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Electromagnetic waves
Lecture topics Generation of EM waves Terminology Wave and particle models of EM radiation EM spectrum

Generation of EM waves
Acceleration of an electrical charge EM wavelength depends on length of time that the charged particle is accelerated Frequency depends on number of accelerations per second Antennas of different sizes Nuclear disintegrations = gamma rays Atomic-scale antennas = UV, visible, IR radiation Centimeter/Meter-scale antennas = radio waves http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=35

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Oscillating electric dipoles

Electric dipole: separation of positive and negative charges (permanent or induced)

Water molecule

There is no fundamental constraint on the frequency of EM radiation, provided an oscillator with the right natural frequency and/or an energy source with the minimum required energy is present

Electromagnetic Spectrum
EM Spectrum
Continuous range of EM radiation From very short wavelengths (<300x10-9 m) High energy To very long wavelengths (cm, m, km) Low energy Energy is related to wavelength (and hence frequency)

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EM wave terminology
EM waves characterized by: Wavelength, (m) Amplitude, A (m) Velocity, v or c (m s-1) Frequency, f or (s-1 or Hz) cycles per second Sometimes period, T (time for one oscillation i.e., 1/f)
v

Wavelength units
EM wavelength specified using various units
cm (10-2 m) mm (10-3 m) micron or micrometer, m (10-6 m) nanometer, nm (10-9 m) Angstrom, (10-10 m, mostly used in astronomy) f (or ) is waves/second, s-1 or Hertz (Hz) also MHz, GHz Wavenumber (inverse wavelength) also commonly used: given by 1/ (sometimes also 2/) e.g. cm-1 (symbol: ) What is the wavenumber (in cm-1) equivalent to = 1 m?

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Electromagnetic energy

EM radiation defined by wavelength (), frequency (f) and velocity (v) where: v = f i.e. longer wavelengths have lower frequencies etc. v and can change according to medium f is constant Generally more useful to think in terms of (numbers are easier) NB. Where v = c, this relationship refers to wavelength in a vacuum.

Digression radio waves

Why is FM radio higher quality than AM radio?

AM

FM

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Digression radio waves

Why is FM radio higher quality than AM radio?

AM = Amplitude modulation (530 1700 kHz) FM = Frequency modulation (87.8 108 MHz) EM wave amplitude can be affected by many things passing under a bridge, re-orienting the antenna etc. No natural processes change the frequency Radiation with frequency f will always have that frequency until it is absorbed and converted into another form of energy

Wave phase and angular frequency

Angular frequency = 2f = 2/T Frequency with which phase changes Angles in radians (rad) 360 = 2 rad, so 1 rad = 360/2 = 57.3 Rad to deg. (*180/) and deg. to rad (* /180)

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Light is not only a wave, but also a particle

Newton proposed wave theory of light (EMR) in 1666: observation of light separating into spectrum The Photoelectric Effect (H. Hertz [1887], A. Einstein [1905]) visible light incident on sodium metal Posed problems if light was just a wave: The electrons were emitted immediately (no time lag) Increasing the intensity of the light source increased the number of electrons emitted but not their energy Red light did not cause any electrons to be emitted, at any intensity Weak violet light ejected fewer electrons, but with greater energy
Max Planck (1900) found that electron energy was proportional to the frequency of the incident light

Wave-particle duality
Property of EM radiation Reflection Refraction Interference Diffraction Polarization Photoelectric effect Consistent with WAVE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No PARTICLE Yes Yes No No No Yes

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Photons
The energy of a single photon is: hf or = (h/2) where h is Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Joule-seconds One photon of visible light contains about 10-19 Joules - not much is the photon flux, or the number of photons per unit time in a beam.

P P = hv hc

Where P is beam power.

Particle model of radiation

EMR intimately related to atomic structure and energy Atom: +ve charged nucleus (protons+neutrons) & -ve charged electrons bound in orbits
Electron orbits are fixed at certain levels, each level corresponding to a particular electron energy Change of orbit either requires energy (work done), or releases energy Minimum energy required to move electron up a full energy level (cant have shift of 1/2 an energy level) Once shifted to a higher energy state from the ground state, the atom is excited, and possesses potential energy Released as electron falls back to lower energy level

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Particle model of radiation

Bohr quantized shell model of the atom (1913): electrons jump from one orbit to another only by emitting or absorbing energy in fixed quanta (levels) If an electron jumps one orbit closer to the nucleus, it must emit energy equal to the difference of the energies of the two orbits. When the electron jumps to a larger orbit, it must absorb a quantum of light equal in energy to the difference in orbits.

Particle model of radiation: atomic shells

Electron energy levels are unevenly spaced and characteristic of a particular element. This is the basis of spectroscopy. To be absorbed, the energy of a photon must match one of the allowable energy levels in an atom or molecule.

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Electromagnetic energy

EM radiation also considered in quantum terms, where each photon carries an energy E (in Joules) given by: E = hf (or h) where h is Plancks constant (6.626x10-34 J s), f = frequency

Electromagnetic energy

Combining the two relations we have:

E=

hv

i.e. the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to Implications for sensor design, pixel size etc.

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Frequency decomposition
Naturally occurring EM radiation hardly ever consists of a single frequency or wavelength But, any arbitrary EM fluctuation can be thought of as a composite of a number (potentially infinite) of different pure periodic functions This is known as Fourier decomposition So any EM wave can be regarded as a mixture of pure sine waves with differing frequencies, and the propagation of each frequency component can be tracked completely separately from the others. In remote sensing, the implication is that individual frequencies can be considered individually, then the results summed over all relevant frequencies.

Broadband vs. Monochromatic

Plane waves have only one frequency, .
Light electric field

Time

This light wave has many frequencies. And the frequency increases in time (from red to blue).

EM radiation composed entirely of a single frequency is termed monochromatic (one color) Radiation that consists of a mixture of frequencies is called broadband. So transport of broadband radiation can always be understood in terms of the transport of individual constituent frequencies (monochromatic radiation)

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Photochemistry
Many chemical reactions that take place in the atmosphere, including those that produce smog, are driven by sunlight. The stratospheric ozone layer also owes its existence to photochemical processes that break down oxygen molecules (O2). The photon energy E = h is a crucial factor in determining which frequencies of EM radiation participate in these processes.

Requires < 0.4 m (i.e., sunlight)

Production of tropospheric ozone (a major pollutant)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The EM spectrum is subdivided into a few discrete spectral bands. EM radiation spans an enormous range of frequencies; the bands shown here are those most often used for remote sensing. Boundaries between bands are arbitrary and have no physical significance, except for the visible band. Note that the visible band is subjective some insects can see ultraviolet light!

What wavelengths are associated with sunburn?

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The Ultraviolet (UV)

The UV is usually broken up into three regions, UV-A (320-400 nm), UV-B (290-320 nm), and UV-C (220-290 nm). UV-C is almost completely absorbed by the atmosphere. You can get skin cancer even from UV-A. Remote sensing of ozone (O3) uses UV radiation.

Photodissociates O2 and O3; absorbed between 30 and 60 km

Mostly absorbed by O3 in stratosphere; small fraction (0.31-0.32 m) reaches surface and causes sunburn (effect of ozone depletion?); energetic enough for photochemistry

Reaches surface; Relatively harmless; Stimulates fluorescence in some materials

Visible light
Wavelengths and frequencies of visible light (VIS) Atmosphere mostly transparent optical remote
sensing techniques, surface mapping etc. Includes wavelength of peak emission of radiation by the Sun (~50% of solar output in this range) Cloud-free atmosphere mostly transparent to VIS wavelengths, so most are absorbed at the Earths surface Clouds are highly reflective in the VIS implications for climate?

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The Infrared (IR)

Sub-mm wavelengths Unimportant for atmospheric photochemistry why? IR regions subdivided by wavelength and/ or source of radiation Region just longer than visible known as near-IR, NIR (0.7 4 m) - partially
absorbed, mainly by water vapor

Reflective (shortwave IR, SWIR) Emissive or thermal IR (TIR; 4 50 m) absorbed and emitted by water
vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and other trace gases; important for remote sensing and climate Note boundary (~4 m) separates shortwave and longwave radiation

Far IR (0.05 1 mm) absorbed by

water vapor; not widely exploited

The microwave (-wave) region

RADAR mm to cm wavelengths Usually specified as frequency, not wavelength Various bands used by RADAR instruments Long so low energy, hence require own energy source (active microwave) Penetrates clouds, planetary atmospheres useful for mapping Weather monitor rainfall, tornadoes, t-storms etc.

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The electromagnetic spectrum

The transition wavelengths are a bit arbitrary Now, well run through the entire electromagnetic spectrum, starting at very low frequencies and ending with the highest-frequency gamma rays.

60-Hz radiation from power lines

This very-low-frequency current emits 60-Hz electromagnetic waves. No, it is not harmful. A flawed epidemiological study in 1979 claimed otherwise, but no other study has ever found such results. Also, electrical power generation has increased exponentially since 1900; cancer incidence has remained essentially constant. Also, the 60-Hz electrical fields reaching the body are small; theyre greatly reduced inside the body because its conducting; and the bodys own electrical fields (nerve impulses) are much greater.

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Long-wavelength EM spectrum

Arecibo radio telescope

Radio & microwave regions (3 kHz 300 GHz)

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Global positioning system (GPS)

Consists of 24 orbiting satellites in half-synchronous orbits (two revolutions per day). Four satellites per orbit, equally spaced, inclined at 55 degrees to equator. Operates at 1.575 GHz (1.228 GHz is a reference to compensate for atmospheric water effects) 4 signals are required; one for time, three for position. 2-m accuracy

Microwave ovens
Microwave ovens operate at 2.45 GHz, where water absorbs very well.

Percy LeBaron Spencer, Inventor of the microwave oven

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Geosynchronous communications satellites

22,300 miles (36,000 km) above the earths surface 6 GHz uplink, 4 GHz downlink Each satellite is actually two (one is a spare)

Cosmic microwave background

Microwave background vs. angle Peak frequency is ~ 150 GHz The cosmic microwave background is blackbody radiation left over from the Big Bang

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Interestingly, blackbody radiation retains a blackbody spectrum despite the expansion of the universe. It does get colder, however.

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IR is useful for measuring the temperature of objects.

Hotter and hence brighter in the IR

Old Faithful

Infrared Lie-detection

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The military uses IR to see objects it considers relevant

IR light penetrates fog and smoke better than visible light.

The infrared space observatory

Stars that are just forming emit light mainly in the IR.

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Using mid-IR laser light to shoot down missiles

Wavelength = 3.6 to 4.2 m

The Tactical High Energy Laser uses a high-energy, deuterium fluoride chemical laser to shoot down short range unguided (ballistic flying) rockets.

Laser welding
Near-IR wavelengths are commonly used.

Laser pointer (red)

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Auroras

Solar wind particles spiral around the earths magnetic field lines and collide with atmospheric molecules, electronically exciting them.

Auroras are due to fluorescence from molecules excited by these charged particles. Different colors are from different atoms and molecules. O: 558, 630, 636 nm N2+: 391, 428 nm H: 486, 656 nm

Fluorescent lights

Use phosphors (transition metal compounds that exhibit phosporescence when exposed to UV light) Incandescent lights (normal light bulbs) lack the emission lines

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The eyes response to light and color

The eyes cones have three receptors, one for red, another for green, and a third for blue.

The eye is poor at distinguishing spectra

Because the eye perceives intermediate colors, such as orange and yellow, by comparing relative responses of two or more different receptors, the eye cannot distinguish between many spectra. The various yellow spectra below appear the same (yellow), and the combination of red and green also looks yellow

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UV from the sun

The ozone layer absorbs wavelengths less than 320 nm (UV-B and UV-C), and clouds scatter what isnt absorbed. But much UV (mostly UV-A, but some UV-B) penetrates the atmosphere anyway.

IR, Visible, and UV Light and Humans

(Sunburn)

Skin surface

Were opaque in the UV and visible, but not necessarily in the IR.

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Flowers in the UV
Since bees see in the UV (they have a receptor peaking at 345 nm), flowers often have UV patterns that are invisible in the visible.
Arnica angustifolia Vahl

Visible

UV (false color)

The sun in the UV

Image taken through a 171-nm filter by NASAs SOHO satellite.

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The very short-wavelength regions

Vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) " 180 nm > > 50 nm "

Absorbed by <<1 mm of air" Ionizing to many materials"

Soft x-rays 5 nm > > 0.5 nm

Strongly interacts with core electrons in materials

Extreme-ultraviolet (XUV or EUV)" 50 nm > > 5 nm"

Ionizing radiation to all materials"

EUV Astronomy
The solar corona is very hot (30,000,000 degrees K) and so emits light in the EUV region.

EUV astronomy requires satellites because the earths atmosphere is highly absorbing at these wavelengths.

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The sun also emits x-rays

The sun seen in the x-ray region

Matter falling into a black hole emits x-rays

Nearby star

Black hole

A black hole accelerates particles to very high speeds

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Supernovas emit x-rays, even afterward

A supernova remnant in a nearby galaxy (the Small Magellanic Cloud). The false colors show what this supernova remnant looks like in the x-ray (blue), visible (green) and radio (red) regions.

X-rays are occasionally seen in auroras

On April 7th 1997, a massive solar storm ejected a cloud of energetic particles toward planet Earth.

The plasma cloud grazed the Earth, and its high energy particles created a massive geomagnetic storm.

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Atomic structure and x-rays

Ionization energy ~ 100 1000 e.v.

Ionization energy ~ .01 1 e.v.

X-rays penetrate tissue and do not scatter much

Roentgens x-ray image of his wifes hand (and wedding ring)

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X-rays for photo-lithography

You can only focus light to a spot size of the light wavelength. So x-rays are necessary for integratedcircuit applications with structure a small fraction of a micron. 1 keV photons from a synchrotron: 2 micron lines over a base of 0.5 micron lines.

Gamma rays result from matterantimatter annihilation

An electron and positron self-annihilate, creating two gamma rays whose energy is equal to the electron mass energy, mec2.

e-

e+

h = 511 kev

More massive particles create even more energetic gamma rays. Gamma rays are also created in nuclear decay, nuclear reactions and explosions, pulsars, black holes, and supernova explosions.

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Gamma-ray bursts emit massive amounts of gamma rays

A new one appears almost every day, and it persists for ~1 second to ~1 minute.
The gamma-ray sky

Theyre probably supernovas.

In 10 seconds, they can emit more energy than our sun will in its entire lifetime. Fortunately, there dont seem to be any in our galaxy.

The universe in different spectral regions

Gamma Ray

X-Ray

Visible

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The universe in more spectral regions

IR

Microwave

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