WaterConservationandEfficiency

HarveyCleveland 11/01/08

Abstract ThispaperexaminesincreasingwaterscarcityintheUnitedStatesandSouthCarolinaand conservationandefficiencymeasuresthatcanbetakentoensurethatwaterisnotover consumed.ThepaperbeginswithanexplanationofthemajorlongtermtrendsinUnited Statespopulationgrowth,industrygrowth,andincreasingwaterconsumptiontoframethe issueofincreasingdemand.DroughtsandClimateChangearebrieflydiscussedtoshowthata decreaseinsupplycompoundstheproblem.Aftergivingsomereasonsthattraditionalsupply sidesolutionsareproblematic,ananalysisofdemandsidesolutionsisgiven,andargumentsfor andagainstimplementingthesesolutionsinSouthCarolinaaredeveloped.Behaviormodifying measuressuchaspriceincreasesandwaterrestrictionsarediscussed,aswellasefficiency measuressuchasleakdetectionandrepairandtheuseofwatersavingtechnology.Lastly,the roleofeducationinconservationisexamined.

WaterConservationandEfficiency
IntroductionandRoadmap Wateristheworldsmostpreciousresource.Itisessentialtoallhuman,plant,andanimal life.Itisusedfordrinking,cooking,cleaning,transportation,electricityproduction,waste removal,andcountlessotheruses.Althoughwatercoversseventypercentoftheearth,ninety sevenpercentoftheEarthswatersupplyissaltwaterfoundintheoceanandunsuitablefor manyuses.1Availabilityoffreshwaterhasbecomeamajorprobleminmanyareasoftheworld andisbecomingmoreofaconcerninothersbecausedemandisoutpacingsupply. ThispaperbeginswithanexplanationofthemajorlongtermtrendsinUnitedStates populationgrowth,industrygrowth,andincreasingwaterconsumptiontoframetheissueof increasingdemand.AfterexaminingtheincreasingwaterscarcityintheUnitedStatesin general,thepaperaddressestheincreasingwaterscarcityinSouthCarolina.Droughtsand ClimateChangearebrieflydiscussedtoshowthatadecreaseinsupplycompoundsthe problem.Aftergivingsomereasonsthattraditionalsupplysidesolutionsareproblematic,an analysisofdemandsidesolutionsisgiven,andargumentsforandagainstimplementingthese solutionsinSouthCarolinaaredeveloped.Behaviormodifyingmeasuressuchasprice increasesandwaterrestrictionsarediscussed,aswellasefficiencymeasuressuchasleak detectionandrepairandtheuseofwatersavingtechnology.Lastly,theroleofeducationin waterconservationisexamined.Throughoutthepaper,examplesofwateruseproblemsand solutionsfromotherstatesarepresentedtoprovidethereaderwithperspective.Water shortagesintheSoutheasternstatesareemphasizedtoshowthefutureproblemsthatSouth

EarthsWaterDistributionhttp://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html

Carolinawillhavetoaddress,aswellastoshedlightonpossiblesolutions.Examplesfrom otherstatesareusedasmodelstoshowtheresultsthateffectivewatermanagementcan produce. UnitedStatesConsumption TheUnitedStatesconsumessubstantiallymorewaterpercapitathananyotherOECD nation.2Wecurrentlyusearound100gallonsofwaterperperson.3Moreover,basedonlong termtrendsandprojections,Americansdemandforwaterwillcontinuetoincrease.Between 1950and2000,publicdemandforwaterincreased209percent.4Traditionally,waterhasbeen consideredabundantandcheap,whichhasledtoaculturethatwasteswater.Inrecent decades,westernstateshavebecomemorefocusedonconservingwateroutofnecessity. BecauseoftheamountofrainfallthatoccursintheSoutheast,attitudesaboutwater conservationandefficiencyhavebeenslowertochangeinthisregion.However,ever increasingpopulation,newdevelopments,andindustrygrowthhaveresultedinanincreasein demandforwater.Coupledwithwastefuluseofwaterandadwindlingsupplyduetonatural causes,thisincreaseindemandasaresultofnaturalgrowthhasledtowatershortagesinthe region.Simplyput,therearemorepeopledemandingwaterandlesswaterisavailableforuse. Inlightofthesetrends,ourwastefulpracticesofthepastaremakingaseverewatercrisismore imminent.

2 3

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/20/40/37551205.pdf Water Use and Conservation Research Act, H.R 3957, 110th Cong. 2(1) (2008). 4 Id.

SouthCarolinaConsumption ThesymptomsexistinSouthCarolinaaswell,andwearesteadilyapproachingourwater limitations.Infact,SouthCarolinaranksamongthehigheststatesinintensityoffreshwater withdrawals,whichisthenumberofgallonswithdrawnpersquaremile.5Onafivepointscale, SouthCarolinaisincategoryfivewhileourneighboringstatesofGeorgiaandNorthCarolina areincategoriestwoandfourrespectively.6Thereareonlyelevenstatesthatareincategory fiveforfreshwaterwithdrawalintensity.7Intheyear2000,SouthCarolinausedbetween220 and320milliongallonsperdaypersquaremile,whereasNorthCarolinausedbetween150and 220milliongallonsperdaypersquaremileandGeorgiaconsumedbetween60and120million gallonsperdaypersquaremile.8 PowerproductionaccountsforthelargestuseofwaterintheUnitedStatesandinSouth Carolina.9However,theuseisnonconsumptivebecausemuchofthewaterisreturnedtothe watersourceafteritisusedtogeneratepowerorusedtocoolelectricalequipment.Thispaper willfocusonconservationandefficiencyofconsumptiveuses.Asidefrompowerproducing wateruses(thermoelectricandhydroelectric)publicsupplyandindustrialwithdrawalsmakeup thelargestportionofwaterdemand.10Publicsupplywithdrawalsarewithdrawalsbypublic andprivatewaterutilitiesthatsupplywatertodomesticandcommercialconsumers.11Some

UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,Figure4.IntensityofFreshwaterWithdrawals,2000 http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268/htdocs/figure04.html 6 Id. 7 Id 8 Id. 9 UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,EstimatedUseofWateristheU.Sin2000Thermoelectric(Circular1268) http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268/htdocs/textpt.html 10 UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,EstimatedUseofWaterintheU.Sin2000PublicSupply(Circular1268) http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268/htdocs/textps.html 11 Id.

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publicsupplywatergoestoindustryandpowerproductionbutmostindustrialusersandpower plantswithdrawwaterdirectly.In2006,publicsupplywithdrawalsaccountedfor55percentof totalnonpowerproductionfreshwaterwithdrawalsinSouthCarolinaandindustrialwater withdrawalsaccountedfor36.46percent.12 FutureConcerns (a) IncreasedDemand Waterwillbecomeincreasinglymorelimitedaspopulationincreases,andasindustry grows.Thetrendofagrowingpopulationandthestrainthatwillbeplacedonwaterresources waspresentedinthefindingsoftheproposedWaterUseandConservationResearchActof 2008.Itreads, Between 1950 and 2000, The United States population increased by nearly 90 percent. In that period, public demand for water increased 209 percent. Americansnowuseanaverageof100gallonsofwaterperpersoneachday.The increased demand has put additional stress on water supplies and distribution systems,threateningbothhumanhealthandtheenvironment.13 AllindicatorssuggestthatUnitedStatespopulationwillcontinuetogrow,reaching420million bymid2050.14Thewaterproblemthatwillresultfromcontinuingpopulationgrowthistwo fold.One,demandincreasesbecausetherearemorepeoplethatneedwaterforpersonal consumption,andtwo,thedemandforfoodwillincreaseaswell,whichwillincreasethe demandforcropsandmorewaterwillbeneededforirrigationasaresult.Accordingtothe

SouthCarolinaWaterUseReportAnnual2006Summary http://www.scdhec.net/environment/water/docs/wtruse2006.pdf 13 SeeWater Use and Conservation Research Act, supra note 3. 14 Frost: Increasing Water Demand Increases Growth in Water Recycling, Reuse Systems Market, (2007), http://engineers.ihs.com/news/frost-water-recycling.htm
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UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,irrigationwateruseincreasedbyapproximately50percent between1950and2000.15 SouthCarolinaisexpectedtoexperiencesignificantpopulationgrowthinthefutureas well.AccordingtotheUnitedStatesCensusBureau,SouthCarolinaspopulationisexpectedto growby600,000by2025.16Itisalsoestimatedthat,inSouthCarolina,100,000acresperyear arebeingconvertedintourbandevelopments.17Demandforwaterhasincreasedwith populationgrowth.Waterwithdrawalsbypublicsuppliers,utilitiesthatprovidehomesand businesseswithwater,increasedbyovereightpercentfrom2005to2006,andhaveincreased almost17percentsince2001.18 (b) DecreasedSupply Exacerbatingtheeffectthatanincreaseindemandwillhaveonthescarcityofwaterare

severalsupplyproblems.Droughtsarebecomingincreasinglymoreprevalent,especiallyinthe Southeast,andhavealreadyledtowatershortages.Thedroughtsarecomingmorefrequently andlastingmuchlongerthaninyearspast,andhavecausedsignificantproblemsin Southeasternstates.Forexample,thewaterlevelinFloridasLakeOkeechobeebecamesolow duringadroughtthatoncesubmergedgrassesonthelakeflooractuallycaughtfire.InNorth Carolina,droughtledtounsustainablepumpingofFallsLake,resultingintheneardrainingof Raleighsonlysurfacewatersource.19Thesummerdroughtof2007causedseveralcitiesin Georgiatodeclarewateremergencies.SouthCarolinaisnotimmunefromthesedroughts,

UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,EstimatedUseofWaterintheUnitedStatesin2000Trends(USGS Circular1268)http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268/htdocs/texttrends.html 16 SeeSouthCarolinaWaterUseReportAnnual2006Summary,supranote12. 17 Id. 18 Id. 19 CynthiaBarnett,FloridaFacesVanishingWaterSupply,ExcerptedfromMirage:FloridaandtheVanishingWater oftheEasternUS,(2007),http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyID=11097869

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havingexperiencedeightdroughtsinthepasttenyears.20Droughtscontinuetoplaguethe southeast.AdroughtSummaryfromOctober22,2008determinedthatExtremeto exceptionaldroughtconditionscontinueinGeorgia,easternTennesseeandtheCarolinas.21 ThefearoffuturewatershortagesinGeorgiahasledtoalotofbickeringoverhow muchwatershouldbereleasedfromLakeLaniertoprovidewatertotheStatesofFloridaand Alabama.TheinterstatewaterwarsarenotlimitedtoGeorgia,Alabama,andFlorida,however. SouthCarolinaandNorthCarolinaarecurrentlyinvolvedinalawsuitregardingNorthCarolinas increasedwithdrawalsfromtheCatawba/WatereeRiver.ThelawsuitwasfiledaftertheNorth CarolinaEnvironmentalManagementCommissionapprovedthetransferofuptotenmillion gallonsofwaterperdayfromtheCatawbaRivertotheNorthCarolinacitiesofKannapolisand Concord.22TheadditionalpumpingfromtheCatawbaisareactiontorampantgrowthinthe Charlotteareathathasputincreasingstrainonwaterresources.23SouthCaroliniansare opposedtotheadditionalpumpingbecauseitisaninterbasintransferthatwouldboth adverselyaffectthewaterquantityandqualityintheSouthCarolinaportionoftheCatawba River.24Morespecifically,thetransferreducessupplydownriverwhere1.3millionpeoplerely ontheriverfordrinkingwater.25Similarcontroversiesbetweenotherstatesarelooming.The

JoeyHolleman,WaterQuantityConcernsRivalthoseofQualityatS.Cresourcesconference,The(Columbia) State,October15,2008,http://www.heraldonline.com/120/story/884062.html 21 NationalDroughtSummaryhttp://www.drought.unl.edu/DM/monitor.html 22 DanChapman,CarolinaRiverWarhasBigRipples,TheAtlantaJournalConstitution,August24,2008 http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/metro/stories/2008/08/24/riverwar.html?cxntlid=inform_artr 23 Id. 24 Id. 25 MegKinnard,StatesuesN.Coverriversuse,AssociatedPress,June8,2007 http://www.charleston.net/news/2007/jun/08/state_sues_n_c_over_rivers_use/

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governorofGeorgiahashiredlawfirmstoseeifitislegallypossibletotakewaterfromthe TennesseeRiver,whiletheGovernorofTennesseeclaimsthattheTennesseeisofflimits.26 SupplySideSolutionsProblematic Thesewaterwarsillustratethemeansthathavehistoricallybeenusedtodealwith watersituationsIncreasesupplytokeepupwithdemand.Supplysidesolutionsinclude drawingwaterfromothersources,increasinginfrastructuretoincreaseholdingcapacities,and transportingwater.Throughouthistory,theUnitedStateshasinvestedheavilyinwater infrastructureintheformofreservoirstocollectwater,damsandleveestocontainsurplus water,andcanalsandpumpstodistributeit.27Thisinfrastructureworkedwellforyears,and periodicdroughtswouldgounnoticedtoconventionalwaterusersbecausethesesupply measureensuredthatenoughwaterwasstoredduringhighrainfallseasonstoprovidean adequatesupplyofwaterduringthedrierspells.However,everpresentpopulationand industrygrowthalongwithlonger,morefrequentdroughtshaverenderedtraditionalsupply sidemeasuresinadequatetoservefuturedemand.Droughtsarenotonlyreducingthevolume ofwateravailableforcollection,theyarereducingthevolumeofwaterthathasbeen containedduetoevaporation.Ontopofthis,sedimentationreducesreservoircapacityeach year.28Whileonlyaboutseventypercentofstoragecapacityiscurrentlybeingused,investing inadditionalinfrastructureisbecomingincreasinglyproblematicforavarietyofreasons.29 First,thedamsandreservoirsthathavealreadybeenbuiltwerebuiltinthemostsuitableareas

26 27

SeeChapman,supranote14. KennethD.Fredrick,America'sWaterSupply:StatusandProspectsfortheFuture,Spring1995, http://gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/spring95/Water.html 28 Id. 29 Id.

forwatercollectionanddistribution.Findingsuitableareasforadditionaldamsandreservoirs willbecomemoreandmoredifficult.Expandingexistinginfrastructureprovesequally challengingbecauseatsomepointthereservoirreachesacriticalmass.Inseveralreservoirs, thewaterlossesfromevaporationasaresultofincreasedsurfaceareahaveoutweighedthe gainsinadditionalstoragecapacity.30Infact,Astudyofdecadalchangesinreservoirstorage capacityperunitvolumeofdamforthe100largestdamsintheUnitedStatessuggeststhat sharplydiminishingreturnsarealreadythecase.31Therefore,newinfrastructurewillmost likelyrequirealargerfinancialinvestmenttogetthesame,ifnotworse,yieldaspreviousdams andreservoirs.Addingtothecostofadditionalinfrastructureandfurtherdiminishingits returnsisenvironmentalregulation,whichhasbecomemuchmorestringentsincetheheyday ofdamconstruction.Lastly,astherecentstatewaterwarshaveillustrated,infrastructurethat increasessupplyforoneusebymerelydivertingwaterfromanotheruseisnotavalidsolution. Insteadofaddingtotheoverallsupplyofwater,itjustredistributestheexistingwatersupplyto onesbenefitatthedetrimentofanother.Providingmorewaterforaspecificuseorgroupof consumersdoeslittlegoodtothewholeifthewaterhasadetrimentaleffectonanothergroup, aparticularhabitat,orleaveslesswaterforaparticularuse.Peoplerealizethatcreatingone problemtosolveanotherisnotaviablesolutionandasaresult,thesekindsofactionsface significantpublicopposition.32

30 31

Id. Id. 32 Id.

DemandSideMeasurestoChangeBehavior

Sincesupplysidemeasuresarecostlyandoftenadversetotheenvironment,demand sidemeasuresarebeinglookedatasasolutiontothewaterscarcityproblem.Amongthese demandsidesolutionsaredemandmanagementthroughpricing,efficiencyincreasesthrough leakdetectionandimprovedtechnology,andeducationandpersuasiontoencourage conservation.

PriceIncreases

Onepossiblewaytoreducedemandistoincreasethepriceofwater.Currently, consumersintheUnitedStatesexperiencesomeofthelowestwaterratesoutofallofthe OECDnations.33Theideabehindincreasingthepriceofwateristhatifconsumerswaterbills increase,peoplewillstartchangingtheirwaterhabitsinanattempttokeeptheirwaterbills low.Ifeffortsaregoingtobemadetoconvincethepublicthatwaterisbecomingscarcer, waterpricesneedtoreflectthisscarcityjustaspricereflectsthescarcityofothergoods. Otherwisepeoplewillcontinuetoask,Ifthereisashortageofwater,whyiswaterstillso cheap?Proponentsofwaterpriceincreasesarguethatwastefuluseofwaterandinaccurate beliefsabouttheabundanceofwatercanatleastpartlybeblamedonwatersuppliersfailure inthepasttorecognizetherealeconomicvalueofwaterandtherealcostofwaterservice.34 Butsincewaterisnecessarytohumansurvivalandisthemostimportantnatural resourceintheworld,itislesspriceelasticthannonessentialgoods.Muchresearchhasbeen

WorldBank,op.cit.,2000atWaterPrices,1999(USS/cubicmeter)WorldBank WaterPoliciesandDemandManagement,TheStateofFoodandAgriculture, http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0800e/t0800e0c.htm

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conductedexaminingthepriceelasticityofdemandforwatertodeterminehowmuch,ifatall, apriceincreasewouldaffectdomesticwaterconsumption.Manyofthesestudieshave concludedthatpriceisinelastic,meaningthatachangeinpricedoesnotsignificantlyinfluence thedemandforwater.ASouthAfricanStudyfoundjustthiswhenexamininghouseholdsin low,moderate,andhighincomecategoriesinthreecountieswherewaterisscarce.35 However,astudyofthepriceelasticityofthedemandforwaterin1,065householdsin Australiaconcludedthatconsumerbehaviordoeschangewhenthepriceofwaterincreases.36 Thestudyfoundthatwhileconsumerswereresponsivetoanincreaseinprice,themagnitude wassuchthatitwouldtakealargerateincreasetohaveasignificanteffectondemand.37 EconomicstudiesintheUnitedStateshavehadmixedresults.Giventheessentialnatureof water,itmakessensethatitismoreinelasticthanothergoods.Peoplearenotlikelytoreduce theamountofwatertheydrink,orchangetheirpersonalhygienehabitsbecauseofanincrease inthepriceofwater. TheElasticityofDifferentWaterUses Withinwaterdemandanalysis,wecanbreakwaterdemandintodemandfordifferent wateruses.Despitetheessentialnatureofwater,therearestillalargeamountof discretionarywaterusesthataremoreresponsivetopricechanges.Forexample,outdoor wateruseissignificantlymoreelasticthanindoorwateruse.38Indoorwateruseiscommonly

PaymentStrategiesandPriceElasticityofDemandforWaterforDifferentIncomeGroupsinThreeSelected UrbanAreas,MarketingSurveysandStatisticalAnalysisandEconomicProjectEvaluation,March2004,ReportNo 1296/1/04,FoundationforWaterResearch,(http://www.fwr.org/wrcsa/1296104.htm 36 Barkatullah,Nadira,OLSandInstrumentalVariablePriceElasticityEstimatesforWaterinMixedEffectsModel UnderMultipleTariffStructure,(2002),http://ideas.repec.org/p/fth/sydnec/226.html 37 Id. 38 LongTermEffectsofConservationRates,VistaConsultingGroup,Inc.,VistaConsultingGroup,AWWWA ResearchFoundation,PublishedbyAmericanWaterWorksAssociation,1997

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associatedwithmoreimportantusesthanoutdoorwateruse.Ifthepriceofwatergoesup slightly,aconsumerisnotlikelytouselesswaterforcooking,bathing,ordrinking,because thesearemoreessentialfunctions.Ontheotherhand,apricehikemightmakepeoplethink twiceaboutwateringtheirlawnsorwashingtheircarsonafrequentbasis.Giventhis phenomenon,itislogicalthatdemandistypicallymoreelasticinareaswithhotclimates,as theseareasusuallyrequiremoreoutdoorwateringwhichismorelikelytobecurbedasaresult ofpriceincreases.Peakdemandisalsomoreelastic,aspeakdemandinvolvesmore discretionarywateruse.39Inthesummer,agreatdealofwaterisusedtofillswimmingpools andwaterlawns,whereasinthewinteramuchlargerportionofwateruseisessential,suchas bathing,cooking,andcleaning.Similarly,suburbanareashavemoreelasticdemandthanurban areasbecausetheyaremorecommonlymadeupoflargeryards,moreplants,andmore swimmingpools.40Also,therearemorehousesinsuburbanareas,thereforemoreoutdoor faucets,whichencourageactivitiessuchascarwashing,drivewaywashing,andoutdoor buildingwashing. So,despitethegeneralclaimthatwateristooinelasticforpriceincreasestobeaviable behaviorchangingsolution,therearetwowaysinwhichawaterpriceincreasecouldwork. Thefirstisthatapriceincreasewouldshowthatwaterisbecomingscarcer.Thesecondisthat itwouldcutdownontheamountofnonessentialwaterconsumption.Ifusedasatoolto educateconsumersonthescarcityofwaterandmakethemthinktwiceaboutcertainnon essentialuses,apriceincreasecanbeaneffectivemeasureforreducingdemand,evenifwater isnotaselasticasotherconsumergoods.

39 40

Id. Id.

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 PricingStructures ButUtilitiesmusttakethedecisiontoincreasethepriceofwateronestepfurther.In orderforapriceincreasetobeeffective,autilitymustdecideontherightpricingstructure.The amountofmoneyaconsumerpaysmustbelinkedtotheamountofwaterthatsheuses.In manymunicipalities,flatratewaterpricesandaveragecostpricingarebeingreplacedwith multiparttariffstructures.41Amultiparttariffstructureisabillingsystemwithtwocharges. Thefirstchargeisafixedcharge,whichdoesnotchangewithwaterconsumption.Allwater usersarechargedthesamefixedchargepermonthnomatterhowlittlewatertheyuse.The secondchargeisausagecharge,whichvarieswiththeamountofwaterthataconsumeruses. Withinthismultipartstructuretherearedifferenttypesofusagecharges.Thethirdand probablyleasteffectiveisthedecliningblockcharge.Underthedecliningblockcharge,the userischargedforeachadditionalblock(acertainnumberofgallons)ofwaterthatsheuses, butthepriceofeachsubsequentblockislessthanthepriceofthepreviousblock.Thus,the consumerisspendingmoremoneyasheusesmorewater,butsheisgettingeachextrablockat adiscount.Thestandardmultipartstructurechargestheuserthesamepriceforeachblock,so theconsumerpaysfortheamountofwatersheuseswithoutgettingadiscountonadditional blocksofwater.Themosteffectiveusagechargeforcurbingwaterdemandistheprogressive usagecharge.Underthispricingstructure,theuserischargedmoreforeachsubsequentblock ofwaterthatsheuses.

ExaminingtheSoutheast'sWaterSupplyTranscript,(2008), http://www.frbatlanta.org/invoke.cfm?objectid=405D28C450569F12 12B1303AD0FCC8BC&method=display_body

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ThestudyperformedinAustraliathatismentionedabovefoundthatconsumersdo respondtomarginalpricechangeswhenfacedwithamultiparttariffstructure.Giventhe change,itisconcludedthatpricecouldbeusedasatooltoreduceconsumptioniftheincrease inpriceissubstantial.42Sinceasubstantialincreaseisneeded,aprogressiveblockincrease underamultiparttariffstructurewouldbethebestpricingstrategytoemploy,asitplacesa higherpenaltyonhighconsumptionthantheothertwo.Thereisempiricalevidencetosupport this. CorrelationsbetweenProgressiveBlockIncreasesanddecliningwateruse ThemunicipalityofSantaCruz,Californiaintroducedathirdpriceblockwhichdoubled themarginalpriceofwaterfacedbyhighuseconsumers.Thispriceincreasedecreasedtheir demandbyfifteentotwentyfivepercentoveraonetothreeyearperiod.43Similarly,athree tierincreasingblockratestructurehasreducedwaterconsumptionsinCary,NorthCarolina, andisexpectedtoleadtowatersavingsof140,000gallonsperdayin2009.44InIrvineRanch California,authoritiesobservedthatwaterusedeclinedbynineteenpercentaftera conservationratestructurewasadopted.45InGoleta,California,changingthewaterrate structureandestablishingotherconservationprogramsresultedinafiftypercentdecreasein residentialwaterusepercapitaandathirtypercentreductionintotalwateruseinthefirst year.46

SeeBarkatullah,Nadira,supranote26. ShanthiNataraj,DoResidentialWaterConsumersReacttoPriceIncreases?EvidenceFromaNaturalExperiment inSantaCruz,GianniFoundationofAgriculturalEconomics,UniversityofCalifornia,pg.911. http://www.agecon.ucdavis.edu/extension/update/articles/v10n3_3.pdf 44 CasesinConservation:HowEfficiencyProgramsHelpWaterUtilitiesSaveWaterandAvoidCosts.UnitedStates EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhttp://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/docs/utilityconservation_508.pdf 45 Id. 46 Id.

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TheEffectofBillingInformation Whileamarginalpriceincreaseseemedtobeveryeffectiveincurbingwater consumptionintheseareas,itisoftendifficulttodeterminetheactualcauseandeffect relationshipofpriceincreasesbecausepricechangesareusuallyimplementedsimultaneously withotherconservationmeasures.AstudyundertakenbytheNationalBureauofEconomic ResearchfoundthatonethirdofUnitedSatesurbanresidentialwatercustomersfaced increasesinblockpricingintheyear2000.47Whilethestudywasunabletoclearlydetermine thebehavioraleffectthattheincreasehad,itwasnotedinthestudythatwaterprice informationonthebillincreasesconsumerresponsiveness.48Infact,onestudyconcludedthat autilitythatgivesmarginalpriceinformationonaconsumersbillcanachievethesamelevelof conservationwithathirtypercentlowerpriceincreasethaniftheydonotputthemarginal priceonthebill.49 Thus,inlookingtochangeconsumerbehavior,itisnotenoughtomerelyincreasethe priceofwater.Suppliersmustalsoimplementaneffectivetypeofratestructure,andeducate thepublicaboutthepricechange.Themosteffectiveratestructuretouseasameansto reducedemandisaprogressiveratestructurethattargetspeakseasondemandand discretionaryuse.Industrialandcommercialwaterusesaremoreinelasticthandomesticusers becausebusinessandcommercialcustomershavemoreconsistentandcontrolledwateruse

SheilaOlmstead,W.MichaelHanemann,RobertN.Stavins,WaterDemandUnderAlternativePriceStructures, (2007),NationalBureauofEconomicResearchhttp://www.nber.org/papers/W13573.pdf?new_window=1 48 Id. 49 ResidentialPriceElasticityofDemandforWaterComparingCypruswithOtherCountries,Workshoponthe WaterPricingPoliciesAccordingtotheFrameworkDirective2000/60/EC,February89,2007Nicosia. http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/moa/wdd/Wdd.nsf/0/DCF9C5CFB5B6DFB1C225718F00385A0B/$file/8_SMetaxas.pdf

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requiredintheirdailyprocessesandoperations.50Thereforethemosteffectivewaterprice policiesarethoseaimedatdomesticconsumption.Promotionandeducationaboutboth conservationandpriceincreaseswillincreasedemandresponsiveness. PricinginSouthCarolina OfthethreelargestpublicsupplywaterwithdrawalareasinSouthCarolina,onlythecity ofCharlestonusesastructuresimilartoaprogressiveblocktariff.Greenvillechargesforwater basedonadecliningblocktariffandColumbiadoesnothaveatwotierpricingtariff,meaning thateachblockofwatercoststheconsumerthesameamount.51Charlestonhaselementsof bothaprogressiveblocksystemandadecliningblocksystem.Allconsumerspaythesame minimumchargeforacertainamountofwater.Ifaconsumerusesmorethanthisamountshe willpayextraperadditionalblockofwateruptoacertainamount.Ifsheusesmorethanthe secondblockshewillpaylessperadditionalvolumeofwaterthantheincrementalpriceofthe previousblock.52Abetterpricingstrategycouldbeused.Thesecitiescouldimplementa progressiveblockstructure,andmakethesummerwaterratesperblockofwatermore expensivethanthewinterwaterrates,chargingconsumersmoreperblockofwaterafterthey consumemorethanthewintervolumeaverage.

IloveTipsforGettingtheLowestRates,Durhamsaveswater.org, http://www.ci.durham.nc.us/departments/public/pdf/citizens_newsletter_0708.pdf 51 GreenvilleWaterSystem,http://www.greenvillewater.com/images/waterrates2008.pdf(lastvisitedOctober19, 2008),WelcometotheCityofColumbiaSCOfficialWebsite,http://www.columbiasc.net/waterservices/330(last visitedOctober19,2008). 52 CharlestonWaterSystem,http://www.charlestonwater.com/custserv_rates_schedule.htm

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EffectivePricingStructuresinOtherCities Albuquerqueimplementedthesuggestedstrategyabove,charginganadditionaltwenty onecentsper100cubicfeetwhenconsumersexceeded200percentoftheirwinteraverage.53 Thisratechange,alongwithalandscapingefficiencyprogram,reducedpeakdemandby fourteenpercent.54TheCityofDurhamisalsoattemptingtosolveitswatershortageproblem withapriceincrease.CityCouncilrecentlypassedanewtieredratestructureaimedat reducingoutdoorwateruse,underwhichconsumerswillpayahigherrateper100cubicfeetof waterusedforoutdoorwatering.55 DiscriminatoryPriceIncreases Manyhavearguedovertheideaofchargingdifferentfixedchargesfordifferent consumers.Afixedchargeistypicallybasedoneitherthecostofprovidingbasicservice,oron propertyvalue.Theargumentforchargingalargerfixedcostbasedonpropertyvalueisthat peoplewithbig,expensivehousesusuallyhavelawns,gardens,andswimmingpoolsanduse morewatertomaintainthem.Italsotakesmorewatertorunalargehouse,soconsumers withlargehousescontributemoretotheshortageofwater.Criticsofthismethodarguethata largerfixedpricedoesnotdiscouragewateruse,onlyvolumetricpricingdoes.Ifalargerfixed priceisimposedalongwithvolumetricpricing,thentheseconsumerswouldbegettingdouble charged.Theywouldpayahigherfixedrateforthepossibilitythattheymighthavelawnsand gardensbasedonthevalueoftheirproperty,andahigherusagerateifindeedtheydohave lawnsandgardensthattheywater.Moreover,ifthecollectionoflargefixedratesisusedto

SeeCasesinConservationsupranote44. Id. 55 MattDees,DurhamAdoptsTieredWaterRates,TheNews&Observer,May6,2008 http://www.newsobserver.com/weather/drought/story/1062367.html

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lowerthefixedratesofothers,thiswouldmakeapriceincreaselesseffectiveasameansof reducingdemand. WaterRestrictions Probablythemostvisibleconservation,ordemandreducing,strategythathasbeen employedbycitiesandmunicipalitiesoverrecentyearsistheimplementationofwateruse bansandrestrictions.Todate,almostalloftherestrictionshavebeenonoutdoorwateruse. Restrictionsrangefromlimitinglawnwateringtocertaintimesofdayandcertaindaysofthe weektotheoutrightbanningofcarwashing,drivewayandhouseexteriorwashing,and ornamentaldisplaysofwater.Otherregulations,suchastherequirementthatallhosesbe equippedwithanautomaticshutoffnozzleandthathosesmustbehandheldatalltimesaimto establishefficiencyinwateruse.Therehavebeenmanydebatesonoutdoorwaterrestrictions. Proponentsoftherestrictionsarguethatoutdoorwaterusetargetstheexactkindofwateruse thatwearetryingtoreduce.Theycontendthatlawnwateringandcarwashinghavethe potentialtobethemostwasteful. Foratleastsomecitiesandcounties,theoutdoorwaterrestrictionshaveyieldedsome impressiveresults.Raleighforexample,implementedthefollowingwaterrestrictions:Odd numberedhousescanonlyuseirrigationsystemsandhoseendsprinklersonTuesdaysbetween midnightand10am,andevennumberedhousescanonlyusethemonWednesdaysduringthe sametimeframe;handheldhosescanonlybeusedduringthehoursofsixandteninthe morningsandeveningsandonlytwiceaweek(insamealternatinghousenumberscheme);and

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vehiclewashingandpressurewashingisonlypermittedonSaturdaysandSundays.56Inthe firstthreemonthsoftheserestrictions,waterconsumptiondecreasedbytwentypercent.57 WaterrestrictionsalsoappeartohavereducedwaterconsumptioninGeorgia.CarolCouch, DirectoroftheEnvironmentalProtectionDivisionofGeorgiastatedthatawaterrestrictionin late2007whichessentiallybannedalloutdoorwateruseinNorthGeorgiaandcututilitywater withdrawalsbytenpercentresultedinatwentyeightpercentdecreaseinwateruse.58 OppositiontoWaterRestrictions However,waterrestrictionsasameanstosolvewatershortageproblemshavefaceda lotofopposition.Oneoftheprincipalargumentsagainsttherestrictionsisthatoutdoor restrictionsaremerelytheeasiestinitiativesthatpoliticianscanimplementtomakeitappear liketheyarefixingtheproblemwithouthavingtomakereal,toughchanges.Opponentstothe restrictionsclaimthatwaterrestrictionsaretemporarymeasuresthatdontchangelongterm behavior.Lawmakersareunwillingtoestablishpermanentrestrictionsandloosenthemoncea particulardroughthaspassed.Manybelievethatthissendsthewrongmessagetothepublic, andrestrictionsareperceivedastemporaryinconveniencesthatmustbeaccepteduntila droughtpasses. Anothermainargumentagainsttherestrictionsisthatoutdoorwaterrestrictionsdonot

gettotherootoftheproblem.ThishasbeenamajorissueinGeorgia,wheretheGeorgia

JayneKirkpatrick,CityReturnsToMandatoryStageOneRestrictions,April7,2008, http://www.raleighnc.gov/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_306_210_0_43/http%3B/pt03/DIG_Web_Conte nt/news/public/NewsPubAffCity_Returns_To_Mandator2008040710403338.html 57 JayneKirkpatrick,Skimpyprecipitationprolongsdrought,January23,2008 http://www.raleighnc.gov/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_306_210_0_43/http%3B/pt03/DIG_Web_Conte nt/news/public/NewsPubAffSkimpy_Precipitation_Pro2008012309214387.html 58 GeorgiaMayTightenWaterRestrictionsAgain,TheAssociatedPress,Accessnorthga.com http://www.accessnorthga.com/detail.php?n=211104

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GreenIndustryAssociationdeterminedthatoutdoorwateruseonlyaccountsfortwentyto twentyfivepercentoftotalresidentialwaterconsumption,whileindoorwateruseaccountsfor seventyfivetoeightypercent59(thepercentageofwaterthatoutdooruseaccountsforvaries significantlyfromstatetostate).Forthisreason,manyareaskingwhymunicipalitiesare regulatingasmallpercentageofwateruseratherthanregulatingwaterusethataccountsfor themajorityofconsumption.GeorgiaGovernorSonnyPerdueevenstatedthatoutdoorwater useisinconsequentialtoGeorgiaswaterusepicture.60Alongthoselines,manyclaimthat onlythestrictestbansactuallyhaveasignificanteffectonoutdoorwateruse,andexcessively strictbansshouldnotbeimplementedbecausetheyimposesignificanthardshiponmany businesses.DatacollectedbytheAtlantaJournalConstitutionshowedthatnotallbansinthe AtlantaMetroareaeffectivelyreducedwateruse.Awaterrestrictioninthesummerof2006 thatbannedlawnwateringandpoolfillingfourdaysperweekandeverydaybetweenthehours of10amand4pmdidnotpreventwaterusefromrisingsignificantlyinthesummer.61Alater, sixdayperweekrestrictionofthesameactivitieswhichonlyallowedwateringbetween midnightand10amwasmuchmoreeffective.62Butopponentsofthebansarguethatextreme waterrestrictionsimposeunduehardshiponparticularindustries.Retailgardencenters,the nurseryandhorticultureindustry,landscapingarchitects,installationandmaintenancecrews, greenwholesalers,florists,andgolfcoursesareallnegativelyimpactedbytheoutdoorwater restrictions.InGeorgia,thesebusinessesmakeupanindustryof7,000companiesthat

GeorgiaGreenIndustryAssociation,TalkingPointsonWateringBansinGeorgia, http://www.ggia.org/talking_points.pdf. 60 Id. 61 Stacy Shelton, John G. Perry, Only Toughest Ban Reduced Water Use, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, February 24, 2008. http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/metro/stories/2008/02/23/water_0224.html 62 Id.
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averages$8Billioninsalesandemploys80,000people.63TheLocalFarmBureauestimatesthat localnurseriesinSouthFloridasawathirtytothirtyfivepercentsalesdeclineafteraoneday perweekrestrictiononoutdoorwateringwasimplemented.64Often,theseasonalnatureof thesebusinessesmeansthatrestrictionsplacedduringpeaktimeshavedrasticeffectsonthe businesslongafterthecrisishaspassed.65 Moreover,theseindustrieshaveapositiveimpactontheenvironment.Landscaping increasesgroundwaterretention,removescarbondioxidefromtheair,andprovideswildlife withhabitats.66Properlandscapingisparticularlyimportantinurbansettings.Vegetation systemsreducetheurbanheatislandeffect,improveairquality,andreducestreampollution. Thelossoflandscapehealthcancauseadditionalirrigationandstormwatercosts,flooding, pollution,anderosion.67Harmingsuchalargeindustrythatproducestangibleenvironmental benefitsformarginalwatersavingresultsseemsunfairtomany.Becauseofthis,agreatdeal ofpeoplewouldliketoseebroaderwatersavingmeasuresthatwouldspreadthesavings acrossmanyhouseholdsratherthanfocusingononeparticularusethatimposeshardshipon particularindustry.68Whereascriticsdontseemtopointtoparticularpoliciesforcurbing indooruse,theyarguethatcurbingindooruseacrosstheboardwouldbeamoreequitable solution.69

Georgia Urban Agricultural Council, One Industry. One Voice, http://urbanagcouncil.com/service_view.aspx?id=897 (last visited Oct. 9, 2008) 64 Can We Relax Some Water Conservation Requirements? http://watercrunch.blogspot.com/ (last visited Oct. 9, 2008). 65 Id. 66 Talking Points, supra note 44. 67 Georgia Urban Agriculture Council, Water Issue Information, http://urbanagcouncil.com/service_view.aspx?id=897 (Last Visited October 9, 2008) 68 Id. 69 Id.
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InSouthCarolina,outdoorwateruseaccountsforamuchlargerpercentageoftotal waterusethanitdoesinGeorgia.Infact,landscapingisthelargestuseofwaterformost residentialconsumersinSouthCarolina.70Therefore,waterrestrictionsinSouthCarolinacould havealargereffectonreducingwaterdemand.Atthesametime,thelandscapingand gardeningindustriesinSouthCarolinacouldtakeevenabiggerhitthanthoseofGeorgia.It seemsthatthepositivereductionsindemandthatstemfromwaterrestrictionsmightcomeat toogreatacost.Theycansignificantlyharmindustriesthathavepositiveeffectsonthe environmentwhilesimultaneouslyshelvinglongtermsolutionsforaquickfix.Waterbansare emergencymeasurestobetakenincrises,andmoreeffectiveconservationtechniquesand policiescanbefoundintheformofefficiencyeffortsandeducationdesignedtochange behavior. Xeriscaping Aviablesolutiontoreduceoutdoorwateruseandeasethepainofthelandscaping industryisxeriscaping,whichistheprocessofcreatingwaterefficientlandscapes.Xeriscaping canreducetheamountofwaterusedforlandscaping,whilebenefitingthelandscapingindustry becauseitcanmakemoneyoffofXeriscapeconsulting,design,andthesaleofxeriscapeplants. Becausexeriscapingcanreduceplantirrigationbyoverfiftypercent,ithashugepotentialasa longtermconservationtechnique.71Avarietyofxeriscapetechniquescanbeused,including theinstallationofdroughtresistantandlowwateruseplants.AstudyinMarinCounty, Californiafoundthatefficientlandscapingcanleadtoafiftyfourpercentreductionin

TheFactsonWaterConservation,SouthCarolinaDepartmentofHealthandEnvironmentalControl, http://www.scdhec.net/environment/water/docs/dwconserve.pdf 71 CityofAtlantaBureauofWaterhttp://apps.atlantaga.gov/citydir/water/xeriscape.htm

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landscapewateruse72whileawaterdistrictinNovatoCaliforniaestimatedthataxeriscaped yardcouldsaveupto120gallonsperdayinsummermonths.73Inthe1990s,Albuquerque beganrequiringxeriscapingoncitypropertiesandanynewdevelopments,andlaterbegan assistinghomeownersinxeriscapingbyprovidinghowtovideos,guides,andrebates.This initiativecontributedtothefourteenpercentreductioninwaterusementionedbefore.74 XeriscapinghasslowlybeentakingrootintheSoutheastandotherpartsofthecountyasa waterconservationmeasure.Floridaevenenactedaxeriscapelawrequiringthatxeriscaping beusedonallnewpublicpropertiesandthatitbegraduallyphasedinonexistingland.75South Carolinahasaxeriscapingprogramthatcanprovideclientswithconsultationandwater efficientdesigns.However,effortsneedtobemadetocommunicatethepotentialvalueof xeriscaping,andtodispelmisconceptionsregardingxeriscaping.Forexample,manypeople believethatxeriscapingistheuseofrocksandcactiratherthanplantsandgrasses,whenin actualitytherearemanylocalplantsthatcanbeusedtomaintainatraditionallandscapewhile usinglesswater.AlessoncanbelearnedfromCary,NorthCarolina,wherexeriscaping regulationsandinstructionalworkshopshavebeenimplemented.AuthoritiesinCaryexpect thecitytosave20,000gallonsperdayin2009asaresultoftheseinitiatives.76 Xeriscapingdoespresentsomechallenges.Itcanrequiresignificantplanningandup frontcoststoconvertayardtoxeriscape.However,thelongevityofxeriscapedsystems

DouglasF.Welsh,XeriscapeNorthCarolina,NationalZeriscapeCouncil,Inc http://www.ncsu.edu/wrri/uwc/xeriscape.pdf 73 Id. 74 SeeCasesinConservation,supranote44. 74 SeeDouglassupranote74. 75 XeriscapeLandscapingPreventingPollutionandUsingResourcesEfficiently,UnitedStatesEnvironmental Agency,OfficeofWater(WH556F) http://www.2partners.com/2PartnersResources/Xeriscaping.pdf 76 SeeDouglassupranote74.

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presentstheopportunitytoconserveagreatdealofwaterinthelongrunifthenumberof participantscanbeincreased.Itisalsoasolutionthatreducesoutdoorwaterusewithout harmingthelandscapingbusinessesandnurseries.Althoughxeriscapingisanefficiency measure,itisalsoabehaviormodificationmeasurebecauseapersonhastomakeaconscious decisiontoestablishandmaintainaxeriscapedyard. DemandSideMeasuresEfficiency Inadditiontomeasuresfocusedonmodifyingbehavior,measuresthatincreasethe efficiencyofourwatersystemscanbeveryeffectiveinreducingdemand.Efficiencymeasures includedetectingandrepairingleaks,andtheinstallationofwatersavingdevices. LeakDetectionandRepair Waterlossfromleaksiswastedwaterthatbenefitsnoone.Millionsofgallonsofwater

eachdayarelostasaresultofleaks,andmuchofthiswaterislostbeforeitgetstotheend user.Itisestimatedthatpropercontrolofleaksforpublicwatersupplierscouldlowerannual waterusebythreetosixpercent.77Forexample,inGallitzinPennsylvania,aleakdetectionand repairprogramimplementedbythecityresultedinhugesavingsforitspublicwatersupplier. Withinfouryears,thesupplierwasabletolocateninetyfivepercentofitsleaks,reducethe amountofwateritdeliveredbyfiftyeightpercent,andreducetotalunaccountedforwaterto ninepercent.78 Leakdetectionandrepairprogramsattheindustriallevelcansavealotofwateraswell. AlthoughindustrialwaterwithdrawalsinSouthCarolinahavebeendecreasinginrecentyears,

BryanFlowers,DomesticWaterConservation:Greywater,RainwaterandOtherInnovations,February2004. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/water/overview.php 78 SeeCasesinConservationsupranote44.

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thereisstillagreatdealofroomforimprovement.ThisisevidencedbythefactthatSouth Carolinaaccountedfor3.1percentoftheNationsindustrialfreshwaterwithdrawals,just behindGeorgiaat3.4percentdespitehavingsignificantlylessindustry.79Georgiahas implementedprogramsinrecentyearstocutdownonindustrialwaterlosses.Industrialusers seekingtogainorrenewawaterwithdrawalpermitmustprovetotheEnvironmental ProtectionDivisionthatthattheyhaveauditingproceduresinplacetoensurethattheyhaveno morethantenpercentunaccountedforwaterintheirsystems.80SouthCarolinadoesnot requirepermitsforwithdrawals;nonetheless,noleakdetectionprogramsarerequired. Waterlossfromleaksremainsaproblemoncethewaterhasreachedthehomeaswell. Anaverageoffourteenpercentofresidentialwaterislostthroughpipeorfixtureleaks.81Many leaksarenotvisiblebecausetheyarebelowthesurface,andamajorityoftheseleaksbecome largeriftheygounfixed.Thoughnotvisible,subsurfaceleaksaredetectable.Thus,itis importanttoeducateconsumersonhowtheycandetectleaks,therebysavingwaterand money.ManycitiesintheUnitedStateshavemadehouseholdleakdetectionandrepaira priority;andtheincreasedefficiencythroughleakrepairandtechnologyupgradeshave resultedinsignificantreductionsindemand. InstallationofWaterSavingDevices Oneofthebestmeanstoreducedemandistheinstallationofwatersavingtechnology. Efficientshowerheads,faucets,andtoiletscanreducewateruseinthehomebyasmuchas

UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,DescriptionofChart, http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/dlink/wuinpiesstatesdlink.html 80 Water Leak Detection and Repair, EPD Guidance Document, August 2007, (http://www1.gadnr.org/cws/Documents/Leak_Detection_and_Repair.pdf 81 ConductingaHouseholdWaterAudit,MarylandDepartmentoftheEnvironmentWaterSupplyProgram, http://www.mde.state.md.us/assets/document/ResAudit.pdf
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fortypercent.82Lowflowtoiletsuse1.6gallonsperflush,whileoldermodelscanusefrom threetofivegallonsperflush.Modernshowerheadsandfaucetsareequippedwithaerators whichmixesairwiththewaterdispensed.Thisallowstheshowerheadtomaintainthesame amountofwaterpressurewhileactuallyusinglesswater.Giventhesheernumberoftoilets, faucets,andshowersintheUnitedStates,thepotentialwatersavingsaretremendous.Infact, theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyestimatesthattheaveragehomecouldsaveover11,000 gallonsperyearbyinstallingwatersavingdevices.83Ifoneoutoftenhouseholdsinstalled thesedevicesitwouldresultin120billiongallonsand800milliondollarsinsavings.84 Moreover,showerheadandfaucetfixturescanbeinstalledeasilybyconsumers,butlowflow toiletsusuallyrequireprofessionalinstallation.Anobstacletoinstallingwatersavingdevicesis thecost.Newfixturescanbeexpensive,andmanypeopleareunwillingtoreplaceallofthe fixturesintheirhouses.Asurveyofhomebuildersandmunicipalofficialsindicatedthatonly twentytwopercentoftheseindividualsthoughtthathomebuyerswouldpayover$100tohave watersavingfixturesintheirhomes.85Butmanycitieshavedealtwiththisproblembyoffering rebatesforwatersavingdevices.Albuquerquegaverebatesofupto$100forhighefficiency toiletsandwashingmachines,aswellasprovidingfreeinstallation.Withinasixyearperiodthe citywasabletoinstall39,000toilets,coincidingwithapercapitawaterusereductionofforty fivegallonsperday.86Houstonimplementedapilotprograminaparticularhousing development,wherethecityfixedleaksandinstalledefficienttoiletsandaerators.The
82 Low Flow Plumbing Fixtures, Toolbase Services, http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Plumbing/lowflow-plumbing-fixtures (last visited October 9, 2008) 83 ConsumersWaterSenseUSEPAhttp://www.epa.gov/watersense/tips/cons.htm 84 Id. 85 SeeFlowerssupranote77. 86 SeeCasessupranote44.

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programcost$22,000,butsaved$6,834amonthbyreducingwaterconsumptionbyseventy twopercent.87 Itisevidentfromtheseexamplesthatwatersavingscanmorethanmakeupforthecost ofprovidingrebatesandinstallation.PolicymakersinSouthCarolinashouldlookinto promotingefficiencyfixturesthroughrebates,aswellaseducation. Thebestthingaboutwatersavingdevicesisthatoncetheyareinstalled,theyconserve waterdespitethebehavioroftheconsumer.Theydontrequiredailyaction.Withwater savingdevices,aconsumerisconservingwatereverytimeshewashesherhandsorflushesthe toiletevenifthepersonisnotconsciouslytryingtoconservewater.Therefore,thefixtures havealasting,longtermeffectnomatterwhattheattitudesareoftheconsumer.For example,rentersthatdonotpaytheirownwaterbillswillbeunaffectedbyapriceincrease, leavinglittleincentiveforthemtosavewater.However,thelandlordcaninstallefficient showerheads,faucets,andtoiletsintheresidenceandsavewaterdespitetherentersapathy. Similarly,ifapersonbuysahousethathaspreviouslyinstalledefficientwaterfixtures,wateris beingconservedbythenewhomeowneronadailybasiswhethershetriestoconserveornot. Thus,theinstallationofwatersavingdevicesisanextremelyeffectivemeasure. TheRoleofEducation Thoughitisnearlyimpossibletodeterminethepreciseresultsfromeducatingthepublic aboutwaterconservation,mostmunicipalitiesfocusedonsolvingwaterproblemshave incorporatededucationalprogramsintotheirconservationefforts.Theeffectofeducation cannotbedirectlymeasuredaseducationisnearlyalwaysimplementedalongwithother

87

Id.

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conservationmeasures.Itisclear,though,thateducationisanimportantancillarymeasureto increaseparticipationinwatersavinginitiatives.Asmentionedbefore,priceincreaseshavea moresignificanteffectonreducingdemandwhenpeopleunderstandwhypricesareincreasing andhowtheycansavemoneybyconservingwater.Itisnotenoughtotellpeopletosavemore water;peopleneedtoknowhowwatersavingcanbenefitthem,andtheyneedtoknow specificstepsthattheycantaketoconservemorewater.Evenwithoutrateincreases, educatingpeopleonwhattypeofwatersavingdevicesareavailablewillincreasepurchases andinstallationsoftheseproducts.EducationplayedasignificantroleinAlbuquerquesLong RangeConservationStrategy.Amongothereducationprograms,thecityincludedwaterusage informationaboutchangingratesinwaterbills,organizedcooperativeprogramswithschool andcommunityorganizations,andprovidedinstructionalvideosandguidesonconverting regularlandscapestoxeriscapelandscapes.88InCary,NorthCarolina,publiceducation programsaimedatreducingpeakdemandandteachingwaterefficientlandscapingand gardeningwerejustonepartofaneightelementconservationplan.Somefocusedonteaching conservationinschool,othersoninvolvingcommunityresidentsandpassingoutwater conservationinformationtoresidents.TheCityofCaryestimatesthat300,000gallonsperday willbesavedin2009fromeducationeffortsalone.89Anotherexampleoftheeffectivenessof educationistheprograminGoleta,California,whereonsitesurveyshelpedresidentsimprove outdoorwaterefficiency.Houstonlaunchedaneducationprogramin1998inwhich10,000 conservationkitsweredistributedto5thgraders.Thekitsincludedhighefficiencyshowerheads andaerators.Ofthe10,000distributed,8,000wereinstalledleadingtowatersavingsof

88 89

Id. Id.

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eighteenpercentperhousehold.90InTampa,thedistributionof100,000waterconservation kitsresultedinadailyreductionofseventotengallonsperperson.91Educationisextremely importantinanyconservationstrategy.Inorderformanyconservationtechniquestowork, thepublicmustbemadeawareofthetechniquesandhowtheycanbeeffective. Conclusion ThereisnodebatethatwaterisbecomingscarcerinSouthCarolina.Gonearethedays

whenSouthCarolinasabundanceofrainfallandlowpopulationmeantthatpeoplecouldwaste asmuchwaterastheypleased.Acombinationofpopulationandindustrygrowth,more frequentdroughts,andtheinadequacyofsupplysidesolutionshavemadeitevidentthatSouth Caroliniansneedtoconservemorewater.Avarietyofwatersavingmethodshavebeen discussedthroughoutthispaper,includingpriceincreases,waterrestrictions,leakdetection andrepair,xeriscaping,andtheinstallationofwatersavingtechnology.Allofthesemethods haveexperiencedsomeformofsuccessinotherstates,butsomemethodshaveworkedbetter thanothers.ForSouthCarolinatoeffectivelycurbwaterdemand,itmustembedefficiency intoabroadreachingconservationprogramthatsendsaclearmessageoflongterm conservation.Aproperlystructuredpriceincreasecanconveythismessage,butonlyifit communicatestoconsumerswhythepriceisincreasing,andhowtheycanactuallysavemoney throughefficiencyandbychangingcertainbehavior.Thiscouldbedonebycouplingtheprice increasewithefficiencyinitiatives.Shorttermwaterbans,ontheotherhand,donotsenda longtermconservationmessage,andlongtermbansplaceasignificantburdenoncertain industries.However,certainoutdoorwaterregulationsthatfocusonefficiency,suchasa

90 91

Id. Id.

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requirementthatallhosesbefittedwithanautomaticshutoffnozzle,areeffectiveandshould beimplemented. Withinthebroadreachinginitiative,thebestwaytoactuallyconservewateristhrough efficiencymeasuressuchasleakelimination,watersavingtechnology,andxeriscaping. Althoughthesemethodsrequirealittleforethought,thelongtermsavingsaretremendous withminimalsubsequenteffort.Efficiencymeasuresalsotakethepressureoffoftheneedfor educationtochangepeoplesdaytodaybehavior.Onceanefficientdeviceorlandscapeis installed,waterissavedautomaticallywithouttheneedforconsciouswatersavingbehavior. However,educationremainsimportantasameansofinformingwaterusersaboutefficiency measuresandhowmuchwaterandmoneytheycansave.Efficiencyshouldalsobeencouraged throughrebates.Althoughsomewatersavingmeasuresaremoreeffectivethanothers,none ofthemeasuresshouldbeusedexclusively,asSouthCarolinawillmostbenefitfromaholistic approachtowaterconservation.Inordertoachievethebroadestreachpossible,education shouldbeincorporatedintoallwaterconservationinitiatives.
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