or 1 mV/V, so V
s
= -j1000 V
T
when loaded with 50 (Figure 34).
30
Figure 34 Network Analyzer Plot of Voltage Pickup Coupling Reponse
The pickup disc diameter was 6.4 mm and the distance of the plate from the center conductor
was 3.5 turns of a 40 screw = 2.2225 mm. The inner radius was 5.675 mm and the outer
radius was 19.35 mm, = a + 2.2225 mm = 7.8975 mm. The cylindrical model assumes a square
pickup plate with a bend radius of . If we take this pickup as the square contained within and
tangent to a circle of radius 3.22 mm, then the sides of the square will be 2 times the radius
and the area ratio of the circle to the square will be
2
. The subtended angle 57303 .

8975 . 7
2 2 . 3

recalling that
i
T
s
RC
jV
V
then
2
2
2

,
_
,
_
a
n
fr
jV
V
T
s
l
l
and
T
T
s
V j
fR
a
n jV
V 47 . 1075
2
2

,
_
l
l

, the
discrepancy between measured and calculated values is 0.7%, which is close to the error of
measurement.
A more elegant derivation to describe the capacitive pick-up probe using steradians is shown in
Appendix B.
Time domain reflectometer (TDR) measurement indicated no measurable effect on the
characteristic impedance of the sensor resulting from the presence of the voltage probe. The
breakdown voltage, using a dielectric strength of 22 V per mill, is then 1900 V, which may be
marginal for post-match installation in some capacitive discharge etchers. In such cases, a lower
coupling must be accepted, or a larger pickup plate must be used.
The final major consideration is the obtrusiveness of the sensor. A sensor can be inobtrusive only
if it has the same characteristic impedance as that of the transmission path and it does not change
the length of the path. Typically, in the post-match environment the characteristic impedance of
the signal path is both unknown and varies along the path because the geometry is changing as
well. Also, it is usually difficult, or impossible, to install a sensor and avoid changing the length
31
of the path. The best compromise is to make the sensor as short as possible and use a known and
controlled impedance so that the obtrusiveness of the sensor can be quantified. 50 was chosen
because of the availability of test equipment using this impedance and because in the pre-match
arena, it is possible to make the sensor totally unobtrusive. Since conductors and contact areas
are large, the sensor dissipates essentially no power. Several connector configurations were tried
in an attempt to eliminate characteristic impedance excursions at the connection point.
Compromises had to be made for size, cost, and manufacturability reasons, but the final product
is pretty much as good as a double female type N barrel connector to about 500 MHz.
Since the desired accuracy of the sensor exceeds the limits of current measurement techniques at
a given frequency, the only way to confirm first-principle behavior with measurement is to
observe how the sensor performs over a very wide range of frequencies since at higher
frequency, small stray impedances produce more obvious effects. For that reason, our testing of
the sensor has extended to the GHz region to determine just how well the constructed sensor
conforms to the model. The extrapolation is that if the behavior follows the model as well as you
can measure it at 10 times the frequency of interest, then it is likely that it is substantially better
than one can measure at the frequency of interest. Also, phase is the most sensitive indicator of
when things start going awry. For this reason, and because phase error is devastating to post-
match power measurement accuracy, the series of graphs in Section 6 depict the sensor
performance confirmation measurements taken for the project.
3.1.3 Integrated RF Sensor Analysis
A performance anomaly observed in phase symmetry data, identified at Sandia National
Laboratory, was investigated. The following explaination serves to articulate the cause of the
small amount of non-symmetry and provide workable solutions to account for it. Referring to
Figure 35, the propagation delay of the voltage and current sensors differ by 135.11 picoseconds.
This implies that the transmission line between the voltage sensor and the detector should be
26 mm longer than the line from the current sensor to the detector. Additionally, there is excess
phase shift in the current pickup loop contributed by a 1.73 GHz pole formed from the loop self-
inductance and the external circuit load resistance. This may be compensated for in either of two
operating conditions: over a wide band of frequencies, by inserting a matching pole in the
voltage signal transmission path or at a fixed frequency of operation, an additional length of
transmission line may be inserted into the voltage signal path. The amount of additional
transmission line required at 13.56 MHz would be approximately 16 mm. The combined total
phase skew at 13.56 MHz would then be 1.1 corresponding to 42 mm or 1.65 additional line
length in the voltage pickup cable.
To verify the criteria for the RF sensor to be as unobtrusive as possible, several measurements
were made. Careful evaluation was made of the insertion characteristics of the sensor. The
insertion loss (S21) of the RF sensor was measured in a 50 system. The measured loss was
approximately the same as a Type N barrel, less than .01 dB at 13.56 MHz (Figure 36 and
Figure 37). The VSWR (S11) shown in (Figure 38 and Figure 39) is actually better than a Type
N barrel; however, the difference of both of these measurements is less than the resolution of the
HP 8753C Network Analyzer that was used to make these measurements. In addition to the
S parameter measurements that were made, impedance was measured with a TDR to show the
impedance with respect to distance within the RF sensor. This plot (shown in Figure 40) shows
that the variation of impedance is about 10 . This is due to the two pickup probes in the
32
RF sensor. This variation could be improved by reshaping the center conductor of the RF sensor;
however, the length of the variation is so short (approximately 1) that little if any improvement
would be made by making the line perfect. For this reason and because of time limitations, no
attempt was made to further improve the center conductor geometry.
Figure 35 Network Analyzer Plot of Current Loop Pickup Symmetry by Plotting of
Forward and Reverse Current Responses
Figure 36 Network Analyzer Plot of N-Type Barrel Insertion Loss at 13.56 MHz
33
Figure 37 Network Analyzer Plot of RF Sensor Insertion Loss at 13.56 MHz
Figure 38 Network Analyzer Plot of an N-Type Barrel VSWR at 13.56 MHz
34
Figure 39 Network Analyzer Plot of RF Sensor VSWR at 13.56 MHz
Figure 40 TDR Impedance Plot of an RF Sensor Prototype
3.2 Harmonic Filtering
It has long been known that the nonlinear components of the plasma load produce harmonics.
Work at Sandia National Labs has demonstrated that these harmonics affect not only
measurements but equipment reliability and process repeatability. Several manufacturers and
researchers have grasped the need for harmonic filters in RF power measurement systems for
plasma applications; however, fewer have appreciated the subtle, but potentially dominant,
measurement errors that filters themselves can introduce if their response characteristics are not
suited for the application. Most commercial RF filters are designed and optimized for a desired
attenuation characteristic. While the phase response is not considered particularly important,
Chebychev (a common type of filter design) and other elliptic filter designs place poles and zeros
35
to maximize skirt slope in the transition from passband to stopband at the expense of passband
amplitude ripple and frequency-dependent group delay characteristics (non-linear passband
phase response).
The high Q circuits employed also introduce potentially large phase variation with temperature,
and phase versus temperature matching from filter-to-filter is poor. For a measurement system
employed between the matcher and the reactor chamber, the filters can easily become the major
source of measurement error. In oven tests at the SEMATECH Calibration Lab, the differential
phase variation of two commercial Chebychev filters, held tightly in physical contact, showed
that variations of several degrees of phase could be observed over a 5C change in ambient
temperature. To illustrate the point, if the plasma load is a typical 4-j20 , the phase angle of the
current is 78.69 and the power factor is 0.1961. If a phase error of 0.1 is introduced, the power
factor can be 0.1944, which implies a measurement error in power of 0.9%. This much error is
almost assured under the most optimum conditions. If filters can introduce several degrees of
differential phase over a 5C temperature range, it is easy to see that they can make
measurements unrepeatable and subject to large errors. In light of this fact, it was necessary to
carefully design filters (Figure 41 and Figure 42) for this application to minimize differential
phase change with temperature excursions.
Figure 41 Complete Dual Channel RF
Harmonic Filter
Figure 42 Dual Channel RF Harmonic
Filter with Cover Off
36
The design process began by using a filter synthesis and analysis program to examine the
suitability of a Bessel bandpass arrangement. It soon became clear that although the phase
response would be favorable, one could not get sufficient attenuation of the second harmonic no
matter what order of filter was used. After some time was spent looking at Butterworth and
various elliptic responses, it became obvious that standard polynomial-based filters would never
achieve the desired phase and attenuation characteristics in any topology that could actually be
built and tuned. The designers took a step back and the filter requirements were re-examined in
the light of what was known about the signal being filtered and what could actually be built. It
was observed that since the excitation was of a single frequency, the only frequencies that would
be generated by a nonlinear load would be integer multiples of the fundamental 13.56 MHz, and
under some rare, but possible circumstances, subharmonics of 13.56 MHz. The filter response at
other frequencies really did not matter much. In the light of this observation, an intuitive
approach was taken. A filter composed of five parallel resonant tank circuits was conceived. Two
shunt-connected end section traps tuned to 13.56 MHz would form the overall bandpass
characteristic. The Q of these traps would be fairly low by filter standards so as to make the
phase versus frequency and temperature characteristics acceptable.
This arrangement, however, would not nearly have sufficient attenuation for the second and third
harmonics, nor would it significantly reduce any subharmonics. To accomplish this, three series
traps were set between the two end sections (Figure 43) tuned to 2f
0
, f
0
/2, and 3f
0
,

respectively.
Moderate Qs for these sections were chosen, mainly limited by considerations of tuneability and
the Q of available surface mount inductors.
Figure 43 Initial Harmonic Filter Design Schematic
Modeling indicated that the f
o
/2 trap frequency would have to be raised slightly to get the trans-
mission phase shift to zero and at the same time have the maximum transmission amplitude at f
o
(13.56 MHz). The modeling program was used to get the input and output impedance scaled to
50 by juggling Qs and inductances against available values. A prototype was constructed and
its performance measured. The experiment agreed well with modeling, except that the input
impedance was closer to 35 than 50 . Impedance scaling of components was undertaken and
another prototype was constructed. The impedance increased only half as much as calculated,
and the amplitude response was flattened and degraded. It was clear that the circuit board
parasitics were imposing a practical limit on the filter impedance. The values from the original
prototype were then restored and the end section inductors were tapped to effect the necessary
impedance matching (Figure 44). An acceptable match was achieved and the filter response
(Figure 45 and Figure 46) was restored at a 2 dB expense in passband attenuation.
37
Figure 44 Final Harmonic Filter Design Schematic
Figure 45 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Frequency Response
Figure 46 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Bandpass Insertion Loss
38
The next task was to temperature compensate the phase response of the filter. Modeling
predicted and the prototype confirmed that the passband phase was most sensitive to the resonant
frequencies of the two end sections and the 7.2 MHz trap. Two samples of each of the inductors
were oven tested to obtain the temperature coefficient of inductance and Q. Results were
consistent between runs, but were not in accordance with the manufacturers specified
temperature coefficients. The 4700 nHy inductor for the 7.2 MHz trap indicated a negative
temperature coefficient. This measurement was repeated several times with several different
inductors before it was believed. The temperature coefficient of the 910 nHy inductor was
irrelevant because tuning of the third harmonic trap did not affect passband phase (Figure 47)
and the 1000 nHy inductor for the second harmonic trap had very nearly a zero temperature
coefficient.
Figure 47 Network Analyzer Plot of Harmonic Filter Phase Shift at 13.56 MHz
Temperature compensation would be required for the end sections and the 7.2 MHz trap. The
end sections were compensated by the standard technique using commercially available negative
temperature coefficient ceramic capacitors to offset the inductors positive temperature
coefficient. The 4700 nHy inductor presented a problem, however, since inductor temperature
coefficients are always positiveno one makes positive temperature coefficient compensating
capacitors. The necessary compensation was achieved by connecting a 3900 nHy inductor with a
small negative temperature coefficient in series with an 820 nHy inductor with an advantageous
positive temperature coefficient to from a 4720 nHy inductor with a nearly zero temperature
coefficient.
39
Dual channel filters were then laid out with two signal paths side by side on the same PC board.
They were mounted in a metal box to provide electrical shielding and to keep both signal paths
isothermal. The result was a temperature vs. differential phase response (Figure 48) of 069
over a 30C temperature range or 2.3 millidegrees phase/C, which is about 500 times smaller
than that of the commercially available Chebychev filters previously in use.
Figure 48 Differential Phase versus Temperature for the Two Filter Channels
These filters, as with any filter, have to be tuned during manufacturing to achieve a satisfactory
result. A network analyzer is required to tune up and troubleshoot these filters. An experienced
technician can perform the task in about an hour. The procedure involves setting the resonant
frequencies of the series traps, then trimming the resonance of the end sections for good input
and output impedance matching (Figure 49 and Figure 50). Final zeroing of the differential phase
response at 13.56 MHz is completed by trimming the resonant frequency of the 7.2 MHz trap.
This is accomplished by clipping down a twisted wire capacitor (commonly called a gimmick
by old ham radio operators) until the differential phase transmission agrees within 10 milli-
degrees. Attempting to tune these filters without a network analyzer is possible, but probably
foolhardy.
40
Figure 49 Network Analyzer Plot of the Input Impedance of the Harmonic Filter
Figure 50 Network Analyzer Plot of the Output Impedance of the Harmonic Filter
41
Figure 51 through Figure 53 provide detailed component level fabrication information.
Note: Single-sided board.
Figure 51 Silkscreen Layout of PCB for Dual Filter Assembly
Figure 52 Layout of the Components of the Dual Harmonic Filter Assembly
42
Figure 53 Schematic of Harmonic Filter
Table 1 Parts List for Harmonic Filter
Item Qty. Reference Part Suggested Source
1 2 C12,C1 68 NPO Surface mount, NPO, ceramic, size 805
2 2 C11,C2 470 NPO Surface mount, NPO, ceramic, size 805
3 2 C10,C3 330 N330 MURATA ERIE GRM40S2H331J50V
4 1 C4 39 NPO Surface mount, NPO, ceramic, size 805
5 1 C5 TBD Surface mount, NPO, ceramic, size 805
7 1 C7 TBD Surface mount, NPO, ceramic, size 805
10 2 J2,J1 SMA (F)
11 2 L8,L1 56 COILCRAFT 1008HS-560TKBC
12 2 L2,L7 100 COILCRAFT 1008HS-101TKBC
13 1 L3 1000 COILCRAFT 1008HS-102TKBB
14 1 L4 3900 COILCRAFT 1008HS-392XKBB
15 1 L5 820 COILCRAFT 1008HS-821TKBB
16 1 L6 910 COILCRAFT 1008HS-911TKBC
Notes: 1. All capacitance in pico-farads.
2. All inductance in nano-henries.
3.3 Detector Electronics
Probably the greatest challenge in the development of this system has been designing circuits
that can accurately transform the RF samples from the sensor to DC signals that represent those
samples in amplitude and phase. A high-accuracy laboratory method is to use a vector voltmeter
to measure the amplitudes and relative phases of the RF power current and voltages. The
measurements of the power delivered to the load and the load impedance can be computed from
these signals. Currently, expensive and bulky laboratory instruments are used for these
measurements.
43
In addition to the size and cost, these instruments do not lend themselves directly to a control
system. If the intent is to build a system that has a closed-loop control, the designer has to
consider not only the accuracy of each of the elements in the control system, but also the
functionality of each of the elements in the control system. While using laboratory instruments
for the detectors seems to be a good idea on the surface, they have several drawbacks. The cost
and size of these instruments initially may appear to be the major limitation. However, these
instruments must be initialized and the commands sent to them so that the desired measurements
can be made. In addition, these instruments have a variety of output formats that must be read
and then converted into useful data for the control system. Laboratory instruments also tend to be
very slow, often hundreds of milliseconds per measurement. This is not a problem for their
intended use, but does present some concern to the designer of a control system where the loop
response time required is a few milliseconds.
A second technique is to build an application specific detector to make the required amplitude
and phase measurements. Previous work at ORNL on a fusion energy project suggested two
paths. An ECL phase detector and a real and reactive power (I-Q) detector were prototyped to
see which one was best. Both circuits worked well. The choice depends upon the application. For
instance, the ECL phase detector works over a fairly wide range of frequencies, but requires a
10 mV RMS signal to drive it before the measurements can be relied upon, even though the
detector will lock up on signals less than 1 mV RMS. This design also requires more board space
than the I-Q detector and is extremely critical in terms of board layout and parasitic oscillation
suppression techniques. The I-Q detector is limited to a single frequency of operation. It is very
stable and requires less space than the ECL phase detector. In addition, the dynamic range of the
I-Q detector is nearly 10 dB greater than the phase detector. The assembly costs of both units
were kept low by using off-the-shelf components in the designs. There were no adjusting pots
used on either board, but a one-time offset trim using surface mount trim resistors at the time of
fabrication is required. Both detector circuit techniques measure voltage and current in terms of
their mean square values. It is left to a computer or other devices to reduce this data into RF
power and related information.
3.3.1 Phase Detector Method
A simplified vector voltmeter (Figure 54 and Figure 55) was needed for this project to replace
the laboratory instruments that have been used in the past. A previous laser interferometry
project had successfully used an Analog Devices AD834 four quadrant multiplier in the phase
detection mode. This detector was used to provide phase measurements in the order of 3 milli-
degrees. Although the resolution of this design was very good, the calibration was relative, not
absolute. Another problem was that the design was sensitive to signal amplitude variations, as
well as the phase variations it was intended to measure. While this was not a problem for the
intererometry experiment, it was a big problem for this project. The amplitude sensitivity was
judged too large a risk factor and this approach was abandoned in the conceptual stages.
The design concept that was chosen for this project was to design and build a phase detector
immune to amplitude changes. A simplified vector voltmeter was developed for this application
that will provide DC voltages proportional to the magnitudes of the two signals and the phase
difference between them. The design approach that was chosen for this project was to use a
phase detector chip combined with a passive integrator and differential amplifier to build a phase
44
Figure 54 Complete Phase Detector Assembly
Figure 55 Phase Detector with Cover Off
detector that would give a very linear output over the range of 2 radians. The implementation
of this design went through several iterations before the final design. The phase detector section
was designed around a Motorola emitter coupled logic (ECL) phase detector chip. The circuit
samples both the current and voltage pickup outputs from the RF sensor after filtering in the dual
channel harmonic filter. Before the signals are sent to the MCH12140 phase detector chip they
are routed through four MC10H115 buffers that are used as hard limiters. These remove all of
the amplitude variations in both signals. This technique removes any error caused by amplitude
variations in the phase detector. The phase detector performance is shown in Figure 56.
45
The Analog Devices AD834 was used as the amplitude detector. This signal was then buffered
and scaled by a precision opamp. Final DC offset trim is also made in this stage. The DC voltage
these two outputs represent are the voltage and current outputs from the RF sensor. The
performance of the magnitude detector portion is shown in figure Figure 57.
The equation for data reduction of the phase detector board are well known
cos I E P Power
RMS RMS

cos R Resistance
RMS
RMS
I
E
sin X Reactance
RMS
RMS
I
E
Figure 56 PD4 Phase Detector Linearity Plot

Figure 57 PD4 Magnitude Detector Linearity Plot
46
Figure 58 Silkscreen Layout of the Top Side of the PD4 Phase Detector PCB
Figure 59 Silkscreen Layout of the Bottom Side of the PD4 Phase Detector PCB
47
Figure 60 Layout of the Components on the Top Side of the PD4 Phase Detector
48
Figure 61 Layout of the Components on the Bottom Side of the PD4 Phase Detector
49
Figure 62 Schematic of PD4 Phase Magnitude Detector
50
Table 2 Parts List for Phase Detector
Item Qty. Reference Part/Value
1 26 C1,C2,C3,C4,C5,C6,C8,C10,C11,C14,
C15,C16,C17,C18,C21,C22,C23,C24,
C25,C26,C27,C29,C37,C38,C47,C48
0.001 uf, Surface mount size 805
2 19 C7,C9,C30,C31,C33,C43,C45,C61,C62,
C63,C64,C65,C66,C69,C70,C72,C73,
C75,C76
3 12 C12,C13,C19,C20,C28,C35,
C36,C39,C46,C49,C71,C74
0.01uf, Surface mount size 805
4 2 C32,C34 500 pf, Surface mount size 805
5 6 C55,C56,C57,C58,C59,C60 12 pf, Surface mount size 805
6 2 C67,C68 10 uf Tantalum, 25 V
7 2 J1,J2 SMA (F) Pasternack PE 4118
8 1 J3, J4, J5 Signal Outputs to 9-pin D connector
9 1 JP1 POWER 3-pin header 0.100 spacing
10 4 L1,L2,L3,L6 0.68 uh Molded Choke
11 2 L4,L5 150 uh Molded Choke
12 4 R1,R2,R57,R72 100 , Surface Mount size 1206
13 12 R3,R4,R9,R10,R11,R20,R21,
R24,R97,R102,R105,R106
1K , Surface Mount size 1206
14 12 R5,R7,R25,R27,R37,R38,
R86,R87,R88,R89,R90,R91
27 , Surface Mount size 1206
15 10 R6,R8,R26,R28,R39,R40,
R41,R42,R46,R52
330 , Surface Mount size 1206
16 10 R12,R13,R14,R15,R22,R23,
R29,R30,R31,R36
1k , Surface Mount size 1206
17 6 R16,R18,R32,R34,R43,R44 51 , Surface Mount size 1206
19 2 R45,R48 2.2k , Surface Mount size 1206
20 2 R47,R49 10k , Surface Mount size 1206
21 2 R50,R51 57.6k , Surface Mount size 1206
22 6 R53,R54,R55,R59,R74,R92 10 , Surface Mount size 1206
23 2 R58,R73 120 , Surface Mount size 1206
24 4 R93,R94,R98,R99 49.9 , Surface Mount size 1206
25 4 R95,R96,R100,R101 TRIM
26 1 R103 82 , Surface Mount size 1206
27 1 R104 39 , Surface Mount size 1206
28 3 U1,U2,U3 MC10H115, 16 PIN DIP
29 1 U4 MCH12140, SO8
30 2 U5,U7 AD834JR, SO8
31 1 U9 OP470GS, SOL16
32 2 U10,U11 LM7805, TO220
33 1 U12 LM7905, TO220
51
3.3.2 I-Q Detector Method
The other approach was to roll back the clock 60 years or so and measure both real and reactive
power directly, then calculate the load impedance and phase angle as the electric power industry
has done for many years. This approach was never used historically at RF frequency because the
necessary direct measurements could not be made, but again the AD834 precision wideband
analog multiplier made it possible. The I-Q detector (Figure 63 and Figure 64) offers a different
approach to the problem of measuring power dissipated in reactive loads. An I-Q detector
resolves the signal into two orthogonal components. The comonents are expressed as the in
phase value and the phase quadrature value. This technique provides the user with four terms
with which to determine the characteristics of the load. The values of E
2
and I
2
as well as the in
phase and quadarature phase products of E and I are available. Only three of the four terms are
required to determine the phase and impedance of the circuit. The user is free to overdetermine
the solution, thus adding to the accuracy of the measurements made by this method. For instance,
the solution may be derived by using E
2
, P, and Q. I
2
, Q, and P could then be used as a second
solution. These two solutions are then checked for agreement. The final solution can be
determined by averaging the two methods. This technique permits accurate and repeatable data
to be collected.
For best accuracy, the I-Q board must have the phase response of its quadrature power splitters
trimmed. This operation requires precision 0 and 90 phase signal sources at 0.75 V RMS into
50 . A silver mica capacitor is used to adjust the phase so that the indicated real power nulls at
90 signal phase. A miniature section of transmission line is used to change the path length
between the real power detector and reactive power detector to null the reactive power at 0
signal phase. The transmission line length is 30.1 mm plus 4 mm for each 0.1 phase correction
required.
Figure 63 Complete I-Q Detector Assembly
52
Figure 64 I-Q Detector Assembly with Cover Off
For the I-Q detector board voltage (E), current (I), power (P), and reactive power (Q), (not to be
confused with Q associated with LC circuits) are measured directly. Circuit impedances can be
derived from the current and voltage by
, ,
2 2
RMS RMS
I
Q
X
I
P
R
and the phase of the current with respect to the voltage is
. tan
1
P
Q

When R and X are computed using the familiar formula
Q
V
X and
P
V
R
RMS
P
RMS
P
2 2

the answer is for a parallel connection of R and X rather than the customary series values (as
given by the current-based derivation). Some algebra gives the series equivalent values as
2 2
2
2
2
Q P
QV
X and
P
Q
P
V
R
RMS RMS
+
Again, Q is measured reactive power, not the circuit Q as RF engineers customarily use the
term.
53
The performance of the I-Q detector is shown in Figure 65 and Figure 66.
Figure 65 I-Q Detector Modeled and Measured VARS Data Superimposed
54
Figure 66 I-Q Detector Linearity Performance
Figure 67 through Figure 71 provides detailed component level fabrication information.
Figure 67 Silkscreen Layout of the Top Side of I-Q Detector PCB
55
Figure 68 Silkscreen Layout of the Bottom Side of I-Q Detector PCB
Figure 69 Layout of Components on the Top Side of I-Q Detector PCB
56
Figure 70 Layout of Components on the Bottom Side of I-Q Detector PCB
57
Figure 71 Schematic of I-Q Detector
58
Table 3 Parts List for I-Q Detector
Item Qty. Reference Part
1 8 C1,C11,C14,C22,C26,C35,C38,C47 0.001 uf, Surface mount size 805
2 32 C2,C4,C6,C7,C9,C10,C12,C15,C16,C18,
C19,C21,C23,C24,C27,C28,C30,C31,C33,
C34,C36,C39,C40,C42,C43,C45,C46,C48,
C50,C51,C52,C53
3 1 C3 4.7 uf, Tantalum 25V
4 8 C5,C8,C17,C20,C29,C32,C41,C44 1000 pf, Surface mount size 805
5 4 C13,C25,C37,C49 C
6 2 J1,J5 SMA (F)
7 4 J2,J3,J4,J6 Signal Outputs to 9-pin D connector
8 4 L1, L2, L3, L4 150 uh Molded Choke
11 12 R3,R4,R10,R11,R12,R19,R20,R26,R27,
R30,R40,R41
49.9 , Surface Mount size 1206
12 8 R5,R7,R13,R17,R21,R23,R28,R32 R , Surface Mount size 1206
14 8 R42,R43,R44,R45,R46,R47,R48,R49 TRIM
15 2 T1,T2 PSCQ-2-14
16 4 U1,U3,U5,U7 AD834JR
17 4 U2,U4,U6,U8 OP27GS
18 1 U9 LM7805
19 1 U10 LM7905
4 POWER DELIVERY SYSTEM
A major goal of this project was to construct an RF matcher that was completely electronically
controlled, with no moving parts. To accomplish this, one must have a variable reactance that is
controlled by an external bias current or voltage. There are two well known devices with this
property, the varactor diode and the saturable reactor.
The varactor diode is a device that changes its capacitance as a function of the reverse bias
across the junction. (Actually, all P-N junction diodes have this property, but the doping profiles
are optimized for this purpose in varactors.) They are widely used in radio and television tuners
as well as frequency synthesizers and FM and PM modulators. In principle, they could be used in
an RF matcher as well, but there are two significant problems that currently prevent this use. One
problem is that available varactors are low-power devices capable of handling only a few tens of
milliwatts. This could be overcome by using large area power rectifiers, as their doping profiles
are similar to varactors. The second problem, however, presents a fatal flawthe voltage swing
caused by the RF signal is large compared to the DC or capacitance controlling bias on the diode.
This means that the capacitance would swing significantly over each RF cycle, forming a
parametric capacitor and generating harmonics much in the same way that the plasma sheath
does in the reactor chamber. This problem does not present itself in the small signal
59
communication applications of varactors because the RF voltage is in the millivolt range and the
bias excursion caused by the RF waveform is small compared to the imposed DC control
voltage, so the nonlinearity becomes negligible.
With the voltage-variable capacitor eliminated, we are left with the saturable reactors as our
electronic tuning element. Since the invention of high-power silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs),
saturable reactors are no longer used in AC power regulation, but in the past they have been the
most prominent means of AC power regulation. They have also been used in magnetic amplifier
circuits since somewhere around the turn of the century. These circuits have always been
considered low-frequency devices because of the effects of parasitic winding capacitances and
core losses. Nickel zinc ferrite magnetic materials have made RF saturable reactors possible by
providing an acceptable combination of permeability, saturation flux density, Curie temperature,
core loss, and soft knee hysteresis loops. They do not, however, help the problem of turn-to-turn
capacitance.
4.1 Saturable Reactor Technology
Saturable reactors (Figure 72) work by making use of the fact that magnetic materials
permeability varies with the flux density in the core along a path called the hysteresis loop. Since
permeability () is a linear term in the inductance of a coil (L = Kn
2
), if one can vary the
permeability of the core by controlling its operating point on the hysteresis loop, then one can
also vary its inductance by the same method. One must also ensure that the product of the RF
current and the number of turns on the RF winding is small compared to the product of the
minimum DC current and the number of turns on the DC or control winding. This will ensure
that the movement of the operating point on the non-linear hysteresis loop as a result of the
presence of the RF current is small and, thus, does not result in significant harmonic generation.
The cross-sectional area of the core must be sized so that the flux density and core loss are kept
within acceptable limits.
Figure 72 Complete Saturable Reactor
60
A classical implementation (Figure 73) of a saturable reactor is formed from two matched
transformers wired so that the control windings are bucking while the AC windings are aiding.
Figure 73 Classical Implementation of Saturable Reactors
In this arrangement, assuming the two transformers are matched, the voltage induced across
winding C
2
due to the AC signal flowing through L
1
is subtracted from voltage induced across
winding C
1
due to the same AC signal flowing through L
2
. If the transformers are matched, the
AC voltage appearing across the DC supply terminals is zero and no AC current flows through
windings C
1
or C
2
. The AC and DC windings are therefore decoupled from each other and
neither is affected by the other. This describes the low-frequency operation of saturable reactors,
but does not take into account the capacitive displacement current that flows between windings
and layers of windings in the control winding.
The distributed capacitance in the control winding results in circulating currents and it resonates
with the winding inductance producing destructive voltages at some frequencies. It also results in
resistive losses in the copper windings from the associated circulating currents of the distributed
RLC network that the control winding actually comprises. These losses and the associated
impedances are reflected through transformer action back into the AC winding so that instead of
an inductance in series with a small frequency dependent resistor, it becomes a complex network
of inductive and capacitive components and parasitic resonances. These effects can be detected
in some saturable reactors and magnetic amplifier designs at frequencies as low as 440 Hz. There
have been winding techniques devised to minimize this parasitic interwinding capacitance, but
the frequency response improvement is only a factor of two or three and comes no where near
extending the range to RF frequencies.
It is possible to extend the frequency response of saturable reactors into the low frequency RF
region by severely reducing the number of turns in the control winding and raising the amplitude
of the control current so that the product of the control current and the number of turns remains
equal. This approach soon results in prohibitive control current and still has a fundamental
frequency limitation. It rapidly becomes clear that the winding capacitance problem must be
solved in a fundamental way if a satisfactory saturable reactor is to be designed for RF use at
13.56 MHz and above. Since the mere presence of a control winding inescapably implies
interwinding capacitance, it becomes clear that the effect of the capacitance must be nullified
61
since the capacitance itself is inescapable. The approach taken is the technique of bootstrapping,
which has been used to extend the high frequency response of electronic amplifier circuits for
many years. Bootstrapping is simply making sure that the same voltage is placed on both
terminals of the capacitor. Since there is then no voltage across the capacitor, there is no current
through the capacitor and it becomes undetectable electrically and no longer affects the circuit
operation. The degree to which this can be done successfully is the degree to which the capacitor
becomes negligible. This implies that to bootstrap the winding capacitance of an RF saturable
reactor, the RF voltage between adjacent points on the control winding must be the same. This
can be accomplished if the winding technique (Figure 74) is modified and the properties of the
cores match.
Figure 74 Complete Saturable Reactor
Toroidal cores were chosen because of their physical symmetry, their closed magnetic path, and
their commercial availability. The windings are configured to ensure that the induced EMF from
the transformer action of one core is summed with an equal and opposite EMF from the other
core before each turn is completed.
To put it another way, each turn of the control winding passes through the adjacent core before it
again passes through the first core so the sum of the induced voltage around each turn is zero
and, therefore, the RF potential at each point on a given turn is the same as at the corresponding
62
point on the turns on either side of it. For this to happen, the RF windings (Figure 75), not the
control windings, are wired in a bucking (Figure 76) configuration.
Figure 75 Cutaway of Saturable Reactor Showing RF Inductor Coil
63
Figure 76 Illustration of RF Bucking Wiring Method
In the toroidal implementation, the two cores are placed side by side about 1/8 apart and the
control winding is wound through both cores as though it were only one thick core. The RF
winding is wound in a figure 8 with the windings crossing in the gap between the cores. For
transformer purposes, this results in a bucking configuration and the two windings are decoupled
by nearly 60 dB. The reactor frequency limitations are now independent of the winding
capacitances and rest solely on the core losses, which increase with frequency. Using two
Amidon FT240-67 toroidal cores constructed of Fair-Rite material #67 with a one-turn RF
winding and a 150-turn control winding, a variable inductor results whose reactance varies
(Figure 77) from j50 to j35 as the control current advances from 1 to 12 amps, while the
resistive component of the impedance varies from about 0.5 to 0.375 .
This performance is achieved after the core has been taken to heavy saturation one time (30 amps
control current momentarily) to place it on the hysteresis loop. If this heavy saturation step is
omitted, the inductance will actually increase rather than decrease with the application of control
current. Kapton and fiberglass tape are used to insulate and protect the windings mechanically
and corona dope is useful in reinforcing the enamel coating on the control winding layers. This is
done to prevent scrapes of the insulation during winding operations (Figure 78) from developing
into shorted turns later in operation.
4.2 No Moving Parts, Fast Matching Network Design
The final goal of the project was to develop a matcher (Figure 79) that would be very repeatable,
reliable, and fast enough to ensure that control of RF power delivery would be immediately
established. To accomplish these objectives, a fundamentally different approach was conceived.
The RF measurement system would be used to measure the power delivered to the chamber and
the power level would be controlled.
This being accomplished, a conjugate match would not be necessary, but operation within a
specified SWR (Figure 80) circle would be accepted as is common with todays VHF and
wideband HF communications transmission equipment.
64
Figure 77 Ampere Turns versus R, Q, and X Data for a Saturable Reactor Design that
had Two RF Turns per Core (used on the first matcher prototype)
Figure 78 Saturable Reactor Assembly
65
Figure 79 Interior of the High Speed RF Matching Network Prototype
Figure 80 Matching Network Operating Profile Plot
66
Delivered power is then controlled by adjusting the generator to compensate for transmission
losses. Available data indicated that the resistive component of the load varied over only a fairly
narrow range, while the reactance varied over a substantially larger range. This implies that if
one could tune out the load reactance, the desired performance could be achieved by using fixed
transformers to match the resistive component of the load to the generator source resistance.
Such an approach offers several advantages. The matcher can tune with only one variable
element, which tremendously simplifies the tuning algorithm making it faster and inherently
more robust. Since the load is capacitive, the reactance can be canceled by an inductor, which
permits the use of a saturable reactor as the tuning element. The tuner therefore can be
electronically tuned, which enhances speed, and all moving parts are eliminated thereby
enhancing reliability. Copper losses in the matcher are diminished because it operates in series
resonance and large circulating currents, normally associated with tank circuits, are eliminated.
Disadvantages of the approach are a somewhat limited tuning space and power dissipation in the
ferrite used to construct the saturable reactor. In the initial prototype (Figure 81), the saturable
reactor RF winding consisted of four turns on two cores. Since the saturable reactor was
capacitively coupled to the load to provide DC isolation, the RF current in the load and the
reactor were equal. The tuning reactance window was about 35 wide. At the generator side of
the saturable reactor, a transmission line transformer with a 1:9 impedance ratio transformed the
load resistance to 50 .
Figure 81 Prototype Matcher Design
In this configuration, core loss was substantial as efficiency was R
L
/R
L
+ R
M
or between 70 and
80%. It required 100 cfm of air carefully directed to achieve thermal stability at 150C with
600 W RF power applied. Thermal equilibrium could be maintained only to about 30 W without
forced air cooling. Two steps were taken to solve the power dissipation problem. First, the turns
were reduced from two turns per core to one turn per core. Since the inductance was reduced, the
number of reactors was increased to four (Figure 83) to achieve the required amount of total
inductance. Recall inductance scales as n
2
. It was hoped that this would produce an equivalent
inductance swing and series resistance. The inductance swing was better than predicted, about
60 reactance swing as opposed to 35 with the previous model. However, the loss resistance
also increased. The second step used a 3:1 impedance transformer between the load and the four
cascaded saturable reactors to lower the RF current in the saturable reactor. The RF current in the
saturable reactor was reduced by . This reduced core loss and distributed those losses over
eight cores instead of only two. With the same 100 cfm, 1000 watts steady state power can be
handled comfortably. A 4:1 transformer is then used to raise the input impedance to the 50
range.
67
Recall that the saturable reactor uses up to 12 amps of control current (Figure 82) to achieve the
ampere turns value required to tune the matcher.
Figure 82 RF Match Network Tuning Control Current versus Tuning Range Plot
A common 50 V supply was used to power both the RF generator and the matcher. The control
winding resistance is approximately 2 . Power dissipated in the control winding can reach
300 watts, which is more than the RF losses at 1000 W operating power. If linear regulation of
the control current were employed, an additional 300 W of heat would be generated.
L
m
L
R
R
R
+
( ) jO R R match at Z
m L in
+ + 4 3
Figure 83 Final Matcher Design
A pulse width modulated switching regulator circuit is used to control the current in the saturable
reactor control windings to minimize the power dissipation associated with the tuning current.
Since the hysteresis loop is nonlinear, the control current to reactor inductance transfer function
is also non-linear. An attempt was made to linearize this function by placing an L-C sensing
oscillator coil on the reactor cores to feedback on the oscillator frequency shift. The reactor
68
inductance could then be indirectly measured using an F to V converter fed by the sensing
oscillator to develop a feedback signal to compare to the matcher control signal. This effort
failed because we were not able to develop enough isolation between the 1 MHz sensing
oscillator and the 100 KHz power regulator switching transients to allow the system to function
properly. We believe that this would be a viable approach with a carefully constructed Faraday
shield on the sensing oscillator coil, but time and budget did not permit a second attempt on this
project.
After hard saturation, the ferrite cores have higher losses below 1 amp of control current, so to
preclude thermal runaway, the minimum control current is set at approximately 1 amp regardless
of the demand signal coming from the controller. This resulted in the final tuning range being
narrowed to between -j13 and -j30 capacitive reactance. The fixed capacitor can be used to
move this 17 reactive tuning window over a fairly wide range of reactances. In closed-loop
operation, the tuners response time to a 10 step change in load reactance is in the 510 ms
range. The control system for the tuner uses a two-step algorithm, which first measures the load
impedance and uses a lookup table to find the approximate tuning solution, then it switches to a
servo loop, which nulls the pre-match reactance. Using this matcher and controller in
combination, delivered power is leveled to the setpoint value within 8 ms of the step load
change.
69
Figure 84 Match Network Input Transformer Assembly
Figure 85 Match Network Output Transformer Assembly
70
Figure 86 RF Matcher, Saturable Reactor Current Drive Regulator Schematic
71
Figure 87 Matcher RF Deck Schematic
72
5 A UNIQUE COMPUTER CONTROL STRATEGY
5.1 Architecture and Design Strategy
5.1.1 The Software Story
Software Disclaimer: DO NOT USE THIS CODE FOR PRODUCTION.
The RF Control Project was a hardware project, not a software project. The code produced for
this project is prototype code for demonstration only. For example, saftety interlocks are modest.
PRODUCTION USE OF THIS SOFTWARE may result in INJURY OR DEATH
The RF power delivery system can be operated without software. However, we chose to use a
computer system to get accurate diagnostic RF sensor information. Over the course of the
project, the computer requirements changed drastically. The initial assumption was that the
computer architecture would be easy to assemble with a modest amount of programming. The
latest revision shows that the architecture is complicated, requires a great deal of programming,
and is a serious cause for concern.
To operate the RF power delivery system without using a computer requires the use of analog
electronic circuits. The RF sensor and I-Q signal processing circuits provide signals that are
proportional to RF power and reactance. The reactance signal can be used to tune the RF
matching network for zero reactance with RF information from the pre-match RF sensor. The RF
power levels to the load could be held constant by use of a variety of electronic circuit
techniques using information from the post-match RF sensor and I-Q signal processor. We did
not develop any circuitry for these types of analog control strategies, but we constantly kept it as
a backup plan to meet the project milestone time table in case the computer system failed.
The first attempt at developing a computer system for this project was based on the assistance of
the Motorola Microcontroller Applications Engineering department. The work focused on the
68F333 microcontroller on a development board connected to a custom A to D board fabricated
at SEMATECH.
We abandoned this approach because the combination of processor and algorithms could not
process the data fast enough to meet the system requirements. The system needed to perform
external data collection, calculate, and output a response at a rate of one measurement set per
millisecond. The limitations with the 68F333 approach centered around the need to acquire high
resolution 16-bit analog signals and to process that information through a control algorithm after
conversion to engineering values. Other Motorola processors might have worked just fine, but
with time running out on the project, the RF control team chose to obtain help from computer-
systems-level people and to defer hardware selection. We were unable to secure microcontroller
assistance from other Motorola product applications groups; therefore, we formed a design team
made up of computer engineering technical staff members from ORNL and SEMATECH.
Steve Hicks and Ganesh Rao from the Instrumentation and Controls Division at ORNL worked
closely with the MSD division at SEMATECH. Steve chose a dual processor approach that freed
the main device controlling processor from servicing interrupts associated with user interface and
file handling functions. Bob Flegal developed a special software architecture to handle the inter-
process communications.
The communications or query interface is modeled after Gelernters work on Linda at Yale
University (see Section 5.2.4). This software architecture is so powerful because it is very
73
simple. Each process or agent in the system communicates using simple messages made up of
three parts: conversations, topics, and subtopics. Any agent can read these three-part messages;
any agent can write messages. The query interface is described in detail in Section 5.2.4.
The control algorithm that operates the integrated RF power delivery system uses only a modest
control strategy based on an interdependent lookup table and a set of PID values. The
predominant time constant of the entire system is the speed at which the saturable reactor in the
RF matching network can electrically tune. Although additional enhancements to the strategy
have been discussed, we must collect data from a plasma etcher test installation before making
any changes.
Three areas that the current software implementation must address before it is ready for
production are safety, robustness, and performance. This implementation meets the performance
goals, but does not meet robustness and safety criteria. This project was conducted in an
engineering environment using laboratory safety practices and operated only under the direct
control of the lead RF engineer without exception. Safety considerations for the devices and the
operating software need significant improvement before any serious manufacturing can be
considered. Use of this experimental operating system for any purpose other than laboratory
research by talented RF engineers could be very hazardous!
The software shows that the integrated RF power measurement and control system actually
works and performs to the expectations of the contract specifications. More development will be
needed on the computer architecture and software before it is commercially viable.
5.1.2 Computer Hardware Design
Figure 88 is the hardware design diagram for the RF Control project. Two sensors are used to
gather data and provide input data for the matcher control algorithm. The pre-match sensor is
located between the RF power generator and the match box. The post-match sensor is located
between the match box and the plasma chamber.
The sensors gather data, filter them through harmonic filters, and then run the RF signals either
through the phase detect (PD4) or the I-Q detector boards. Finally, the analog data goes through
an A/D conversion board and into the faster processor on the dual processor computer.
The control algorithm on the fast processor uses the sensor data to drive the match network. The
computer takes the output from the control algorithm and feeds the digital value through a D/A
converter back to the RF power generator to modify the power signal.
5.1.3 Computer Software Design
In this diagram (Figure 89), each bubble represents a logical piece of functionality. All of the
bubbles can be implemented as one big process or as separate processes.
74
Figure 88 System Block Diagram of Hardware
Figure 89 Logical Design
75
The software team chose to break the functionality into two separate processes as shown in
Figure 90. The time-critical work is handled in one process (RF measurement and control). The
two processes communicate via the query interface.
Figure 90 Physical Design
5.2 Implementation
5.2.1 Hardware Implementation
The computer hardware used in this project is a Ziatech with dual processors: a 386/387
processor and a Pentium ZT8905 processor. The Ziatech hardware manages shared memory,
shared disk, shared display, and shared keyboard for multiple processors. In this configuration,
the Pentium processor is dedicated to data acquisition and control. The 386 processor is
dedicated to user interface, disk processing, and other tasks. The two processors communicate
over shared memory.
We recommend using two processors of equal power (i.e., two Pentium processors), if possible.
We did not do this and paid for it in user interface response time. If you do choose unequal
processors, dedicate the faster processor to the measurement and control module.
5.2.2 Software Implementation
The measurement and control module was developed for the ZT8905 Pentium processor board
and uses the Ziatech DDP library. The C language development environment is Watcom C/C++
under Microsoft Windows 3.1. The runtime environment is DOS.
The user interface editor is LabWindows for DOS. LabWindows code cannot be compiled using
the Watcom C/C++ environment. Therefore, we used the Microsoft C/C++ compiler under DOS.
76
5.2.2.1 RF Measurement And Control Module
The RF control algorithm is implemented in an interrupt service routine (ISR) that is executed at
every timer tick interrupt generated by the on-board PC timer. The original timer tick ISR is
replaced and the timer reloaded with a new count to generate the desired sample frequency. The
original ISR can be called to maintain the system time if that is required. The on-board timer is
not extremely precise. The error of the interrupt routine is based on its maximum resolution of
0.84 s and a few counts of error (Figure 91).
Figure 91 RF Measurement and Control Design
A stepper motor control capability was incorporated to adjust the vacuum variable capacitor in
the RF matching network. The purpose of adjusting the capacitor is to align the operating range
of the matching network around the center of the plasma load reactance range. The stepper motor
control feature was not fully developed because a manual adjustment of the capacitor was only
needed on rare occasion.
5.2.2.2 Configuration
The measurement and control module depends on the user interface to provide ALL
configuration variable values. The user interface module sends these values to the measurement
and control module through the shared memory interface. Neither system is considered active
until these initial configuration values have been sent and are properly received or
acknowledged.
77
The exceptions to this rule are sample frequency, data storage length, and control mode. The
measurement and control module must know these values to come up at all. It defaults to a
3000.0 Hz sample frequency, a 3000 element data storage length, and no control. The control
mode refers to the active control algorithm. The software may use different control algorithms
during execution. Currently, there is only one control algorithm that may be selected. Therefore,
the control mode is either off (0) or on (1). Control must be off at startup because the control
algorithm depends upon the rest of the configuration values to run.
5.2.2.3 A/D Module
There are two possible methods of acquiring data from the A/D channels: interleaved and non-
interleaved. The code for each of these methods is contained in external files and only one can be
included into the ISR. Currently, the ISR includes the interleaved data acquisition method.
The interleaving of A/D commands speeds input. It is much faster than the non-interleaved code
as data acquisition is performed simultaneously on both boards. The first read from each channel
must be discarded because of crosstalk errors that arose from settling time deficiencies in the
analog multiplexer buffer amplifier on the VerlaLogic A/D boards. These double reads are
necessary to get correct data, but they impact the speed of data acquisition.
Interleaved code *WITHOUT* double reads *DID NOT WORK !!!* There was a problem
where the input channels were shifted (i.e., the data from ADC0 was appearing at ADC1.) This
problem mysteriously disappeared after a processor swap. The problem was never solved, but
bus mastering may have been the culprit. Luckily, double reads seem to solve this problem.
5.2.2.4 Control Module
The control algorithm is included into the ISR. It calculates the generator and matcher setpoints.
It uses a table to make the initial guess for the output voltages to the matcher and generator.
Then, the PID control algorithm kicks in to bring the error to zero and correct for any errors in
the table. This is, therefore, a dual algorithm controller.
If the match is good, but the power transfer efficiency is poor, this control algorithm will shut
down power to the plasma (i.e., turn the generator off). The matcher control function is used only
if the RF voltage is greater than the RF voltage threshold. If the PID algorithm fails to reduce the
error to an acceptable limit after a specified number of trials, the controller switches to the
lookup table algorithm.
Note, the software is designed to allow more complicated control algorithms. Because the
matcher device is slower than the speed of the computer, this control algorithm is sufficient to
control the matcher.
5.2.2.5 Display
The measurement and control module provides an engineering screen that can be used when the
RF user interface is not running. It is implemented using simple text-based display commands
and assumes an experienced user.
The engineering screen handles keyboard input and runs whenever the ISR routine is not
running. It checks the users input against a list of recognized commands and performs the
known commands. It also reads the shared memory for updated variables and commands from
the RF user interface. Note, do not use the engineering screen for command input when the user
interface is running.
78
Measurements Module/Archiving
The user may request data archiving from the user interface or the engineering screen by issuing
the record command. The RF user interface is the PREFERRED way to request data archiving.
The measurement and control code uses huge arrays to hold the data in memory. This ensures
contiguous and complete data collection. These huge arrays can be allocated to save any type of
data. Once the arrays fill up, the measurement and control module waits for a command to save
the data. If another record command is received before a save command, the module will throw
away the existing data and restart the data archive.
5.2.3 RF User Interface
The user interface was developed using LabWindows for DOS from National Instruments. The
user interface editor provided in LabWindows generates display files which can be included into
C code (Figure 92).
Figure 92 RF User Interface Design
79
5.2.3.1 User Interface Module
The user interface module has three parts: the first_time procedure that is run once at system start
up, the each_time procedure that is called repeatedly until the system shuts down, and the
last_time procedure that does any clean up just before the agent returns to DOS.
There are five main user interface panels and two pop-up panels (start and help). Every panel is
processed the same way. The each_time function displays the panel and calls a processing loop.
Each processing loop takes the current_panel as input and returns an index to the next panel
selected. NO_SELECTION is returned when the user wishes to exit the entire program
(Figure 93).
Figure 93 Main Panel
Each processing loop starts by painting values on the panel and reading data values from the
shared memory interface. It then traps events on the panel and processes the events. Every panel
except main has a return button to exit back to the main panel.
The most important information to take away from this interface is not the way it was
implemented, but how it OPERATES. These panels constitute the RF teams best guess at what
might be needed in a user interface. As with any system, this is not the only way to implement
the user interface. Each panel has some operation that may not be intuitive. Those non-intuitive
operations will be described in the following sections.
Whenever the user changes a value on the system level control panel (Figure 94), the user
interface IMMEDIATELY sends the change to the measurement and control module (Figure 95).
If the user does not like the results of the change, pressing the UNDO button will restore the
original value.
80
Figure 94 System Level Control Panel
Figure 95 Operation Mode Panel
81
The sampling frequency must be greater than or equal to 3000.0 Hz before control is turned on.
The calibration panel (Figure 96) displays values for only one board at a time. While the system
SHOULD read all data values from the measurement and control module, it reads only those
values being displayed. This is a speed-up compromise to compensate for the slower speed of the
386 processor.
Every item associated with the display graphs is user configurable (Figure 97) (i.e., Y-axis range,
value being displayed, title).
The post-process button is independent of the record button (Figure 98). The user may select any
input file to post process, not just the most recently recorded file. No validation of the input file
is done. If the user supplies the name of a file that is not a valid input file, the system may hang.
Figure 96 Edit Sensor Calibration Panel
82
Figure 97 Dynamic Display of Sensor/System Data Panel
Figure 98 Data Archive Panel
83
Help Panels
The help text is kept in files named panel.hlp. The same mechanism is used to read all help files
and process the help panel. The help interface is very limited. The users can select next and
previous pages as well as return to the calling panel.
5.2.3.2 System Configuration Module
This routine reads the system configuration parameters from a disk file and stores the appropriate
values in shared memory using the out() procedure defined in the query module. A default
startup configuration file is used, but the user may change the configuration file during
execution. The configuration information is stored in conversation. topic subtopic format in
ASCII so that the configuration file can be edited using any standard text editor.
Valid configuration files have the following format:
RF CONTROL CONFIGURATION FILE
/* Comments that may span any number of lines.
Only the display maximum will be read */
SENSORID <a character string, no spaces allowed>
CONFIG const value (int, float, char)
CONFIG const value (int, float, char)
This file also manages an internal array of configuration variables and current values. All access
to the configuration variables is controlled through the routines in this file. Therefore, the
configuration variable array is LOCAL to this file.
5.2.3.3 Calibration Module
This module defines and manages the data collection structure. This data structure contains
numerical values that are sent to the user interface from the measurement and control module
through the shared memory interface. The data structure is accessed through the routines in this
file. Therefore, the data structure is LOCAL to this file.
5.2.4 Query Module
The query interface is designed to be a simple, powerful way to converse between processors.
The implementation is hidden from each side so that it can be implemented using the best
technology available on a given platform. This implementation uses shared memory. All of the
messages are ASCII text to aid in debugging and tracing sessions.
Shared memory is organized into message triples. Each message is a triple consisting of a
conversation, a topic, and a subtopic. Agents participate in conversations to communicate
subtopic information along topics. Note that conversations, topics, and subtopics may not contain
spaces. ("test it") is illegal; ("testit") is just fine.
The query interface is implemented using three procedures: out add a message, rdp find a
message, rd find and remove a message. For example, a measurement and control procedure
might indicate that an error in the user interface module has occurred by posting the message
out("ERROR_PENT", "save", "FileNotFound"). Another procedure might be looking for
ERROR_PENT messages by invoking rdp("ERROR_PENT","save","xxxxx") which will return
84
a subtopic in a message matching the ERROR_PENT" conversation and the "save topic. Note:
if the topic is the string "*" rd and rdp will return the first topic and subtopic that match the
conversation.
This interface is modeled after Gelernter's work on Linda at Yale University. For more
information on Linda, refer to it on the web. For example, search for Linda on Yahoo.
5.2.4.1 Conversations Implemented in the RF Control Software
The user interface module sends configuration data to the measurement and control module
using the CONFIG conversation. The measurement and control module acknowledges receipt of
the configuration variables through the UPDATE conversation.
The measurement and control module sends data and status information to the user interface over
the shared memory using the DATA conversation. The values are written to the shared memory
only if a previous value does not exist. This prevents overwrites of existing data and any
possible conflicts where the user interface is reading while the measurement and control
module is writing. If the user interface does not read a particular value, it will never change.
The user interface can also send commands over the shared memory using the COMMAND
conversation. The measurement and control module executes the commands and returns the error
code over the shared memory using the ERROR_PENT conversation.
The known conversations, topics, and subtopics are
CONFIG var-name var-value Written by User Interface
UPDATE var-name var-value Written by Measurement and Control
DATA var-name var-value Written by Measurement and Control
COMMAND command-text arguments (if any) Written by User Interface
ERROR_PENT command-text error-code Written by Measurement and Control
Separating the conversations keeps one process from overwriting another's data. Keeping these
lines of communication distinct and clear prevents arguments and other misunderstandings from
interfering with the symbiotic operation of the measurement and control module and the user
interface module.
5.3 Computer System Lessons Learned
This section lists just a few of the lessons learned during the second prototype.
While some points may seem self-evident, they were big stumbling blocks for
this team and they are well worth emphasizing.
85
5.3.1 Use a Real-Time Operating System
The data acquisition and control loop is currently implemented using the timer
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). The following anomalies were encountered using
this approach. Do not do this in a production system.
1. The time on the measurement and control module processor no longer functions because the
data acquisition and control ISR replaces the timer ISR.
2. Some activities on the Pentium board interfere with the timer ISR. Unfortunately, there is not
enough information about the Ziatech to ascertain whether there is a higher priority interrupt
that interrupts the timer ISR or whether the operating system just loses information. These
errors occurred when writing to a floppy disk and occasionally when swapping processors.
3. Initially, the data acquisition and control ISR was implemented using subroutines. This
increased the frequency of ISR interference and system lockups. Therefore, all of the
interrupt code was changed to inline code, but some function structuring is maintained by
using include files.
5.3.2 Use Proven Hardware
The Ziatech system was selected because it provides multiple processors with a
shared memory disk and display. These are the problems encountered with this
relatively new product.
Display - We encountered problems with the display when switching processors. The display
malfunctions during a processor swap if a complicated user interface panel is showing. The
display can only be cleared up by exiting the measurement and control program and issuing a
cls command. Obviously, we cannot stop the data collection just to clear the panel display.
Mouse - The processor hangs intermittently when the mouse is moved at the wrong time.
Speed - The speed of the 386 processor is very slow. The Pentium is so much faster that it
dominates the shared memory interface.
Memory Sharing - The user interface and measurement and control module cannot run under
Microsoft Windows because it does not work with the shared memory implementation.
Therefore, the software environment selections were limited to DOS applications.
5.3.3 Use a User Interface Builder
Use a commercial user interface builder. We selected LabWindows for DOS
because it was the best combination of price/performance we could find for the
DOS operating system. LabWindows for DOS is dated, has limited
functionality, and is restricted to a few basic widgets. Despite these shortcomings, it saved a
lot of time in developing the interface and is far superior to a roll-your-own interface
builder approach. LabWindows for DOS is still supported by National Instruments and it
lives up to its expectations even if the expectations are modest.
86
5.3.4 Query InterfaceSeparate Conversations
Separating the query conversations keeps one processor from overwriting
anothers conversation. Keeping these lines of communication distinct and clear
prevents arguments and other misunderstandings from interfering with the
symbiotic operation of the measurement and control module and the user interface module.
The measurement and control module writes on the DATA, UPDATE, and ERROR
conversations. The user interface writes on the CONFIG and COMMAND conversations.
Either side can read any conversation. This one-way mechanism is not protected through
hardware or even software locks. It is up to the programmer to follow the conversation
rulesso WATCH OUT!
5.3.5 Integrate Early and Often
Integrate all your code sooner than you think possible and continue to do
system integrations at frequent intervals. It will save you headaches in the long
run. If you want to see the battle scars and hear detailed war stories, call any of
5.4 RF Computer Control System Requirements that Guided the Project
The following are RF computer control system requirements that guided the project:
Hardware
1. Prefer laptop or notebook for use in wafer fabrication area
2. A/D and the D/A must have enough ports for experimentation
Software
1. During data collection, want selective query on demand
2. No constraints on language/platform
3. Load several detection algorithms
4. Control algorithm is not pinned down. Control algorithm selected/changed from
user interface within 510 minutes
5. Data collection can be directed to floppy disk
User Interface
1. Must refresh data display at a rate of three times a second
2. All screens must have a button to return to the main screen (or previous screen if
more than one level deep)
3. All screens must have a button for help or information
4. Main screen must contain prototype disclaimer
5. Main screen must allow user to start, pause, and stop control
6. UI must provide a screen for selecting control mode and setting control presets
and thresholds
7. UI must allow user to set the size of data averaging array
87
8. UI must provide a sensor calibration screen where the user can interactively
adjust all sensor gains and offsets while displaying sensor values as collected
from the measurement and control module
9. User must be able to set speed of data collection for passive and active control
If control is active, frequency must be at least 3000 Hz
10. UI must provide an interface for commanding the measurement and control
module to archive dataOnce data is collected, UI must prompt user for a save
file. Optionally, the user can post-process the data and save to a floppy
11. UI must provide data display in graph/strip chart formUser must be able to
select variable to be displayed and graph display range
12. UI must provide a mechanism for saving and restoring configuration/calibration
constants
*UI = user interface.
System
1. Measurement portion manufacturing cost must be $5000.00 or less
2. Printout of RF portion of software must be confinable to a modest-sized three
ring binder
3. RF and match box must work together in a 15 ms time frame
4. External data collection at one measurement set per one-third millisecond during
development
5. During product mode two times per second (time stamp OK)
6. Installed prototype must be safe when installed in fabrication area
7. Measurement and control module code and user interface must come up
automatically when machine is booted
6 OVERALL RF POWER MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE
The operational testing of RF power measurement and control system was completed by
delivering a constant power level into a load that simulated a set of rapidly varying plasma
conditions. The plasma simulating load was designed to switch between two different load
values separated by 10 reactance. The dynamic load switching was done by an independently
varied function generator that operated an electro-mechanical solenoid, which in turn actuated a
sealed vacuum mechanical switch. The vacuum switch added in a parallel capacitor to the
adjustable vacuum capacitor in the plasma simulating load when in the closed condition
suppying the 10 load reactance step change. The function generator was used to control the
vacuum switch at speeds from around 5 to 10 Hz to test the ability of the RF system and
determine how well it actually operated.
An important point needs to be noted prior to viewing these performance graphs. We have
incorporated a feature commonly used in the communications industry into our control strategy.
When the RF system computer senses that the matching network is no longer tuned for a load
condition, as it initially is when the load gets switched from one condition to another, we reduce
the RF power from the generator to about 70 W. We do this to protect components in the RF
88
power delivery path (Figure 101) from excess current and voltage stresses that occur under
mismatched conditions. We do not lower the power to zero because we want to keep the plasma
going and to continue supplying enough power to permit accurate measurements. We added a
protection feature based on matcher efficiency. If matcher efficiency drops below a preset value
(i.e., 25%), the RF generator will be turned off. This is done to prevent system operation should a
hardware fault occur or a load impedance be encountered that the computer tuning algorithms
cannot properly resolve.
The series of data graphs in this section are all from the same data set. The first two graphs
(Figure 99 and Figure 100) show one cycle of operation of the power delivery into the load as it
step changes from one condition to another and then back. The data graphs are arranged in pairs
with the first showing the primary end result information first, which is the information on the
requested power level, post-RF match network power levels, pre-RF match network generator
power level and the RF generator power control voltage. The second graph contains information
on the signal used to control the RF matching network.
Figure 99 Performance Plot of the Complete RF Power Delivery System into a
Dynamic Step Change Plasma Simulating Linear Load
89
Figure 100 Performance Plot of the Complete RF Power Delivery System Tuning
Control Signals (see Figure 99)
Figure 101 RF Power Delivery System Block Diagram
90
The next two sets of data graphs (Figure 102 and Figure 103) are blown up or expanded views of
the first and second events from the first set of graphs. In the expanded form it is much easier to
observe how well the system actually performs.
Figure 102 Expanded Time Scale Performance Plot of the First Event (see Figure 100)
Showing the Speed of Tuning and Power Delivery Control Accuracy
Figure 103 Expanded Time Scale Plot of the Tuning Control Signals at the First Event
(see Figure 102)
91
The most signifcant message that is being conveyed in this section is the bottom line answer
regarding just how well this system works after the time and resources have been consumed.
As you examine the data graphs, you will see the chain of events that unfolds in approximately
7 ms:
1. First observe that the requested power level and the delivered power level are essentially the
same (overlaid on each other) and that the RF generator output power is higher since some
gets dissipated in the matching network in the form of heat (note that the generator control
voltage has been multiplied significantly so that it will appear on the graph with the other
data).
2. As the load is switched to a different load condition, the RF sensor parametric data reveals
that the tune position of the RF matching network is no longer correct and the computer
begins to retune the matching network.
3. The computer begins to adjust the matching network until it determines that the required
amount of tune adjustment is outside of the PID control capability and then reverts to a
lookup table to get back into a course tune.
4. While the computer is conducting this two-step control strategy, the control signal to the RF
generator is lowered to about 70 W of RF power.
5. As the computer observes the matcher approaching a window of operation in which the PID
algorithm can again operate, the RF generator power levels are brough back up.
6. Proper tuning position and RF power level control is then established.
On the expanded set of graphs for the first event, note that the events centered around the 0.500
to 0.503 second time frame are caused by the mechanical switch bounce of the mechanically
actuated vacuum relay used to switch the load reactance. The RF system intially was attempting
to compensate for the switch bounce until it settled down. The expanded set of data graphs for
the other event does not show this characteristic because the vacuum relay simply opens.
The response characteristics of the system are slightly different as it moves from one set of load
conditions to another (Figure 104 and Figure 105). This is mainly because the saturable reactors
in the RF matching network are driven first in one direction of inductance adjustment and then
relaxed when going in the other. The performance level we achieved suggested that a more
elaborate saturable reactor drive scheme was not needed.
92
Figure 104 Expanded Time Scale Performance Plot of the Second Event (see Figure 100)
Showing the Speed of Tuning and Power Delivery Control Accuracy
Figure 105 Expanded Time Scale Plot of the Tuning Control Signals at the Second Event
(see Figure 104)
93
The final graph (Figure 106) is the overall RF matching network efficiency, which helps to
understand that we use the control of the RF generator output power to compensate for varying
efficiencies depending on the load.
Figure 106 RF Match Network Efficiency and Load Reactance Plot
7 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this project has raised the status quo in our industry and will provide many of the
technical staff members in the SEMATECH community new concepts and perspectives to draw
upon.
The analytical RF power sensor goal was successfully designed
The associated supporting electronics were successfully developed
The fast no-moving-parts electronic matcher was successful due to the design of a unique
saturable reactor
The contract stretch goal for a low-impedance RF power generator was accomplished
All of these were assembled into a functioning RF power measurement and control system
The engineering principles realized in the first version hand-built prototypes would have meet
the minimum level of achievements required by the contract objectives; however, the pusuit of
more mature prototypes, thorough engineering analysis, and the integratation and demonstration
a the RF power delivery system were not only logical efforts to pursue, but they also provide a
tangible and lasting memory for our customers.
The test gear and prototyping capabilities accumulated for this project will have value for years
to come as new RF technology project ideas are investigated, as well as provide us with
improved diagnostic support for current needs.
94
APPENDIX A
Derivation of Current Loop Sensor
A.1 Basic Theory
In electromagnetic problems, the starting point is the ubiquitous Maxwells equations.
Maxwells equations (in MKS units) are
t
D
J H
t
B
E
B
D
r
r r
r
r
r
r
+

0
Equation 1
where E
r
is the electric field, D
r
is the electric displacement, B
r
is the magnetic induction, H
r
is
the magnetic intensity, and J
r
is the current density. Maxwells equations alone are not enough
to determine the fields. In addition to Maxwells equations there are also relationships between
E
r
and D
r
and between B
r
and H
r
called constitutive relations. The constitutive relations must be
known before Maxwells equations can be solved. For the case of linear homogeneous media, the
constitutive relations become
E J
H B
E D
r r
r r
r r
Equation 2
where is the permittivity, is the permeability, and is the conductivity. For the present
treatment, only linear homogeneous materials will be considered, which means that , , and
are constants. Electromagnetic problems are mathematical boundary value problems in which the
fields or the derivatives of the fields are specified on the boundaries. There can be abrupt
changes in crossing boundaries of different materials. For example, if a copper plate is placed on
top of a glass plate, there will abrupt changes in the conductivity and permittivity across the
boundary. Across such boundaries there are a set of boundary conditions that must be satisfied
by the fields to be consistent with Maxwells equations [Stratton]. These boundary conditions are
summarized below:
s
s
D D n
E E n
K H H n
B B n

) (
0 ) (
) (
0 ) (
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
r r
r r
r r r
r r
95
Equation 3
where n is the unit normal in going from medium1 to medium 2 across the boundary
(Figure 107),
s
K
r
is the surface current density along the boundary, and
S
is the surface charge
between the boundaries. The subscripts, 1 and 2, on the field quantities indicate the region for the
field.
Figure 107 Surface Charge Boundary
The geometry for the pickup loop consists of two coaxial hollow conducting cylinders with
current flowing down the inner conductor and back along the outer conductor (Figure 108).
Figure 108 Concentric Coaxial Conductors
The pickup loop is looped through the outer cylinder into the inner conductor and returned back
through the inner and outer conductors (Figure 109).
Figure 109 Magnetic Pickup Loop Representation
96
For the present treatment, the geometry of the solid inner conducting cylinder will replace the
hollow inner cylinder and the outside radius of the outer conductor will be taken to infinity. This
is a very good approximation if the thickness of the conducting cylinders is large compared with
the skin depth. The axis of the cylinders will be taken along the z axis. For this geometry,
Maxwells equation can now be separated into two parts: one part containing the transverse
components of the derivatives and field components (symbolized by a subscript t) and a
longitudinal component (symbolized by a subscript z). (For more detail on the procedure
outlined below the reader is referred to the reference by Jackson.) Following the procedure
outlined in Jackson, the operator can be written in the form
z
a
z t
+ , where
t
is the
transverse component of the operator perpendicular to the z axis and
z
is the unit vector along
the z axis. Similarly the field quantities can be separated into a transverse and a longitudinal
component; for example,
z z t
E a E E +
r r
. Upon substituting these changes into Maxwells
equations and assuming a complex exponential time dependence for the fields, Maxwells
equations become
0

+
+
+

+

z
B
B
z
E
E
E j J
z
B
a a B
E j J B
B j
z
E
a a E
a B j E
z
t t
z
t t
t t
t
z z z t
z z t t
t
t
z z z t
z z t t
r
r
r r
r
r r r
r
r
r
Equation 4
The above set of equations look rather formidable, but they can be simplified with some effort.
For E J
r r
Equations 4 become
z
E
a B j E j
z
E
z
B
a E
j
j
B j
z
B
E j E
B j B
z
t z z t t
t
z
t z z t t
t
z z
z z

+ + +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
) (
) (
) (
0 ) (
0 ) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
r
r
r
r
97
Equation 5
Since the desired solutions are traveling waves along the z axis, the fields will have a z
dependence of the form e
jkz
. This means that k j
z
t
and
2
2
2
k
z

, and with these

substitutions, Equations 5 become
) 6 ( ) (
) 6 (
) (
) (
) 6 ( 0 ) (
) 6 ( 0 ) (
2 2
2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
d E k j a B j E k j
c B k j a E
j
j
B k j
b E k j E
a B k j B
z t z z t t
z t z z t t
z z t
z z t
t +
t
+
+
+ +
+ +

r
Equation 6
At first appearance, there seems to be little simplification in the problem, but closer examination
reveals that the original set of equations (Equations 4), which involved solving a set of coupled
differential equations in terms of the vector components of the fields, has now been reduced to
solving scalar ordinary differential equations. To be more specific, Equations 6a and 6b are
ordinary differential equations where E
z
and B
z
are scalars, which will be denoted by
t
(,).The
subscript t (
t
) indicates that the scalar function is in the plane perpendicular to the z direction
where and are generalized coordinates; for example Cartesian coordinates (x, y), polar
coordinates (r, ), etc. The procedure is to solve Equations 6a and 6b for
E
z
(,,
z
) = E
z
(,,
z
)e
j(kz-t)
and B
z
(,,
z
) = B
z
(,,
z
)e
j(kz-t)
. Denoting the solution of either
E
z
(,,
z
) or B
z
(,,
z
) by
t
(,,
z
) = (,)e
j(kz-t)
.
Equation 7
where the plus or minus sign indicates the direction of the traveling wave along the z direction
and ) , (
t
stands for E
z
(, ) or B
z
(, ). The function
t
(, ) depends only on the
coordinates in the plane perpendicular to the z axis. Substituting Equation 7 into Equation 6a or
6b gives
f
f
c
k
k j
t t t

2 , ,
2
0
2 2 2
2 2

+
+
98
Equation 8
where c is the velocity of propagation of the wave, is the wavelength, and f is the frequency in
the dielectric material of the coax.
In cylindrical coordinates (see Figure 108) Equation 8 becomes
0
1
) (
1
2
2
2
2
+ +
t
t t
r r
r
r r

Equation 9
We next determine E
z
and B
z
from Equation 9, with the appropriate boundary conditions, and
then using Equations 6c and 6d determine the transverse components of the fields.
For the interior of a coaxial cable with inner conductor of radius a, outer conductor of radius b,
and the region between the conductors filled with a dielectric of permittivity , the function
t
(r, ), which satisfies Equation 9 is
+ + +

0 0
)] sin( ) cos( )[ ( )] sin( ) cos( )[ ( ) , (
m
m m m
m
m m m t
m D m C r N m B m A r J r
Equation 10
where A
m
, B
m
, C
m
, and D
m
are constants that are determined by the boundary conditions. J
m
(x)
and N
m
(x) are Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively. Equation 10 is a general
solution for each region(i.e., the two conductors and the dielectric region in between).
A.2 Solution for Two Coaxial Conductors
To find the induced emf in the pickup loop, we must first determine the electric and magnetic
fields in each of the three regions of the two coaxial conductors with an intervening dielectric
between the two conductors. Ideally, the problem should be solved for the case of finite
conductivity with boundary conditions, but the finite conductivity case cannot be solved without
the aid of a computer. The perfect conductor case, however, does permit an analytical, closed
form solution. which provides insight into the nature of the solution, and gives a very good
approximation to the real case.
In the perfect conductor case, the electric and magnetic fields go to zero inside the conductors.
For good conductors (

>> 1) the fields are constrained to the skin depth of the conductor. So
to a good approximation, the ideal conductor case should yield good results. For perfect
conductors, the boundary conditions are
) 11 (
) 11 (
) 11 ( 0
) 11 ( 0
d D n
c K H n
b E n
a B n
s
s

r
r r
r
r
99
Equation 11
Equation 11a is equivalent to the condition 0
z z
B n B
n
on the surface of the conductor and

Equation 11b is equivalent to the condition E
z
= 0 on the surface of the conductor. Because the z
components of the electric field and the magnetic induction must satisfy the Equations 6a and 6b
respectively., the solutions for E
z
and B
z
are coupled by the parameter . In general, there are
solutions only for certain values of . For the present problem with perfect conductors it will be
shown below that must be zero.
The sensor coax has a common current flowing in the inner and outer conductors. The current
flowing in the z direction is related to the electric field by the equation

S S
dS n E dS n J I
r r
Equation 12
where S is the surface perpendicular to z direction and
z
a n . Equations 10 and 12 show that
) ( ) ( ) , (
0 0
r N B r J A r E
z
+
Equation 13
because the current I is not zero and because the other terms in Equation 10 do not contribute to
the total current as given by Equation 12. Equations 6c and 6d give the transverse components of
the fields:
) 14 ( )) ( ) ( (
) 14 ( )) ( ) ( (
1 1
1 1
b a r N B r J A
k j
E
a a r N B r J A
j
B
r t
t

+
t

+
r
r
Equation 14
where
is the unit vector in the direction and
is the unit vector in the r direction.

To apply the boundary condition to Equation 11c, it is necessary to determine the surface current
s
K
r
. Since it is assumed that the current I is flowing in the inner conductor, and similarly -I is
flowing in the outer conductor, the surface current density is defined as the limit of the product
of the current density times the length of the transition region into the conductor [Stratton] (i.e.,
the skin depth). In mathematical terms, the surface current density is expressed as
0 ) lim( and J as J K
s
Applying this definition to a thin cylindrical shell between r = a and r = a , the current is
related to the current density by the equation

2
0
a
a
Jrdr d I
Solving for J in terms of I,
100
)
2
( 2

a
I
J
Applying the definition for the surface current density gives
a
I
K
s
2
Now applying the boundary condition

s
K H n
r r
and noting that the normal vector n points
radially outward at the inner conductor boundary and radially inward at the outer conductor
boundary and also that the current in the outer conductor flows in the opposite direction of the
current in the inner conductor, then the boundary conditions now become
) 15 (
2
)) ( ) ( (
) 15 (
2
)) ( ) ( (
1 1
1 1
b
b
I
b N B b J A
j
a
a
I
a N B a J A
j

+
+
Equations 15
Applying the boundary conditions to Equation 11b ( 0 ) , ( a E
z
and 0 ) , ( b E
z
) gives the
following equations:
) 16 ( 0 ) ( ) (
) 16 ( 0 ) ( ) (
0 0
0 0
b b N B b J A
a a N B a J A
+
+

Equation 16
The task now is to determine the coefficients A and B satisfying Equations 15 and 16. Using the
property of Bessel functions:
z
z N z J z N z J
n n n n
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1

+ +
and applying Cramers rule to equations 15a and 16a gives the coefficients
) (
4
) (
4
0
2
0
2
a J
j
I
B
a N
j
I
A
101
Equations 17
Repeating the above procedure for Equations 15b and 16b gives the same results except a is
replaced by b in Equations 17. To obtain a unique solution for the coefficients A and B for
arbitrary a and b, it is necessary that 0. Substituting the coefficients in Equations 15 and 16
using the expressions for small arguments of Bessel functions:
)
2
(
1
) (
2
) (
)
2
ln(
2
) (
1 ) (
1
1
0
0
x
x N
x
x J
x
x N
x J
the fields inside the dielectric become upon taking the limit as 0
) 18 (
2
) 18 (
2
) 18 ( 0
) 18 ( 0
d a
r
I k
E
c a
r
I
B
b E
a B
r t
t
z
z

r
r
Equation 18
where sign gives the direction along the plus or minus z axis and the fields are zero inside the
conductors.
Equations 18c can now be used to determine the induced emf in the pickup loop. The pickup
loop circuit will be assumed to be a rectangular loop. For the ideal case, the electromagnetic
fields will be confined to the region between the conducting cylinders. The induced emf is
defined as the time rate of change of the magnetic flux, which opposes the original flux. In
mathematical terms this is given by

S
dS n B
t d
d
emf
r
where is the total magnetic flux.
The current can be separated into two traveling waves , ) ( ) , (
) ( ) (
0
t z k j t z k j
e R e I t z I

+ ,
where the first term represents the incident wave and the second term a reflected wave with a
reflection coefficient R. Substituting for B
r
from Equation 18c, the induced emf becomes
)] Re ) (
2
[
) ( ) (
0
2
1
t z k j
b
a
t z k j
z
z
e I
r
dr dz
t
emf

+

102
Equation 19
In the dielectric, since = 0 and = 0, then k . Using this relationship and letting
L = z
2
z
1
and
2
2 1
0
z z
z
+
(see Figure 109) and performing the indicated integration in
Equation 19, the induced emf can be written in the final form
) ( ) , (
) , ( )
2
sin( ) ln(
1
) ( 2 ) ( 2
0
0
t f
z
j t f
z
j
total
total
e R e I t z I
t z I
L
a
b
j emf

+
Equation 20
For the case that the loop length is small with respect to the wavelength, then the approximation
L L L

2
)
2
sin(
Equation 21
can be used to obtain an approximation for the induced emf in Equation 16
) , ( ) ln(
0
t z I
a
b
L f j emf
total

Equation 22
Equation 18 says that the induced emf is proportional to the frequency for high frequencies.
A.3 References
Jackson, John D., Classical Electrodynamics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1962).
Stratton, Julius A., Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw Hill,Inc., New York (1941).
Abramowitz, Milton and Irene A. Stegun (editors), Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover
Publications, Inc., New York (1970).
103
APPENDIX B
Derivation of Voltage Pickup Probe Sensor
Recall the equation in Section 3.1.2.
2
ln
2
2

1
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
a
l
fR
jV
=
[ ]
2
2 2
ln
l fR
a
jv
t

,
_
Eq. [B1]
=
l fR
a
jv
t

2
2
ln
,
_
The steradian is defined in a fashion similar to the radian except that it is the ratio of an area to
the square of the distance from the origin of the coordinate system to the surface. Of course,
strictly speaking, it only applies to surfaces of a sphere but, just as in the case of the radian,
usage is frequently stretched a bit. In particular, the solid angle subtended by a cylinder of
length l and radius is

l
l
2
/ 2
2
Eq. [B2]
Therefore, the capacitance between two concentric cylinders per steradian of the outer cylinder is
( )
( ) a
l
a
l
c
/ ln
2
/ ln
2
1
]
1
Eq. [B3]
where is the radius of the outer cylinder and a is the radius of the inner cylinder.
The solid angle
subtended by our pickup plate of radius , which we assume is also at a

distance from the center of the coordinate system, is
2
2

p
Eq. [B4]
104
Then the capacitance between the inner cylinder and the pickup plate is
,
_
a
c
p
ln
2
Eq. [B5]
Then, we add the factor 2 to reflect the two-sided nature of C
p
and use
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
ln
2 2

R f
a
jV
C R f
jV
RC
jV
V
t
p
t
i
t
s
,
_
Eq. [B6]
The equation in Section 3.1.2 reduces to Eq. [B6] after some changes of variables. To make these
changes, we note that the side of the inscribed square is l. Then
2
2
l Eq. [B7]
and
2
2

l
Eq. [B8]
Pulling this together, we get
2
2
2
2
2
2
l Eq. [B9]
Finally, we reduce the equation in Section 3.1.2.
2
ln
2
2

1
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
a
l
fR
jV
V
t
=
[ ]
2
2 2
ln
l R
a
jV
t

,
_
Eq. [B10]
=
l fR
a
jV
t

2
2
ln
,
_
=
2 2
2 2
ln

fR
a
jV
t

,
_
SEMATECH Technology Transfer

2706 Montopolis Drive
Austin, TX 78741
http://www.sematech.org
fax: (512) 356-3081
e-mail: info@sematech.org

Unused

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unused

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radio Frequency (RF) Measurement and Control

Project Report (TECQ001)

Figure 20 Magnetic Flux Illustration of Fundamental Laws

Now for ) cos( t I I

which in phasor form is

and finally the

For a coupling factor of -60dB,

. The subtended angle 57303 .

Figure 56 PD4 Phase Detector Linearity Plot

, and with these

on the surface of the conductor and

is the unit vector in the direction and

is the unit vector in the r direction.

Now applying the boundary condition

subtended by our pickup plate of radius , which we assume is also at a

SEMATECH Technology Transfer

You might also like