Biology HSC Summary

Module: MAINTAINING A BALANCE 1. Temperature range

-Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates: Enzymes are biological catalysts which lower the activation energy for chemical reactions in the body. All enzymes are a specific shape so that a substrate can lock into the enzyme and form a temporary

bond. -Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance: pH refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. A pH value of 0 - 6 indicates an acid solution, where 0 is more acidic than 6, e.g. lemon juice has a pH value of 2, hydrochloric acid has a pH value of 1. A pH value of 7 indicates a neutral solution, e.g. water. A pH of 8 - 14 indicates a basic solution, where 14 is far more basic than 8, e.g. sodium hydroxide (drain cleaner) has a pH of 14, sodium bicarbonate has a pH of 8. Identify data sources, plan, choose, equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the effect of:
o o o

increased temperature change in pH change in substrate concentration

on the activity of named enzyme(s) Procedures to investigate the activity of an enzyme A. To demonstrate the effect of increased temperature: 1. Make a rennin solution by dissolving a junket tablet in distilled water. 2. Add 1g of rennin solution to 7 test tubes which contain 10ml milk. 3. Place test tubes in different water baths at 0oC, 10oC, 20oC, 30oC, 40oC, 50oC and 60oC. Make sure each water bath is kept at the temperature it has been allocated. 4. Time and record the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk for each temperature and record results.

B. To demonstrate the effect of change in pH: 1. Make a rennin solution by dissolving a junket tablet in distilled water and add 5ml vinegar, water and oven cleaner to separate test tubes. 2. Add 5ml of each solution into test tubes containing 10ml milk 3. Add 1g rennin solution to each test tube containing the milk solutions. 4. Place each test tube in a water bath kept at a constant temperature of 37oC. 5. Time and record the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk in each test tube. C. To demonstrate the effect of change in substrate concentration: 1. Add 10ml of water to a test tube containing 10ml milk and label as 50% using a marker 2. Add 5ml of water to a test tube containing 15ml milk and label as 75% using a marker. 3. Label a test tube containing 20ml milk as 100% using a marker. 4. Add 1g rennin solution to each test tube. 5. Place each test tube in a water bath kept at a constant temperature of 37oC. 6. Time and record the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk. -Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency: Enzymes control all the metabolic processes in the body. Enzymes function properly in an environment where the temperature and pH are at optimum levels for the enzyme, therefore a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency. -Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment: Homeostasis is the process by which the internal environment is kept within normal limits regardless of external conditions. This includes conditions, such as temperature, pH, gas levels, water and salt concentrations. This allows the enzyme's optimal conditions to be met and the body to work efficiently and kept as stable as possible. -Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: Detecting changes from the stable state- A receptor detects a change in some variable in the organism's internal environment, for example, sensory neurons in the skin pick up a decrease or increase in temperature of air surrounding the body which may have caused the internal environment to change. Counteracting changes from the stable state- An appropriate response occurs that counteracts the changes and thus maintains the stable environment, for example, shivering to generate heat in muscles. -Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes: When temperature changes, receptors in sense organs (skin, eyes, ears, nose and tongue) collect information about the external environment called a stimulus. The stimulus is sent from the receptors along sensory nerves to the spinal cord. The spinal cord quickly

passes the electrical messages to the brain. The brain processes the information about the internal changes. The hypothalamus processes the information and determines if a response is needed. If a response is needed then the brain sends electrical messages down the spinal cord and along effector nerves to effectors. The effectors then may act to change the internal factors to maintain homeostasis. Examples of effectors include: -Muscles that make hair stand up, cause shivering and change the flow of blood through small blood vessels. -Sweat glands that release water to cool the body by evaporation. -Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual species: Earths temperature range is -75C to 55C, however most majority of species live within the -2C - 40C range. Within each species the temperature range for which they live is very small. Mammals live between 0C - 45C because at lower than 0C cells risk ice crystals forming in them and at greater than 45C proteins with cells may denature. -Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation: Ectotherms- Are cold blooded organisms whose body temperature is the same as the ambient (outside) temperature. They include reptiles, fish, plants and invertebrates. Endotherms- Called warm blooded homotherms, use heat from metabolism to maintain their own body temperature. Include birds and mammals.
Endotherms

Body temperature (C)

Ectotherms

Ambient temperature (C)

-Identify some responses of plants to temperature change: Extreme temperatures cause enzyme structures to be altered and membranes change their properties. When this happens the plants can be damaged. In extremely cold conditions the plants dehydrate to remove ice formations and alter their solute concentrations to prevent the cells from freezing. Other adaptations include: Leaf fall- reduces surface area of transpiration Radiation-Shiny leaves to reflect sunlight and heat Transpiration- The movement of water in the plant cools the plant Orientation- Leaves point down to reduce sun exposure. Leaf size- Decreases to decrease sun exposure Stomates on the bottom of the leaf Reduces water loss. -Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation: Organism Habitat Optimum Behavioural Physiological Structural temperature adaptations adaptations adaptations (C) Platypus Eastern Australia 32 -Swimming to Fast Fur to retain body and Tasmania reduce body metabolism to temperature temperature increase -Sitting in the sun energy intake. to increase body temperature Blue Shelters in open 30-35 Digs Lies flat on its Long body, short legs tongue country underground and back which and toes and short lizard hibernates during widens head for higher heat cold weather. stomach to absorption Uses sun to warm increase sun up exposure and metabolism Casuarina Northern Territory, 34-36 Leaves droop to Leaves drop Tall for increase of sun north and east decrease sun off when exposure. Thin twigs Queensland, exposure temperature to increase water loss. North eastern conditions are NSW and too extreme generally temperate areas. Eucalyptus Riverina areas 34 Leaves droop to Oil on leaves Tall for increased sun decrease sun to decrease exposure. Loses leaves exposure water loss and to increase the surface to reflect some area to volume ratio sunlight for sunlight and water loss.

2. A watery medium
Blood contains the following: Component Plasma 55 Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets 44.89 0.1 0.01 % of total blood Main function Carry CO2 and proteins and red blood cells Transport O2 and CO2 Fight infections Clots the blood

-Substances carried by the blood: Substance What it is carried by Oxygen Red blood cells Carbon dioxide Plasma

Form it is carried in Oxyhaemoglobin Mostly as bicarbonate ions, with a small percentage directly dissolved in plasma Carbamate (carbon dioxide and haemoglobin) Water molecules Ions Chylomicron (a package of digested lipids, phospholipids and cholesterol wrapped in protein) Mostly urea Whole molecules: for example, glucose

Red blood cells Water Salts Lipids Plasma Plasma Plasma

Nitrogenous wastes Other products of digestion

Plasma Plasma

-Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin: Oxygen is not very water soluble and so it cannot be very efficiently dissolved in the plasma; however oxygen molecules can attach to haemoglobin which is easily carried in red blood cells increasing the transportation of oxygen around the body. Oxygen travels best on haemoglobin in blood so organisms containing haemoglobin in their blood will deliver oxygen to cells much more easily than organisms that do not have haemoglobin in their blood. -Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function: Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and so must have a structure that can withstand the pressure. They have thick, but elastic walls, made up of three tissue layers: endothelium as an inner lining, then smooth muscle to contract the vessel and an exterior connective tissue to allow for expansion. Arteries do not pump blood.

Veins carry blood back toward the heart. They carry the same quantity of blood as the arteries but not at the same high pressures. Veins have the same three layers as the arteries: endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue. However, the layers are not as thick. The veins also contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood. Capillaries have walls that are only one endothelium cell thick, as they have to allow diffusion of materials through their wall to reach the cells found in the tissues in which the capillary is located. They allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes to be transferred from the blood to tissues.

-Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur: Tissue passed through by blood Main change in chemical composition of blood Lungs *Increase in O2 *Decrease in CO2 Small intestine *Increase in glucose and digestive products Kidney *Decrease in nitrogenous waste (urea) Other body tissues *Decrease in O2 *Decrease in glucose *Increase in CO2 -Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential: Cells need oxygen to respire, grow and replicate. Respiration: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (in the form of ATP). An increase of carbon dioxide in the blood is toxic to the cells as the cell will become acidic so oxygen is required so the cells can respire to remove carbon dioxide. -Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used: What is measures Conditions under which technology is used Percentage of oxygen saturated haemoglobin Pulse oximetry is used to monitor the level of oxygen in a person's blood during heavy sedation or anesthesia. This device is also used when a person is

Name of technology Pulse oximetry

in the blood Arterial blood gas analysis Oxygenation and acid/base status of the blood

on a ventilator, artificial breathing machine, during stress testing, in sleep laboratories, when checking the body's response to different medications or to monitor a person with asthma or who is having trouble breathing. If the patient is known to have a respiratory, metabolic or kidney disease or respiratory distress.

-Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem: Xylem are dead cells that move water (water zips up the xylem) The theory is called the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism and it consists of four main aspects: Cohesion- Water molecules stick together and form a continuous stream of molecules extending from the leaves to the roots. Transpiration- Water is pulled up from the top as water escapes from the leaves Tension- Water moves up the xylem like a wire due to cohesion. Adhesion-When the pulling stops (night time), water sticks to the sides of the tubes and doesnt fall down. Phloem: The pressure-flow mechanism (or Source to Sink) is a model for phloem transport now widely accepted. Step 1: Sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g. the leaf (active transport) Step 2: Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water pressure is now raised at this end of the tube. Step 3: At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem tube. Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis and thus the water pressure in the tube drops. The building up of pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in the water, it flows at the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between phloem cells allow the movement of the phloem sap to continue relatively unimpeded.

-Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water: Aim: To determine the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water Hypothesis: As the amount of carbon dioxide in water increases, the pH will drop and the solution will become more acidic Materials: Calcium hydroxide (limewater), drinking straws, distilled water, beaker and universal indicator paper and pH colour chart. Method: 1. Pour a small amount of limewater into a beaker. 2. Using a clean drinking straw, gently exhale into the limewater for at least 10 seconds. 3. Continue to exhale into the solution until it changes colour. 4. Record observations. 5. Pour a small amount of distilled water into a beaker. 6. Using universal indicator paper and a colour chart, test the pH of the solution. 7. Use a clean drinking straw to gently exhale into the water for at least one minute. 8. Retest the pH of the solution and record observations. Results: The greater the carbon dioxide concentration of the water, the more acidic the water will become and the lower the pH will be. -Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each: Procedure: 1. Gather three different types of blood cells (red, platelets, white) 2. Record the type of blood cell and using a light microscope and graph paper determine the size of one cell in nanometres and draw the shape of each cell. Results: Type of blood cell Shape Estimated size of one cell (in nanometres). Red blood cell2 in diameter Acanthocyte

White blood cell Basophil

10-20 in diameter

Platelets-

1-4 in diameter

-Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products: Product extracted from blood Use(s) Packed red blood cells Treating patients with anaemia Platelets Treating patients undergoing cancer therapy Fresh frozen plasma Treating patients with clotting disorders White blood cells Treatment of patients with life threatening infections -Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed: Artificial blood is made from perflurocarbons, pluronic F-68 and water. The difficulties with the production of artificial blood include long retention time, sometimes do not survive, different viscosity to natural blood and high dosage results in negative side effects. The similarities with natural blood is that they both carry blood and they both carry oxygen; however the artificial blood has modified haemoglobins without antibodies or antigens or viruses. The potential use of artificial blood includes for major surgeries where a large amount of blood is needed and for severe traumatic injuries that result in severe bleeding. -Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather firsthand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue: Aim: to investigate the appearance of xylem and phloem tissue Materials: celery, 250mL beaker, water with eosin dye, marker, razor blade, glass microscope slide and cover slip, light microscope. Method: 1. Place 100mL of water and eosin dye mixture into beaker. 2. Place celery stick into beaker.

3. Leave overnight. 4. Remove celery from beaker. 5. Cut three 1cm long sections of celery starting from the base using the razor blade. 6. Look at these sections under the light microscope by placing the sections of celery flat onto the microscope slide. Results: Phloem

Xylem

3. Gases, water and waste products

-Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function: Water acts as a solvent (dissolves materials). Cells die if the water concentration is changed because the water becomes unable to perform osmosis and the cells can go under lysis (explode). -Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity: Wastes such as carbon dioxide, proteins and nucleic acids are toxic to cells. An excess of carbon dioxide makes the blood acidic causing enzymes to denature which may cause interference with membrane transport and metabolic activity. The skin removes water and inorganic salts, the kidney removes nitrogenous waste, water and inorganic salts and the lungs remove carbon dioxide. -Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals: The waste in the body is removed by excretion. The kidneys job is to filter the blood which passes through them and to remove nitrogenous waste such as urea, unwanted salts and excess water. The waste liquid which is formed is called urine which is sent from the kidneys to the bladder for excretion. The kidney consists mostly of about one million tiny kidney units called nephrons which each receive their own supply of blood, cleans it and discards the urine. The nephrons clean the blood by filtration (blood is filtered to remove waste substances and excess water and other useful substances) and reabsorption (substances that have been removed that are necessary for the body are reabsorbed) and secretion (movement of urine into the collecting ducts where it moves through the kidney

to the ureters to the bladder until it is released from the urethra).

In mammals, the role of kidneys is to maintain a balance between waste disposal and the organisms need for water and salts. For fish, the role of the kidney is dependant on the environment; salt water (marine) fish excrete high concentration urine to preserve water and to remove high levels of salt whilst freshwater fish excrete low concentration urine because they do not have high levels of salt. -Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes: Diffusion and osmosis are both examples of passive transport, relying on random movements of molecules. Diffusion is too slow for the normal functioning of the body and does not select for useful solutes. Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes. Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney: Active transport requires energy input by the organism because the substance is moving against the concentration gradient, i.e. when a salt moves to an area of high salt concentration from an area of low salt concentration. Passive transport involves no expenditure of energy as the materials follow the natural concentration gradient, i.e. movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Both diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport. In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes occur.

Passive transport: Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's capsule, water returns via the interstitial fluid from the tubule to the capillary in the process of osmosis. This occurs along the length of the tubule. Active transport: Depending on their concentration, the ions in the blood (Na+, K+, Cl- , H+ and HCO3) can be transported to cells in the nephron tubule and then secreted by the cells into the tubule. Certain drugs are eliminated from the body in this manner. Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition: Filtration of the blood occurs in Bowman's capsule where high blood pressure in the glomerulus forces all small molecules out of the blood into the capsule. Water, urea, ions (Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+, HCO3- ), glucose, amino acids and vitamins are all small enough to be moved into the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be removed. This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of the blood must be recovered by reabsorption. Reabsorption takes place selectively at various points along the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule. All glucose molecules, amino acids and most vitamins are recovered, although the kidneys do not regulate their concentrations. The reabsorption of the ions Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+ and HCO3- occurs at different rates depending on feedback from the body. In some cases, active transport is required. Water is reabsorbed in all parts of the tubule except the ascending loop of Henle. The amount of water reabsorbed depends on feedback from the hypothalamus. If no water were reabsorbed humans would soon dehydrate, losing water at a rate of around 7.5 L per hour. The chemical composition of the body fluids is precisely regulated by the control of solute reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate. Bowmans capsule (Plasma is forced into the nephron by active transport. Includes water, dissolved nutrients and other chemicals) Proximal tubule (glucose, most nutrients, most water and most salts move are reabsorbed into the blood) Loop of Henle (water is reabsorbed into the blood) Distal tubule (Most remaining salts are reabsorbed into the blood)Collecting duct(Most remaining water is reabsorbed) Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood: Aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Its function is to regulate the transfer of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney. When sodium levels are low, aldosterone is released into the blood causing more sodium to pass from the nephron to the blood. Water then flows from the nephron into the blood by osmosis. This results in the homeostatic balance of blood pressure. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) controls water reabsorption in the nephron. When levels of fluid in the blood drop, the hypothalamus causes the pituitary to release ADH. This increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water, allowing more water to be absorbed from the urine into the blood. The resulting urine is more concentrated. When there is too much fluid in the blood, sensors in the heart cause the hypothalamus to reduce the production of ADH in the pituitary, decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed in the kidney. This results in a lower blood volume and larger quantities of more dilute urine.

Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations: Enantiostasis is the maintenance of normal metabolic and physiological functioning, in the absence of homeostasis, in an organism experiencing variations in its environment. All organisms living in an estuary experience large changes in salt concentration in their environment over a relatively short time span, with the tidal movement and mixing of fresh and salt water. Organisms that must tolerate wide fluctuations of salinity are said to be euryhaline. One strategy to withstand such changes in salt concentration is to allow the body's osmotic pressure to vary with that of the environment. Organisms that do this, and therefore do not maintain homeostasis, are said to be osmoconformers. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers. In contrast, marine mammals and most fish are osmoregulators, maintaining homeostasis regardless of the osmotic pressure of the environment. However, as the salt concentration of body fluids in an osmoconformer changes, various body functions are affected, such as the activity of enzymes. For normal functioning to be maintained, another body function must be changed in a way that compensates for the change in enzyme activity. One example of enantiostasis is when a change in salt concentration in the body fluid, which reduces the efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which increases the efficiency of the same enzyme. Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments: Plant-species
Smooth cord grass (Spartina alterniflora) Red mangrove (Rhizophora stylosa) White/grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) Saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) Narrow-leafed wilsonia (Wilsonia backhousei) Beaded samphire (Sarcocornia quinueflora) Sea blight (Suaeda australis)

Habitat
Salt marsh Tropical and subtropical regions Intertidal zones in estuarine areas Coastlines, salt flats, forests and woodland Salt marshes and lakes Saltmarshes and samphire flats Salt flats, salt marshes

Structures used for salt regulation

Glands that excrete excess salt. Narrow tough blades. Prop roots to trap soil Thick leaves for salt excretion Flat, firm leaf blades. Short, pointed leaves Rounded seeds. Long stems Long stalks. Short, thick leaves

Processes used for salt regulation

Transpiration and excretion Transpiration and osmosis Transpiration and excretion Transpiration Transpiration and osmosis Transpiration Transpiration and excretion

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney: Like the nephrons of the kidney, the dialysis machine separates molecules from the blood removing some and returning others. The patient's blood is pumped from an artery through tubes made of selectively permeable membrane. The artificial tubing allows only water and small solute molecules to pass through it into a dialysing solution that surrounds the tube. This dialysing

solution is similar to the interstitial fluid found around nephrons. As the blood circulates through the dialysis tubing, urea and excess salts diffuse out of it instead of leaving by pressure filtration, as in the nephron. Those substances needed by the body, such as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 - ) diffuse from the dialysing solution into the blood (reabsorption). The machine continually discards used dialysing solution as wastes build up in it. Two healthy kidneys filter the blood volume about once every half-hour. Dialysis is a much slower and less efficient process than the natural processes found in a healthy kidney but it is a lifesaver for those people with damaged kidneys.

Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone: Patients with Addisons disease have a shrunken adrenal cortex causing the inability to produce aldosterone. As the person is unable to produce aldosterone, the hormone responsible for maintaining the bodys salt and water levels, they are susceptible to dehydration. Artificial hormones such as fludrocortisones can be used as a replacement for aldosterone, thus helping to restore the bodys water and salt levels. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish: Type of organism Terrestrial mammal Marine fish Freshwater fish Excretory product and concentration High concentration urea High concentration urea Low concentration urea Environmental reason High temperatures result in lots of water loss thus water regulation is essential High salt concentration in habitat means lots of salt must be excreted Low salt concentration in habitat means only low salt levels need to be excreted

Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals: Organism Spinifex hopping mouse of Central Australia Euro, Wallaroo Terrestrial or aquatic Terrestrial Waste product/s Concentrated urea Explanation Dry environment means urea must be concentrated for the organisms water conservation Dry environment

Terrestrial

Concentrated urine

Insects

Terrestrial

Uric acid

means urine must be concentrated for the organisms water conservation Insects are covered with a cuticle impervious to water. They conserve water by producing a dry paste of uric acid.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss: Plant Structure The Boab tree Lives in a hot dry climate and has very large thick trunks for water storage and also holes on the walls Pigface (succulent) Lives in a hot climate. Waxy, thick leaves for water storage Maple trees Large, extensive root system to obtain lots of water to handle the dry climate Eucalyptus Leaves droop so that transpiration is decreased (less sun exposure) and also waxy leaves to conceal stomates. Combating water loss: -Leaf shape is small and may have a spiky cuticle to decrease surface area -Leaf curl to hide stomates from sun exposure to reduce transpiration -Sunken stomates to reduce sun exposure to reduce transpiration -Hairy leaf that lings to water lost in transpiration to cool the plant

Module: THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE 1. Evidence of evolution

-Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of: Changes in physical conditions in the environment: These include natural conditions, such as temperature and the availability of water. The Australia landmass has become drier over time and this has lead to changes in the species of kangaroos that are present today. Approximately 25 million years ago, Australia was considerably wetter than today with large areas of rainforest. During this time, kangaroos were small and omnivorous, with unspecialised teeth, eating a variety of foods from the forest floor. Food was nutritious and abundant; there was no need for specialised grinding teeth. As Australia became more arid and grass became the dominant vegetation in some areas, environmental selective pressure resulted in larger kangaroos favouring teeth suitable for grass. These teeth, high-crested

molars, efficiently grind low-nutrition grass into a more easily digestible paste. Slicing premolars are of little use and so became much reduced from the ancestral kangaroos. -Changes in chemical conditions in the environment: Chemicals that can affect the evolution of species include salts and elements, such as iron. For example, many parts of Australia have soils that have a high salinity. There are a range of salt tolerant plants that have evolved to inhabit those areas. The animals that feed from these plants have also evolved to inhabit those areas. The sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, is a major problem to the Australian sheep industry. It stresses, weakens and can be lethal to sheep when larvae, laid by females, burrows into wounds and wet wool. Chemicals, such as dieldrin and organophosphates, have been used extensively to control the blowfly. However, genetic resistance has occurred within the fly population that has made these chemicals ineffective. Withholding a particular insecticide for a time allowed the resistance of this particular blowfly population to drop. Continued use of the insecticide has resulted in the mutation of a modifier gene that increases and maintains the resistance. Thus, the insecticides can never be effective again, regardless of the number of blowfly generations that pass. -Competition for resources: This occurs within a species and between species. If a new species is introduced into an area then the competition may lead to different species using different resources. Resources can include food, space or mates. If populations that live in the same area could specialise on slightly different resources or breed at different times, they would avoid direct competition. Some species of fruit fly have evolved into different species with each confined to a different type of fruit tree. This is possible if there are different flowering and fruiting times on each tree type suited for different breeding cycles in the fruit flies. Eventually, two distinct species can result. -Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported: Evidence Explanation for the theory of evolution Biogeography Different regions show unique flora and fauna suggesting evolution due to environment Palaeontology Fossil record indicates gradual changes in life forms over millions of years. Biochemistry Amino acid comparisons show closely related organisms Comparative anatomy Shows that all vertebrates have similar skeletons despite large variety in bones. Embryology Embry development of all vertebrates is very similar. -Explain how Darwin/Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution: Background: Darwin and Wallace theory outlines characteristics favourable to the reproduction and survival of organisms. Over time new species will appear in response to environmental change.

Convergent evolution: Convergent evolution is when organisms evolve similar structures due to a response to similar environmental factors. For example, sharks and dolphins do not share a recent common ancestry but they both have streamlined body shapes since they live in the same environment. Divergent evolution: occurs when organisms with a common ancestor can diverge and evolve different-looking structures due to differences in environmental factors. For example, the pentadactyl forelimb is used for running in cheetahs and flying in bats. This shows that the same bone structure produced two divergent species. -Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model natural selection: Toothpicks are mixed and scattered randomly over a measured grassed area. Stick birds (students) are later brought to that area and remain outside a 'fence'. They are told to prey on the 'worms' in the field (collect as many toothpicks as they can) in a given time. After 3 minutes, the 'stick-birds' are driven from the field by the 'farmer' (teacher). They escape back to the classroom. Tally and compare the numbers of green and cream toothpicks recovered. Calculate percentages recovered of each colour. Results: More cream sticks were found ( 22-16) due to the colour making them more visible, thus the greem sticks (less found) are more suited to the environment.
Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an environmental change can lead to changes in a species: The average beak shape

of a population of finches after a drought in 1977 became larger so that they were able to cater for larger seeds that were produced as a result of an absence of water from rain. The short beaked finches were unable to eat the large seeds and so some finches developed long beaks so that they were able to eat the large seeds and survive. The long beaked finches carried the long-beaked gene through to following generations. Speciation has not occurred in this situation because the changing environmental factors are changing rapidly thus there is no specific dominant species; however if the increased aridity were to persist for many generations then speciation would occur with the long beaked finch becoming the dominant species and the short beaked population would decrease. This is an example of divergent evolution.
Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources (including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs: -Fingerbone present or absentVertebrae 1 2 3 4 5 Human Whale Bat Frog Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Absent

Lizard Dog

Present Present

Present Present

Present Present

Present Present

Present Absent

Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships: Until the 1950s, the relationships between organisms were worked out by similarities in anatomical features. At this time, it became possible to analyse protein sequence data and DNA sequence data. Proteins, such as haemoglobin, could now be compared and similarities worked out based on biochemical similarity. If the rate of change is approximated, it is possible to work out a molecular clock that estimates the time since two organisms shared a common ancestor. Scientists used to believe that animals that were similar in appearance shared similar DNA; however advances in DNA analysis techniques have allowed scientists to determine differences and similarities between species more accurately. For example, it was believed that Chimpanzees were more closely related to gorillas than humans; however DNA analysis has shown that Chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than gorillas.
Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on these developments:

By the beginning of the 19th century, a great deal of evidence was available to the scientific community that supported evolution; however there was no explanation for how evolution occurs. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace both hypothesized that evolution occurred as a result of natural selection. Darwin gathered evidence after sailing on the HMS Beagle to South America and the Galapagos Islands. By the early 1840s, he had documented the main points of his theory. Wallace was a British naturalist working in Indonesia in the mid-1850s. In 1858, Wallace sent a copy of his work to Darwin. Darwin's colleagues encouraged him to publish The Origin of Species at the same time and so receive the credit for his years of work and insight. The Origin of Species included overwhelming evidence to support Darwin's conclusions. Even though the Darwin/Wallace theory of natural selection caused a furore amongst Victorian society in England when published, scientific thinking was gaining respectability and becoming an important mechanism for change.

2. Gregor Mendels experiments:

-Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel: Gregor Mendel, in the 1860s, formulated the principles of genetics by careful and methodical experimentation with garden peas, Pisum sativum. Mendel chose garden peas because they were easy to grow, produced new generations quickly and had easily distinguishable characteristics. He was also able to strictly control the breeding patterns of his peas. Mendel examined the following seven characteristics found in peas: flower colour, purple or white; flower position, axial or terminal; seed colour, yellow or green; seed shape, round

or wrinkled; pod shape, inflated or constricted; pod colour, green or yellow; stem height, tall or short. Mendel then controlled fertilisation by cutting off the stamen of a flower before pollen was produced, then dusting the carpal of the flower with the pollen of another flower. He bred two true-breeding (homozygous) plants with one opposing trait i.e. tall plants mixed with short plants. The offspring produced are called the F1 generation and this generation cross-fertilised to produce F2. From this experiment he determined that there are dominant and recessive factors. -Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his success: Mendel was successful because he: -Used peas, which were easily grown and produced successive generations rapidly -Selected easily observable characteristics -Strictly controlled the fertilisation process -Used mathematics rigorously to analyse his results -Used large numbers of plants -Studied traits that had two easily identified factors. -Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance, using Mendel's explanations: Monohybrid crosses involve one factor only. For example, a cross might involve a true breeding(homozygous) tall plant crossed with a true breeding (homozygous) short plant. This produces a first generation where all of the plants are tall. Mendel explained that the F1 visible trait was the dominant factor. Thus, Mendel was able to explain his observed ratios, i.e. F1- all tall and F2- 3 tall and 1 short

-Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses: Factors that are the same are homozygous e.g. TT or tt. Factors that are different are called heterozygous e.g. Tt. In the homozygous combination, the single factor is expressed; however in the heterozygous combination, the expressed factor is dominant and the unexpressed factor is recessive. -Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples: An allele is an alternative for a particular inheritable characteristic, e.g. tall (T) and short (t) are two alleles for the characteristic of height in some plants. In humans, straight (S) and widow's peak (s) are two alleles for hairline. With the development of modern genetics, we now identify these factors as genes. A gene is a section of DNA coding for proteins that expresses itself

as the phenotype of an organism. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene. In many sources you will find the terms allele and gene used to mean the same thing. -Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive genes and phenotype using examples: Phenotype is the outward appearance of an organism. The genotype is the actual alleles that are present on the chromosomes of the organism. A homozygous tall plant would have two identical alleles for height (TT) and would appear tall. A heterozygous tall plant would have the phenotype of a tall plant but would have nonidentical alleles (Tt). In this case, tall is dominant and short is recessive and is not expressed. The following diagram shows the results of crossing two heterozygous plants.

-Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendel's work was not recognized until some time after it was published: Possible reasons include:

Mendel was not a recognized, high profile member of the scientific community He presented his paper to only a few people at an insignificant, local, scientific meeting Other scientists did not understand the work or its significance. Ideas published conflicted with religious ideas.

-Perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance of selected characteristics and discuss their current use: From the pedigree, the rightmost parents are both clear, whilst they produce two highlighted children, therefore the highlighted children must carry the recessive gene, i.e. aa and aa cannot produce Aa or AA.

-Solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares or other appropriate techniques: In gerbils, agouti (light brown) coat colour is dominant to black coat colour. If a gerbil, which is heterozygous for agouti coat-colour, is crossed with a

black-coated mouse, what will be the possible coat colour of the offspring?

The result is 50% light brown, 50% black

-Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe an example of hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation: Hybridisation is the breeding of 2 different types of plants and animals to obtain the desired characteristics from each. Silky Terrier- a cross breed between the Australian Terrior and the Yorkshire Terrier. The desirable characteristics from the parents are a long, fine, glossy coat, active and alert behaviour, protective and affectionate nature towards owners and have a long life.

3. Chromosomal structure:
Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes: Both aimed to unravel the mystery of inheritance. Boveri worked on Sea Urchins and noticed that not all their chromosomes are the same and a full set was required. Sutton worked on grasshoppers and showed that their chromosomes were distinct entities and he associated this behaviour of chromosomes with Mendells work and concluded that chromosomes are carriers of hereditary units. Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes: Chromosomes consist of 40% DNA and 60% protein (histone). Short lengths of DNA make up genes so genes have the same chemical composition as DNA. Identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand, comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases, adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G), connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases, A-T and G-C: DNA is a nucleic acid in the shape of a double helix. Each strand of the helix consists of four different nucleotides made up of deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogen base. The nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T),

cytosine (C) and guanine (G) where adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine with guanine.

Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis and the inheritance of genes: Chromosomes contain DNA which contains genes. During division each chromosome (thus including genes) makes a copy of itself. A centromere attaches the new chromosome with the original chromosome. Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every chromosome (diploid) and makes cells with a single copy of every chromosome (haploid) and also scrambles the specific forms of each gene that each sex cell (egg or sperm) receives during the crossing-over phase (metaphase). Genetic diversity is caused by independent assortment during crossing over. Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring: Male or female sex cells are gametes i.e. sperm and eggs. The male and female gametes crossover and segregate randomly. Crossing over is the sharing of chromosome information from parents and the chromosomes then segregate randomly. The resultant embryo from reproduction has a completely different set of genes to either of the parents. Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and genes that exhibit co-dominance and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios: An example of sex-linked inheritance is red-green colour blindness in humans. The gene is carried on the X chromosome and there is no corresponding gene on the Y chromosome. Therefore males need only one allele for colour blindness on the X chromosome while females require two. This results in many more males being colour blind than females because the father would have to be colour blind and the mother either colour blind or be a carrier for colour blindness. As you would expect the sex of offspring to be 50% male and 50% female the occurrence of colour blindness is higher in males than would be expected from a simple pair of dominant and recessive genes. Take the cross between a normal female XN XN and a colour-blind male X n Y. 1. XN XN

Xn Y

XNXn XNY

XNXn XNY

2.Offspring XN XN XNXN Y XNY

Xn XNXnXnY

As shown in the 2nd generation offspring, none of the females show this gene, yet half of the males will be colour-blind. Co-dominance exists when there is more than one dominant allele and they are both expressed in the heterozygous phenotype. Describe the work of Morgan that led to the identification of sex linkage: Thomas Morgan worked on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. He looked at crosses between red- eyed and white-eyed flies and found that the results could not be accounted for by simple Mendelian crosses. He showed that some genes were sex-linked because they were located on the X chromosome. Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the resulting phenotypes in examples of co-dominance: An example of co-dominance is with the human blood type AB since both A and B are dominant. With the second generation of co-dominant pairs (F2), one quarter of the offspring will express one of the dominant traits and another quarter expressing the other dominant trait whilst half of the offspring will express a mixture of the two traits. Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an individual: The phenotype expression of an organism is a combination of genes and the environment in which it lives. For example, with hydrangeas, the pH of the soil in which they live affects their resultant colour, where in pH<5 (acidic) soil they have a blue colour whereas in pH>7 (neutral/basic) soil they have a pink colour. Process information from secondary sources to construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the processes of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes: Use plasticine or pipe cleaners to model the process of meiosis to demonstrate crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes. Or use prepared slides showing meiosis. Solve problems involving co-dominance and sex linkage: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/monohybrid_cross/11q. html Identify data sources and perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of the environment on phenotype: An example of environment effect: Seven genetically distinct yarrow plants were collected and three cuttings taken from each plant. One cutting of each genotype was planted at low, medium, and high elevations, respectively. When the plants matured, no one genotype grew best at all altitudes, and at each altitude the seven genotypes fared differently. For example, one genotype grew the tallest at the medium elevation but attained only middling height at the other two

elevations. The best growers at low and high elevation grew poorly at medium elevation. The medium altitude produced the worst overall results, but still yielded one tall and two medium-tall samples. Altitude had an effect on each genotype, but not to the same degree nor in the same way.

4. The structure of DNA -Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance, outline, using a
simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of polypeptides Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides: A protein is made up of one or more polypeptides. A polypeptide is made up of a chain of many amino acids. Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles: Any change in the base sequence in DNA results in changes to the polypeptides that are produced and is a source of new alleles.To produce changes in alleles, the mutation must occur in the sex cells of the organism which are then passed on to the next generation. Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation: There is much evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation. Environmental factors that may increase the rate of mutation include X-rays, radiation from atomic bombs and ultraviolet light.A mutagen is a natural or human-made agent (physical or chemical) which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA. Mutagens can be carcinogens (cancer causing) or teratogens (birth defects causing). Radiation was the first mutagenic agent known. Its effects on genes were first noticed in the 1920's.When X-rays were first discovered, they were thought to be harmless and were a great novelty. You could even buy an X-ray machine for your home for entertainment. Most of the first generation of scientists who worked with radiation died of cancer. Famous examples are Marie Curie and her daughter who both died of leukaemia.Hans. Muller received the Nobel Prize in 1927 for showing that genes had the ability to mutate when exposed to X-rays. Beadle and Tatum used X-rays to produce mutations in bread mould in the formulation of their one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki also increased the evidence for mutations caused by radiation. There was a tenfold increase in cancer deaths directly after the bombs were dropped. Mutagens may cause death in the individual but unless they affect the sex cells the effect is not passed on to the next generation. Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection: One of the foundation pillars for the theory of evolution is the variation that occurs among individual members of a species. The basis of this variation is the genetic makeup of the individuals in a species. It is this variation that selection acts upon. Mutation of DNA provides a source of new variations thus supporting Darwin's theory of evolution. Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from the gradual process proposed by Darwin: Punctuated equilibrium differs from Darwin's gradual evolution in that evolution is seen as long periods where there is little change in

organisms, followed by a shorter period where there are rapid changes. Evolution is a sudden process rather than slow gradual change. The evidence for this comes from the fossil record where there are mass extinctions of organisms followed by the appearance of new species.

Perform a first-hand investigation or process information from secondary sources to develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis:

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern example of natural selection: Amongst large numbers of bacteria offspring, some individuals may carry genes that give them resistance to antibiotics. These individuals are then able to survive and reproduce with reduced competition from other members of the same species. Each generation will produce a higher percentage of individuals containing the resistant genes. This has been the story for antibiotics since they were first used. The initial use of an antibiotic results in good protection from bacteria. Over time the chemicals become less and less effective. Analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to Beadle and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis and to explain why this was altered to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis: Beadle and Tatum used bread mould to investigate nutritional mutations. Using X-rays, they produced mould that was unable to

produce a specific amino acid. The mould was unable to grow unless the amino acid was added. They showed that genes controlled biochemical processes. Their hypothesis was that for each gene there was one enzyme or protein. The enzymes that they studied consisted of one polypeptide but many enzymes consist of chains of polypeptides. Therefore, the hypothesis has been changed to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative importance of the work of James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins in determining the structure of DNA and the impact of the quality of collaboration and communication on their scientific research: These four people worked at two different places. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were from King's College London and James Watson and Francis Crick were from Cambridge University. Rosalind Franklins work on X-ray diffraction showed that DNA had the characteristics of a helix. She wished to gather more evidence of this result but Maurice Wilkins showed her results to Watson and Crick without her permission or knowledge. This information was enough to encourage Watson and Crick to develop their model of the double helix for the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin died of cancer in 1958 at the age of 37. Watson, Crick and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for their work in 1962.

5. Current reproductive technologies

Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic composition of a population including, artificial insemination, artificial pollination and cloning: In the case of all the technologies mentioned, the donor gametes or body cells have been carefully selected for predetermined characteristics or artificially selected. In most cases, one exemplary donor contributes all the genetic material and this results in uniform offspring. Over generations, genetic variability within the species has been reduced. Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this process and reasons for its use: Transgenic organisms contain a gene (transgene) from another species, achieved through recombinant DNA technology. Restriction enzymes, ligases and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) manipulate DNA where restriction enzymes cut DNA in specific parts, ligases repair and strengthen the DNA and PCR produces many copies of the recombinant DNA. The DNA is then inserted into the host species by processes such as gene gun and electroporation. Gene gun blasts small metal pieces coated with DNA into the nucleus of the host cell, whereas electroporation uses electric pulses to create small pores in the nuclear membrane through which DNA is inserted. Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on genetic diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically altered: Plant: Rice crops have been genetically altered so that they are suited to a specific climate and topography making them resistant to pesticides and herbicides

used in the region. Animal: No known animals have been considered to be genetically altered successfully. Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in cloning organisms: Recently, plants have been cloned using tissue culture propagation. Tissue from the roots is taken and the root cells separated. These cells are then grown (cultured) in a nutrient-rich medium where they become unspecialised. The unspecialised cells are called calluses. After treatment with the appropriate plant hormones, the calluses are able to develop into seedlings, that go on to grow into fully mature plants. These plants are genetically identical to the original parent plant. Rare orchids have been cultured and grown in this manner. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of transgenic species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising from the development and use of transgenic species: Genetically engineered salmon: The gene coding for the protein, bGH (bovine growth hormone), is incorporated into the genes of salmon. Outcome larger, faster growing fish. Evaluation Possible farmed source of fish as food. However, the fish are kept in ponds that offer no escape to the wild because there is much concern that they will upset or destroy natural ecosystems. Potato plants: A pea gene for lectin has been incorporated into potato plants. Outcome protection against insect attack. Evaluation As potatoes are a staple food source for many populations throughout the world, it is important to maintain and increase production. Protection against insect attack improves the success of growing potatoes. Concerns exist about controlling the escape of these transgenic potatoes into the wild as the technology is only recent and long-term impacts on the environment have yet to be observed or evaluated.

Module: THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH 1. What is a healthy organism?

Discuss the difficulties of defining the terms 'health' and 'disease': The definition of disease above is very broad. Disease can cover a wide range of conditions that fit the above definition including minor conditions, such as a cut finger or an ant bite, as well as the more obvious diseases. Health varies on a daily basis and is not just the absence of disease. Health varies with age and the susceptibility to disease. It is a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing. The difficulties of defining the terms health and disease include that: -It is possible for a person to be healthy and have a disease at the same time -The terms are used in general conversation and have different meaning to the scientific definition.

Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in the maintenance of health: Genes are the units of inheritance. They control the process of protein synthesis. They assist the maintenance of health by regulating the cell cycle and limiting the growth and reproduction of cells. Genes provide the code for proteins that are needed for growth and repair. Enzymes, which control all body processes, are proteins and thus have been produced from the codes of genes. Mitosis is cell division that produces identical cells. These cells are important for growth and reproduction. Each day millions of cells die and are replaced by the process of mitosis. Cell differentiation is the process undergone by the cells that are formed after mitosis. Each cell has the genetic information necessary to produce all types of cells. However, each cell normally differentiates to become a specialised cell, with a specialised structure and function. Undifferentiated cells form tumours. Many types of cells have specialised roles in maintaining the health of an organism. For example, there are specialised blood cells that produce antibodies to attack a disease causing micro-organism. Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance and repair of body tissue: Changes can occur in the internal environment; for example, when blood calcium levels fall, bones release their calcium and may themselves become soft to prevent the more serious consequences of low calcium levels in the body. Changes such as this occur as a result of healthy gene function, the production of perfect copies of genetic material, and their expression in the processes of cell differentiation and specialisation.

2. Infectious and non-infectious diseases

Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease: Infectious: caused by an organism and can be transferred between people directly (by viruses or bacteria) or by a vector such as mosquito (blood-sucking insect). Infectious diseases include chicken pox, colds, influenza. Non-infectious: Not due to disease causing organisms. Include genetic diseases such as haemophilia and lifestyle and environment diseases such as skin cancer. Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in the control of disease: There are huge numbers of disease causing organisms which are mostly microscopic and can enter the body through any body opening and therefore also by the intake of food and water and so reducing the number of such organisms in food and water reduces the risk of infection. Good personal hygiene ensures that body openings, including broken skin, are clean, so that the number of micro-organisms that might gain entry to our bodies is kept low. Hygiene precautions include: washing hands after going to the toilet, cleaning wounds and boiling water. Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen: A pathogen is any organism that can produce a disease and are all infectious. Pathogens may live outside the body, such as the fungus that causes ringworm, inside particular organs, such as parasitic worms in the intestine, in tissues or inside cells. They include viruses.

Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first hand investigation to identify microbes in food or in water: Materials: food products (yoghurt, cheese, bread), swabs, agar plates, inoculation loops, gloves Method: 1. Swab bench with disinfectant 2. Sterilise the loops of the inoculation wand by placing them over a Bunsen flame 3. Place loop in the food product and wipe across the agar plate in a zig-zag pattern. 4. Use the agar plates for testing fingers, door handles and taps. Gloves must be worn and use a sterilised swab. 5. Place in an incubator at 30 degrees Celsius for 2 days. Include an un-affected agar plate. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens: Coliforms: indicate the possible presence of disease-causing microorganisms. Cryptosporidum and giardia: protozoans which cause infections if in the Sydney water supply and can occur in the supply through dead animal carcasses and faeces. Chlorine: added to ensure good drinking quality by killing disease causing bacteria. Flourine: added for dental health of recipients. Chlorination and filtration effectively reduce the risk of infection from pathogens by destroying most pathogens within the water supply.

3. Identifying microbes that cause disease

Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases: Louis Pasteur: - Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, which was widely held at the time. Showed that micro-organisms came from pre-existing micro organisms with the use of a flask experiment showing no microbial growth occurs when no bacteria can enter a flask with a nutrient broth. Robert Koch: -Discovered the organism that caused fermentation leading some people to suggest that infectious diseases were caused by pathogens. -Experiments with the disease anthrax in sheep and tuberculosis and cholera proved that microscopic pathogens cause disease. He found bacteria in sheep infected with anthrax, placed the bacteria on agar plates to produce many bacteria colonies and used the bacteria from these colonies to infect healthy sheep which later became infected. -Kochs postulates for identifying the micro-organism responsible for a disease: Step1: All infected hosts must contain the suspect organism. Step2: A pure culture of the suspect organism must be obtained. Step3: A healthy organism infected with the pure culture must have the same symptoms as the original host. Step4: The suspect organism must be isolated from the second host, grown in pure culture and proven to be identical to the first culture. Distinguish between:

Pathogen Description Prions Protein that has been altered from its normal structure and can then alter other proteins to develop more prions, so that the change spreads like a chain reaction. Viruses Consist of DNA or RNA enclosed in protein, live inside living cells. They are so small that they cannot be seen with a light microscope. Bacteria Very simple cells with no internal membranes.

Examples of diseases it causes scrapie in sheep

influenza a common cold Hepatitis Cholera Tuberculosis

Protozoans Microscopic single-celled organisms with internal membranes. Fungi Heterotrophic organisms. Some (e.g. yeasts) are unicellular; others consist of long branching threads.

Giardia Malaria Tinea Thrush

MacroOrganisms that are visible to the naked eye, also called organisms parasites.

fleas ticks tapeworms

Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease: Antibiotics were discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. They are naturally occurring compounds produced by one organism to prevent the growth of bacteria. Before the discovery of antibiotics, many people died of what we now would think of as simple infections; however now antibiotics assist in the management of diseases. Perform an investigation to model Pasteur's experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay: Materials: 4x 100mL clear nutrient broth (from stock cube), 4x conical flasks, 4x oneholed stoppers, 2x straight glass tubes, 2x S-shaped glass tubes, Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze mat, marking pen Method: 1. Prepare a clear broth 2.Put 100ml of broth into each conical flask 3. Insert straight glass tubing in rubber stoppers in two conical flasks. 4. Insert S-shaped glass tubing in rubber stoppers in two conical flasks. 5. Boil each flask gently for 15 minutes. 6. Leave the four flasks in the laboratory and observe their contents every two days. 6. Record results (bubbles, cloudiness and particulate matter) in an appropriate table.

Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria: Date Development The disease malaria was described by the Romans. Malaria was thought to come from swamps so the name means 18 BC 'bad air' 1820 Quinine used to prevent the disease 1880 Charles Laveran a French army doctor observed the malarial parasite 1886 Golgi observed asexual reproduction in the protozoan Plasmodium and identified two species 1898 Giovanni Grassi named the Anopheles mosquito as the carrier of the malarial parasite 1897 Ronald Ross discovered that Plasmodium was the protozoan that caused the disease malaria. 1940 Chloroquinine the first synthetic anti-malarial drug was used Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe one named infectious disease: MALARIA: Factors Cause Transmission Description The parasitic protozoan, Plasmodium Anopheles mosquito is the insect vector. Blood from a malaria victim contains Plasmodium sex cells. These form zygotes in cysts in the stomach wall of the mosquito and mature into sporozoites. When a cyst bursts, the sporozoites travel to the mosquito salivary glands, from where they are transferred to the victim of the mosquito bite. The sporozoites travel to the liver, multiply and then enter the red blood cells, where they also multiply. When the infected cells burst, they cause the malarial fever. Male and female gametes are produced from these sporozoites, which are then taken in the blood the next time a mosquito bites. Host response When in the blood cells the host produces antibodies against Plasmodium Major Chills, fever, sweating, delirium and headache symptoms Treatment Anti-malarial drugs such as quinine and chloroquinine Prevention Cover up after dark and use personal insecticide, mosquito nets Control Draining swamps, spraying with insecticides. Process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic resistance When antibiotics were first introduced, they had a dramatic effect on the pathogens that cause disease. Over time, it became apparent that the effects of the antibiotics were beginning to become less potent. This was because of the development of drug resistance in the pathogen due to natural selection and resistance. Overuse of antibiotics has resulted in "superbugs" resistant to all current antibiotics. Some farm industries put human antibiotics into the feed of their animals thus increasing the build up of antibiotic resistant bacteria. During the production of meat, animals are given antibiotics to prevent infections. When the meat reaches the table, it may still contain these animal antibiotics. This could lead to more antibiotic resistant bacteria.

4. Defence against disease

Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans:

Line of defence Description What it does Skin continuously grows by new cells being produced When unbroken, skin prevents the entry of skin
mucous membrane from below. Cells fit tightly together to form a protective layer covered by dead cells. cells lining the respiratory tract and openings of the urinary and reproductive systems that secrete a protective layer of mucus pathogens. Pores in the skin secrete substances that kill bacteria. Mucus is sticky and traps pathogens and other particles. When there are many pathogens more mucus is produced to flush them out. Hair-like projections from cells lining the air passages Move with a wavelike motion to push pathogens from the lungs up to the throat. acid in the stomach; alkali in the small intestine; the Stomach acid destroys pathogens, enzyme, lysozyme, in tears including those that are carried to the throat by cilia and then swallowed. Alkali destroys acid resistant pathogens. Lysozyme dissolves the cell membranes of bacteria. secretions from sweat glands and oily secretions from Contain chemicals that destroy bacteria glands in hair follicles and fungi.

cilia chemical barriers

Other body secretions

Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response: Any molecule that the body recognises as being foreign is called an antigen. Antigens activate the immune response.
Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response: Organs from another organism are recognised as foreign by the human immune system. The surfaces of the new organ contain antigens. These trigger an immune response and body attacks the new organ as if it were a pathogen. Identify defence adaptations: Inflammation response: Inflammation occurs when blood vessels around an infected area are supplied with extra blood. This makes the area swollen and red. The release of histamines by the damaged tissue increases the permeability of the blood vessels, which allows white blood cells to leave the blood vessels and move into the damaged tissue. Phagocytosis: Some white blood cells, called macrophages and neutrophils, can very easily change their shape so that they flow around particles and completely enclose them within their cell, where they are broken up by cell enzymes. This is called phagocytosis. Lymph system: The lymph system returns intercellular fluid to the blood system, filters cell debris and produces white blood cells responsible for the immune response. Cell death to seal off pathogen: For some pathogens, macrophages and lymphocytes completely surround a pathogen so that it is enclosed in a cyst. The white cells involved die, so that the pathogen is isolated from its food supply and also dies.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans: Name: Candida (thrush) Classification: Vaginal thrush is a common infection caused by an overgrowth of Candida albicans yeast. This yeast lives naturally in the bowel and in small numbers in the vagina. It is mostly harmless, but symptoms can develop if yeast numbers increase. About 75 per cent of women will have vaginal thrush in their lifetime. Other names for this infection are candidiasis or monilia. Cause: Overgrowth of the yeast, Candida albicans Symptoms: Vaginal discomfort, redness or swelling of the vagina or vulva, stinging or burning while urinating, thick white discharge Effects: Triggers the 3rd line of defence; Inflammation response and phagocytosis occurs and the lymph system is activated which increases white blood count. Treatment: Antifungal creams, oral tablets Prevention: Careful hygiene procedures such as washing body carefully with soap and disinfectants

5. The immune response

Identify components of the immune response: Name antibodies What it is Proteins that the body produces when it detects antigens. Each different antigen stimulates the production of its own particular antibody. What it does join with antigens so that they are clumped together and can be more easily recognised and destroyed by macrophages

B cell

A special kind of lymphocyte (white When a B cell recognises an antigen, it blood cell) produced in the bone divides repeatedly to produce a mass marrow (thus B cell) of identical cells (clones) that work as antibody producers (plasma cells). Another kind of lymphocyte (white blood cell), that is passed through the thymus gland (thus T cell) Some produce toxic substances that destroy cells that have been invaded by a virus. Others help the B cells to divide rapidly.

T cell

Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of: Interaction between B and T lymphocytes: B and T lymphocytes interact as they are both attacking the same antigen. Helper T cells stimulate B cells and T cells to clone. The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes: -Helper T cells help B cells. -T cells are able to recognise self molecules (everyone has particular self molecules so there are millions of different B cells). -In the case of organ transplants, T cells recognise foreign cells and help B cells destroy

them. Only identical cells have the same self molecules on their B cells. The range of T lymphocytes types and the difference in their roles Type of T cell Cytotoxic T cell Helpter T cells Memory T cells Suppressor and Inducer T cells Roles Removes foreign proteins recognisesd as non self and destroys cells carrying antigens. Regulate cytotoxic T and B cell functions and secrete chemicals. Recognise antigen on reapperarence and have helper T cell functions, produce large amounts of antibody. Initiate response (regulating T and B cells) when antigen is detected and stop response when the antigen is destroyed

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection: Vaccines contain a live, attenuated or dead infective micro organism so that antigens are injected into the body activating B cells to produce large amounts of antibody and memory B cells stored in the lymphatic tissue. The memory B cells are ready to provide a very rapid response is the same pathogen later attacks the body. Active immunization: By vaccine, stimulating production of antibodies, T and B memory cells. Passive immunization: Naturally by the organism to provide short term immunity. Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients When an organ is transplanted it is recognised by the immune system in the body as non-self. The body attacks the new organ as if it is an invading pathogen. To overcome this problem, transplant patients are given powerful drugs to suppress their natural defences. This can lead to complications, as the patient has reduced defences against any pathogen that they may encounter. ALG can also be used to reduce white blood cell count and suppress immune response. Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of once common diseases, including small pox, diphtheria and polio: Smallpox: Jenner developed a vaccine in 1796 during a time when 1/3 who caught disease died. In 1960s WHO developed the worldwide immunization program and in the 1980s declared the world smallpox free. Diphtheria: Bacterial infection transmitted by close physical/ respiratory contact. A vaccine was release in 1923 and by 1940s the disease was limited to occasional, low intensity outbreaks. Since 1990s outbreaks have occurred in soviet union and Iraq however vaccination rate globally is 74% suggesting that will increased vaccination, outbreaks may not occur. Polio: A disease mainly in young children resulting in paralysis and death. Poliomyelitis virus enters through the mouth, attacking brain and leg nerves heavily. In 1955 a vaccine was introduced and by 1960s the disease was brought under control. Polio is currently eradicated from most parts of the world.

6. Epidemiological Studies
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an example: Epidemiology is the study of the cause and effects of a disease prevalent in a large population, through study of patterns and relationships. Links made between smoking and lung cancer through epidemiology: -Lung cancer related deaths have generally decreased from 1984 to 2002 where a smaller portion of population is smoking in recent times. -Studies show tobacco from smoking has resulted in lung cancer and this lung cancer has lead to deaths. Epidemiology shows that science can test epidemics and make links to causes through rigorous testing. Identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of the following categories ( inherited, nutritional deficiencies, and environmental diseases): Noninfectious diseases are not caused by pathogens, are not transferable from one organism to another and cannot be prevented by vaccination. Inherited: Down syndrome: Caused by non-disjunction of chromosome 21 resulting in 47 chromosomes instead of 46 and also by the incomplete separation of a specific chromosome pair during meiosis. Symptoms include mental retardation and 40% chance of heart defects. There is no cure for Down syndrome. Nutritional deficiency: Starvation: Caused by lack of food and water intake. Symptoms include muscle deterioration, loose skin and lower metabolic rate. Adults can last approximately 2 months without food. The treatment for this deficiency is increased food intake. Environmental: Bites and Stings: Most often caused by insect or snake bites. Can lead to cardiopulmonary or respiratory failure, blood poisoning, tetanus, sores, lesions and ulcers. Treatment includes cleaning the wound and extracting venom. Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect relationship of smoking and lung cancer: -Epidemiologists determined that people who develop lung cancer are much more likely to have smoked. -83% of Lung cancer is associated with smoking. -Epidemiology also shows correlation between number of cigarettes smoked per day and the starting age and risk of developing lung cancer. -Passive smoking associated with 3000 lung cancer cases per year. Identify data sources, plan and perform a first hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources to analyse and present information about the occurrence, symptoms, cause, treatment/management of a named non-infectious disease: Name of disease Cardiovascular disease Occurance High occurance in developed countries (e.g. Australia) Symptoms Breathlessness, chest pain, abnormal heart beat, swelling in legs and ankles

Cause Treatment or management

Hear and blood vessels cannot meet bodys oxygen demand Rest, drug management, reduce blood pressure, lower cholesterol, surgery, re-route blood avoiding diseased vessels.

7. Modern strategies
Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and animals into Australia and across regions of Australia: Quarantine seeks to prevent the entry of harmful diseases into Australia and to stop the spread of diseases within Australia. These diseases cause huge financial losses to farmers in other countries. Australia is able to sell its products to overseas markets because of the absence of diseases, like mad cow disease (disease that affects normal brain functioning) and foot-and-mouth (viral disease affecting livestock which could potentially damage Australian livestock sales. Australia has been FMD free since 1872). Explain how one of the following strategies (public health programs) has controlled and/or prevented disease: PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAMS: -Provides immunisation, sanitation, safe drinking water and quarantine. -Examples include anti-smoking advertisements, AIDS campaigns and slip, slop, slap campaign against skin cancer. -Promotes good health and looks at prevention -Public health programs by providing disease preventative methods (immunisation) has assisted in the control of skin cancer and the prevention of diseases such as hepatitis. Perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first hand information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests:

Lerps:

These pests take starch and sugar from leaves.

Wasp eggs:

Cause damage to leaf, reduction in translocation.

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal disease into Australia or across regions of Australia: For well over a century, quarantine has played a critical role in reducing the risk and shaping our nation to become one of the few countries in the world to remain free from the worlds most severe pests and diseases. Today, quarantine controls at Australias borders minimise the risk of exotic pests and diseases entering Australia and

protect our $32 billion agriculture export industries as well as our unique environment, native flora and fauna, our tourism industries and lifestyle. Quarantine in Australia has effectively removed rabies and foot and mouth disease.

Gather, process information and use available evidence, to discuss the changing methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases, including the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to management or prevention of disease: The flu is an infectious disease in which strategies have been used in NSW to prevent the flu within individuals. Strategies include flu-shot (vaccine, especially for elderly), washing hands thoroughly, covering mouth when coughing or sneezing and if someone is found to be sick they are advised to remain away from others. Vaccines are now used in order to prevent the disease for members of the public before getting the disease instead of treating the disease when it occurs. The NSW government stated that the first step in prevention is to get vaccinated. Other diseases following the same approach (emphasis on prevention of disease) include Malaria and Lung cancer.