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The Summing Amplifier An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered

to hold for all input voltages:Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open loop gain AOL goes to infinity).Infinite voltage range available at the output ( ) (in practice the voltages available from the output are limited by the supply voltages and ). The power supply sources are called rails.Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat everywhere with zero phase shift).Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram, , and zero current flows from to ).Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current into the device).Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that , the output is a virtual ground or ).Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies).Zero output impedance (i.e., , so that output voltage does not vary with output current).Zero noise.Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER: A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two voltages but does not amplify the particular voltages The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational Amplifier configuration that can be used for combining multiple inputs. We saw previously in the inverting amplifier tutorial that the inverting amplifier has a single input voltage, (Vin) applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add more input resistors to the input, each equal in value to the original input resistor, Rin we end up with another operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier

n a non-inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in the same direction as the input voltage.The gain equation for the op-amp is: is a function of However, in this circuit because of the negative feedback through the

network. and form a voltage divider, and as is a highimpedance input, it does not load it appreciably. Consequently: where equation, we obtain: If Substituting this into the gain Solving for is very large, this simplifies to

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential amplifier (or other device) measures the ability of an amplifier to obtain the difference between two inputs while rejecting the signal. A high CMRR is important in applications where the signal of interest is represented by a small voltage fluctuation superimposed on a (possibly large) voltage offset, or when relevant information is contained in the voltage difference between two signals A minterm represents each row of the truth table that has an output of 1. To translate a truth table row into the corresponding minterm we AND (or multiply) each of the terms at the input, inverting (applying a NOT operator) to each variable whose state for that particular row happens to be zero. Maxterms are the complementary operation of minterms. Maxterms are obtained from the rows that have a zero in them as output. Using the above example, all the rows not marked with an arrow are the table's maxterms.

An inverting amplifier inverts and scales the input signal. As long as the op-amp gain is very large, the amplifier gain is determined by two stable external resistors (the feedback resistor Rf and the input resistor Rin) and not by op-amp parameters which are highly temperature dependent. In particular, the RinRf resistor network acts as an electronic seesaw (i.e., a class-1 lever) where the inverting (i.e., ) input of the operational amplifier is like a fulcrum about which the seesaw pivots

The 741 is the godfather of all operational amplifiers (amplifiers on a chip). Although most up-to-date designs beat it for speed, low noise, etc, it still works well as a general purpose device. One of its advantages is that it is compensated (its frequency response is tailored) to ensure that under most curcumstances it won't produce unwanted spurious oscillations. This means it is easy to use, but the down-side of this is the poor speed/gain performance compared to more modern op-amps. The 741 is usually supplied in an 8pin DIL (Dual In Line) or DIP (Dual Inline Package, or sometimes Dual Inline Plastic) package with a pinout shown above. This has proved so popular that many other competing op-amps have adoped the same package/pinout. Hence for many applications the various op-amps are drop in replacements or upgrades for one another.

Op-amp Integrator Circuit

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. The integrator amplifier acts like a storage element that "produces a voltage output which is proportional to the integral of its input voltage with respect to time". In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor. When a voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit (voltage follower circuit) giving an overall gain of less than one. No current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the feedback capacitor C begins to charge up, its reactance Xc decreases this results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing an output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.

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