Horizons 3 - Sample Chapter

OPTION 7
Geoecology
Chapter
Higher Level Only
10 Soils ....................................................168 11 Soil Characteristics ..........................174 12 Biomes ................................................190 13 Human Interaction with Biomes ....200
10 Soils
zz zz zz
Higher Level Only
SYLLABUS LINK
Soils develop from the weathering of rocks in situ and from redeposited weathered material.
By the end of this chapter students will have studied: The different components of soil A soil profile The characteristics that are used to differentiate soil types
INTERESTING FACTS FACT
Introduction
Soil is the thin layer of loose weathered and eroded material that covers the Earths surface. It is one of the Earths most important natural resources. Soil is made up of both organic and inorganic materials. Climate is one of the most important factors in the formation of soil.
It takes approximately 400 years to create 1 cm of soil.
General composition of all soil types

All soils are made of the following components but in different amounts. This gives rise to many different soil types around the world.
Mineral matter
G GEoTERmS
Parent rock is the bedrock of the area. Denudation is the collective name for weathering and erosion.
Mineral matter is the broken-down material of the parent rock and is the largest component of most soil types. The parent rock was broken down into mineral matter by denudation. The mineral matter could have been either derived from the area or transported by rivers, sea or ice. Some minerals are soluble. These are very important as they help nourish plants growing in the area.
Organic matter
This was once the living material of the plant, such as leaves and flowers, as well as the remains of animals. Dead plant material is known as plant litter. As the material decays it is broken down by bacteria into a thick, black, sticky substance called humus. Humus is rich in nutrients and is essential for plant growth. It also gives soils a dark brown appearance and because of its sticky nature helps to bind soil particles and hold moisture.
G GEoTERmS
Living organisms
Living organisms can be anything from micro-organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, to earthworms. They live in the soil and help with the breakdown of organic matter, aerating and mixing the soil.
Aeration is the introduction of air.
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Soils Chapter 10
Water
Water is essential in the soil to help with plant growth. It is found in the pore spaces in the soil. Water helps to dissolve minerals so that plants can take them in through their roots.
45% mineral 25% water
Air
Air is also found in the pore spaces between the soil particles. It supplies oxygen and nitrogen, essential for plant growth.
5% organic matter
25% air
Soil profile
A soil profile is a vertical section cut through the soil showing the various layers that are present. There are normally three layers, or horizons, to a soil profile.
Fig 10.1 The main components of soil
G GEoTERmS
A horizon
The A horizon is the top layer of the soil and is also called topsoil. It is dark brown in colour due to the high humus content. It is also the layer where most of the biological activity takes place.
Pore spaces are the spaces between the mineral particles in the soil. Leaching is the washing away of the soils nutrients by rainfall.
B horizon
The B horizon is located just below the topsoil and is also called the subsoil. It is lighter in colour than the A horizon due to a lack of humus content. This is the layer in which leached materials accumulate and where an impermeable layer called a hardpan is created.
C horizon
The C horizon is the bottom layer of the soil profile and contains the parent rock.
Plant litter A horizon (topsoil)
0 A
Soil characteristics
All of the following soil characteristics have a huge impact on the fertility of soils.
B horizon (subsoil)
0.5
B
Metres 1.0
C horizon (parent rock)
Texture
Texture is the feel of the soil, whether it is coarse or fine. This is dependent on the amount of clay, sand and silt particles in the soil. All these particles are different sizes and so the amount of water they absorb and nutrients they retain differs.
C
Fig 10.2 Soil profile
1.5
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Option 7 Geoecology
There are four main textures of soils: 1. Clay: These are extremely small particles that are tightly packed and are not visible to the naked eye. Clay soils contain more than 50 per cent clay particles. They have a high nutrient content and are good for plant growth. They are sticky and do not allow air and water to pass through them freely. This can result in poor drainage of clay soils. They are prone to waterlogging in wintertime and become dry and cracked during the summer months. Clay soils can be difficult to plough, and plant roots find it hard to penetrate them. Therefore they are better for pastoral farming. 2. Silty: These particles are slightly bigger and are just about visible to the naked eye. Silty soils can be badly drained but do not suffer from waterlogging. 3. Sandy: These are the largest particles and are visible to the naked eye. Sandy soils contain more than 70 per cent sand and lack humus content. They therefore have poor sticking ability. It is a loose soil that is easy to cultivate. It is a free-draining soil as it has large pore spaces and rarely suffers from waterlogging. Leaching can be a problem in these soils as minerals and nutrients can easily be washed from the A horizon to the B horizon. To combat this, sandy soils need to be fertilised and irrigated. 4. Loamy soils contain equal amounts of all three particles. Loamy soils are brown and crumbly in texture. They have a high humus content and are free from waterlogging and drying out in the summer. They are easily cultivated soils.
G GEoTERmS
Irrigation is the artificial watering of land.
Fig 10.3 (a) (above) sandy soil, (b) (right) clay soil, (c) (far right) loamy soil
100 90 80 70 60
par ate, %
10 20
Silt ara sep
30 Clay
te, %
50 40 Sandy clay Sandy clay loam
50 Silty clay loam Silty loam
y se
60 70 80
Cla
30
Clay loam
You read horizontally from the clay separates sides. Example: 40% sand 35% clay
100
20
Loam
Sandy 10 Loam loam ys and Sand 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
Silt 30 20 10 Sand separate, %
25% silt
clay loam
Fig 10.4 Soil textures
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Soils Chapter 10
Experiment to test soil texture

1. Take a sample of soil and place it in a jar with a screw top. 2. Three-quarters fill the jar with water. 3. Shake the jar for a couple of seconds, until all the material is well mixed. 4. Leave to settle overnight. 5. In the morning the soil sample will have divided into several visible layers, with the largest sand particles at the bottom and the finest clay particles at the top. Now try to determine your soil sample using Fig 10.4.
Silt Clay
Fine sand
Coarse sand
Colour
Soil can vary in colour from dark brown to light grey or yellow depending on the amount of organic matter in it. The colour of the soil depends mainly on the parent material and the processes that have affected the soil.
zzDark
Fig 10.5 Soil sample test
brown soils tend to be very fertile as they have a high humus content. They are also said to be warm soils as they attract heat, which in turn helps seed germination. soils tend to be infertile as they have been leached of their humus and nutrient content. They can often be poorly draining soils or suffer from waterlogging.
zzGrey
Fig 10.6 Tropical red soil
zzRed
soils are found in tropical or equatorial regions. They owe their red colour to the presence of iron oxide (rust) in the soil. Temperatures and rainfall are high in these regions and the soils experience rapid rates of chemical weathering.
G GEoTERmS
Seed germination is the growing of seeds.
Structure
Structure indicates how the soil particles are held together. Small clumps of soil bound together by humus and water are called peds. They can tell us a lot about the structure of the soil. The ped structure controls the amount of air and water that can be contained in the soil. Some of the most common soil structures are: 1. Crumb: The peds have a rounded shape. They are fertile soils as air and water can pass through them easily. They are considered the best soils for cultivation. 2. Blocky: This soil has close-fitting particles of a roughly cube shape. 3. Platy: These peds have a flat and overlapping structure that can prevent the free movement of water. This soil is generally infertile.
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Option 7 Geoecology
BEST
WORST
Subangular Crumb/granular
Fig 10.7 Common ped shapes
Angular Platy
Blocky
Water content and retention properties

The amount of water that soils can hold depends on their structure, humus content and texture. Humus helps to bind soil particles together, therefore it is able to hold more moisture than soils lacking in humus, such as sandy soils. Clay and soils with a platy structure are able to hold large quantities of water, which often leads to waterlogging of these soil types. In these conditions many bacteria and fungi cannot live, therefore there is little decay of organic material.
G GEoTERmS
Water stress is the need for more water than there is available.
It is vital for plant growth that soils are able to hold some moisture. If not, water stress occurs and the plants begin to wilt. Water is essential in the soil to allow plants to absorb minerals in a soluble form. Water also allows the development of horizons in the soil and slows the rate of soil erosion by binding the particles together.
Organic content
The organic material of soils is made up of any living matter. Plant litter dead plant material, such as leaves, bark and twigs, that has fallen to the ground and decomposing materials add nutrients to the soil in the form of humus. Bacteria and fungi help the decomposition of the decaying matter. Earthworms and other insects help to mix humus into the soil and they also aerate the soil with their burrows. Soils with a high humus content tend to be dark brown in colour with a good crumb structure. A sticky jelly-like substance, humus helps to bind the soil particles together, allowing them to hold moisture. Humus also absorbs minerals that could be washed out of the soil during heavy rainfall.
Soil pH
Soil pH indicates how acidic or alkaline the soil is. This can have a huge effect on the type of organisms and plants that can live in the soil. Most fertile soils contain a pH of 6.5. Soils that are more acidic than this, such as peat soils, have a lower pH number. They can sustain very few living organisms or plants. Lime is sometimes added to reduce the acidity level of the soil. Alkaline soils contain a high level of calcium and often develop in areas of chalk or limestone. These soils can be associated with desert or drought conditions due to the permeable nature of the underlying bedrock.
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Soils Chapter 10
QUICK QUESTIoNS QUESTI
1. Name and explain two of the main components of soil. 2. What are the main differences between sandy and loamy soils? 3. Why is lime added to acidic soils? 4. Why is water important in soils?
Fig 10.8 Alkaline soils often develop in areas of limestone
M IN D M A P
GENERAL COMPOSITION Mineral matter
zz Largest
component of
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
soil denudation of parent rock zz Helps nourish plants Organic matter and animals very fertile, binds soil Living organisms
zz Humus, zz Insects, zz Plants zz From
loose A layer of material weathered
Soils
Texture tightly packed, high nutrient content, poor drainage, waterlogging zz Silty: poor drainage but no waterlogging zz Sandy: free draining, leaching, require fertilisers zz Loamy: even quantities, best soil Colour brown: high humus content, warm leached, poor quality zz Red: tropical regions, iron oxide Structure
zz Grey: zz Dark zz Clay:
bacteria and SOIL PROFILE A horizon

zz Topsoil
fungi down organic matter zz Aerate and mix the soil Water plant growth zz Helps dissolve minerals Air
zz Supplies zz Aids zz Break
crumb, blocky, platy Water content and retention minerals development of horizons zz Slows rate of soil erosion Organic content
zz Allows zz Humus, zz Dissolves
zz Peds:
brown zz Most fertile B horizon

zz Subsoil
zz Dark
oxygen and
nitrogen
in colour zz Lacks humus, hardpan created C horizon

zz Parent
zz Lighter
aerates and binds soil
Soil pH
zz 6.5 zz Lime
pH, for most fertile soils reduces acidity
rock
173
11 Soil Characteristics
By the end of this chapter students will have studied:
zz zz zz zz zz
Higher Level Only
SYLLABUS LINK
Conditions that impact on the development of soils The various processes active in soils Global variations in soil types
Soil characteristics are affected by their immediate environment and by a combination of processes operating in that environment, including human interference.
One Irish soil type (brown earths) and one sub-continental soil type (aridisols) Human interaction with soil characteristics in the Sahel
EXA EXAm HINTS
Introduction
Soil is a valuable natural resource and is the basic building block for most living things on this planet. Soils develop differently across the world because of the range of climatic factors that interact with them. Therefore many different soil types emerge. All of these soils have one thing in common: if they are not managed properly they will become sterile. Human interaction, climate change and population increases have had a major impact on the soils of the world.
The material in this chapter has appeared on the exam papers every year since 2006.
GEoTERmS
Soil-forming factors
Many factors either working together or alone have a huge impact on the formation of soil. Some of the most important are listed below.
Fluvial relates to something produced by or found in a river. Parent rock is the bedrock of the area. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous/ sedimentary rocks but were changed by great heat or pressure. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cooks and solidifies. Precipitation refers to water vapour that falls to the ground in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
Parent material
This is normally the original bedrock of the area from which minerals in the soil are derived. Parent material can also be material that was transported to the region after glaciation, fluvial, coastal or aeolian (wind) action. Weathering of parent material is more rapid than weathering of solid rock. Soils of different parent rocks develop different characteristics:
zzSoils zzSoils zzSoils zzSoils
derived from sandstone are sandy and free draining. derived from limestone are calcium rich. derived from shale have a high clay content and are poorly drained. derived from metamorphic and igneous rocks tend to be acidic.
Climate
The climate of a region has a major influence on the type of soil that will develop there. Precipitation and temperature are the main agents that control the rate of weathering and biological activity in a region and, in turn, the development of soil.
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Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

zzIn
hot climates, for example equatorial regions, weathering (mainly chemical) of soils is rapid, as is the decomposition of organic matter. Therefore deep fertile soils are abundant. wet climates, for example monsoon regions, soils are prone to leaching and waterlogging. cold climates, for example tundra regions, weathering (mainly mechanical) and biological activity are restricted. Thin infertile soils develop as a result. dry climates, for example the Sahel region, drought influences the upward movement of water, causing salinisation and calcification.
zzIn
zzIn
zzIn
Fig 11.1 Soil waterlogged from the monsoon rains
Slopes
Soils are: thinner, better drained, likely to move downslope, likely to be leached.
Topography
The lie of the land or its relief has a major impact on the types of soils that develop in the area.
zzHigher
Low lying, flat areas

Lower altitude soils are: deeper, warmer, rich in organic matter, likely to have a high water content.
altitude regions tend to have soils that are heavily leached but, because of their sloping nature, run-off is evident and the soils tend to be well drained. Soil erosion is another problem on very steep slopes. altitude regions tend to have deeper fertile soils but these areas can be prone to waterlogging.
Upland areas
Higher altitude soils are: relatively deep, colder, likely to be waterlogged, likely to have a high organic content, likely to be leached.
zzLower
Fig 11.2 Topographical influences on soil
GEoTERmS
zzAs
Calcification is the build up of calcium in the ground which can be altitude increases so does caused by irrigation in an area. This layer of calcite is impermeable. Plant precipitation. Temperatures roots are unable to penetrate it and it can lead to crop failure. decrease and so, in turn, Salinisation is the build up of dissolved salts in the land. It can be caused does the length of the by irrigation. This layer of salt is poisonous and prevents crop growth. growing season. Biological activity on higher slopes Aspect is the direction a slope is facing. North-facing slopes are colder is also decreased due to and south-facing slopes are warmer. the drop in temperatures, making less humus available for the soils that develop there. Aspect can also be important in the formation of soil. Different soil types can develop on the cold northfacing slopes than on the more productive warmer south-facing slopes.
Biological activity
Living organisms have a huge impact on the decomposition of organic material and the formation of fertile soil. Bacteria and fungi are needed for the formation of nutrient-rich humus. Rabbits, foxes, earthworms and insects are needed to aerate and mix the soil found in the A and B horizons. Their burrows are also helpful in bringing water and air further into the soil. Vegetation is needed by the soil as plant litter adds fertile organic matter. The roots and foliage of the plants help to bind the soil and prevent erosion.
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Option 7 Geoecology
Human interference
People can play a huge part in the enrichment or destruction of this precious natural resource. Farmers can add fertilisers, such as lime, to soils to improve their fertility. Irrigation and drainage schemes can be implemented in areas that suffer from water problems. Unfortunately, deforestation and the destruction of vegetation continue to remove organic matter from soils and also remove the foliage that protects the soil from raindrop and aeolian erosion.
1. What are the two types of parent material? 2. Where do deeper fertile soils form and why? 3. What purposes have living organisms in soil formation? 4. Why would farmers add lime to their fields? 5. Why do you think soils would form quicker in areas of softer parent material?
Time
Soil takes a long time to form, approximately 400 years to create 1 cm of soil. Most soils in Irelands upland areas are around 10,000 years old as original soils were removed during glaciations. In lowland areas soils would be much older. Soils develop quicker in areas of softer parent material, such as sandstone, than in harder areas, such as granite.
Mineral fragments and organic matter
GEoTERmS
Deforestation is the clearance of forests. This is usually due to logging (where wood is cut down for fuel or for the timber industry) or slash and burn clearances (where forests are cleared for farm land).
Mechanical and chemical weathering act on bare rock
Organic matter
Humus
Organic matter
Disintegrating rock
A horizon
A horizon Earthworms
Parent material B horizon Parent material C horizon C horizon Bedrock Bedrock Bedrock Bedrock
TIME
2 Organic materials help disintegration
3 Horizons form
Fig 11.3 The formation of soil over time
4 Developed soil supports thick vegetation
Soil processes
Not all soils are the same. They undergo different biological, physical and chemical processes which result in them developing differing characteristics. Some of the most common processes active in soils today are described below.
Weathering
The parent material of the soil is broken down into mineral matter by the processes of physical and chemical weathering.
zzPhysical
176
weathering: Through the processes of freeze-thaw action (frost shattering) and exfoliation (onion layer weathering), the parent material is shattered and

exposed to further weathering. This type of weathering is most common in climates of extremes. 1. Freeze-thaw action is most common not only in extreme climates but also in upland areas where temperatures regularly go above and below freezing. 2. Exfoliation is most common in desert regions where there is a large diurnal temperature range.
zzChemical
weathering is the decomposition of the parent material through chemical processes that alter the soils characteristics.
1. Carbonation: Rainwater mixes with CO2 Fig 11.4 A desert can be very cold at night and forms a weak carbonic acid, which dissolves the calcium carbonate (limestone) in the parent GEoTERmS material soil. Diurnal temperature variation 2. Hydrolysis: The process whereby parent material in soil is the change in temperature over that is derived from granite is broken down into kaolin a 24-hour period, from the high clay by the breakdown of the rocks natural cement temperatures during the day to the feldspar. cool temperatures at night. 3. Oxidation: The process whereby iron in the soil once
exposed to oxygen in the air turns a reddish-brown colour. Tropical red soils are an example.
Erosion
Agents of erosion can both help and hinder the formation of soils.
zzRivers
Humus
deposit fertile alluvial soils on their floodplains. These soils are made of fine particles of clay and silt and make for rich farming areas. have deposited fertile loess soils across the Northern European Plain but in areas of severe drought they can harm soils as they remove the fertile top layers. deposited rich layers of boulder clay thousands of years ago, such as in the Golden Vale, Co. Tipperary. Again these glaciers have also been responsible for the removal of soil, especially in the West of Ireland, and the formation of sandy infertile outwash plains in the Curragh, Co. Kildare.
W do ater wn so thr aks ou gh soi
A horizon
l
Hardpan
zzWinds
B horizon 2 metres
zzGlaciers
C horizon
Leaching
Parent material
Leaching is the process whereby soluble minerals and nutrients are washed out of reach of plant roots in the A horizon after heavy rainfall. The minerals gather and form Fig 11.5 Leaching can lead to waterlogging an impermeable layer a hardpan between the A and B horizons and because of this, waterlogging of the soil can also occur.
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Option 7 Geoecology
Podzolisation
Podzolisation is a severe form of leaching. Podzols form under coniferous trees, mainly in upland areas where there is a lack of organic material. These areas often experience heavy rainfall. As the water seeps through the soil, it can become very acidic with a pH of 4.5. This causes problems for the soil as the acidic water can dissolve many of the nutrients found there, making them infertile. Hardpans can develop in these soils and waterlogging can also be a problem as hardpans are impermeable.
Laterisation
Laterisation is another type of extreme leaching but it is found in tropical and equatorial regions. High temperatures and heavy rainfall contribute to rapid chemical weathering and leaching in these regions. Only large concentrations of iron remain in these soils and when exposed to the air they undergo oxidation (rusting). This gives the soils their reddish-brown colour. Latosols or tropical red soils develop.
Humification
Humification is the process that causes the breakdown and decomposition of organic matter in the soil into fertile humus. The organic matter is broken down by micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi. Oxygen is also needed for humification to take place. During this process, nutrients are converted into soluble form so that they can be easily absorbed by plant roots. In areas of high temperatures and high rainfall, humification is accelerated, for example in tropical regions. In Ireland it is quite slow and can take up to ten years.
GEoTERmS
Calcification
Calcification occurs in areas that suffer from low levels of precipitation, for example in the interiors of continents. Evaporation is higher than precipitation and water is drawn up through the soil by capillary action. A layer of calcium collects close to the soil surface and helps to make the soil fertile and encourage plant growth. Chernozem or black earths of the Prairies in America are an example.
Capillary action is the upward movement of water. Irrigation is the artificial watering of land.
1. What is the main difference between physical and chemical weathering? 2. What are podzols? 3. Why is the humification process faster in equatorial regions than in Ireland? 4. What is the difference between calcification and salinisation? 5. How can irrigation cause salinisation?
Salinisation
In hot climates water is drawn up through the soil by capillary action. The water contains dissolved salts. The water evaporates, leaving behind a layer of salt. This eventually forms a hard toxic crust that poisons plants, making the land sterile. Irrigation water can also cause salinisation. It introduces extra water to the area, causing the water table to rise. This in turn brings dissolved salts to the surface, killing plants. It is a major problem in the heavily irrigated areas of the world, such as California.
178
Classifications of soils
Climate has a major influence on the formation of soils and soil-forming processes.
zzDifferent
soils are created in different climatic regions of the world. These are called zonal soils as they occupy a large zone or region of the Earths surface. These are mature soils and have well-developed soil profiles. These soils developed over a long period of time. One of the zonal soil types in Ireland associated with the cool temperate oceanic climate is brown earth. the worlds climatic zones, there can be variations in local factors such as relief and climate. These can have a major impact on drainage, parent material and vegetation in the area. These factors in turn can affect the soil, leading to variations between it and the major soil of the region. Therefore intrazonal soils can develop. These are zonal soils that display slightly altered characteristics. Peaty soils are an example of an intrazonal soil in Ireland. They were once brown earths that have remained waterlogged. azonal soils develop when soils are too immature to have developed fully into zonal soils. These soils do not have well-developed soil profiles and were recently deposited by agents of erosion, such as wind, sea, ice or rivers. An example of an azonal soil is the Andean massif.
zzWithin
zzFinally,
Tropic of Cancer Tundra soil Podzols Brown Earths Chernozem & similar grassland soils Aridisols Latosols Terra rossa Mountain soils Tropic of Capricorn Equator
0 0
miles km
2,000 2,000
Fig 11.6 Global pattern of zonal soils
Irish soil type: brown earths

zzBrown
EXA EXAm HINTS
earths are zonal soils that develop in regions that were once covered by deciduous forest. These regions are normally located between latitudes 40N to 60N and have cool temperate oceanic climates. They are the most common soil type found in Ireland. They are loamy soils that developed from the glacial till deposited in the region at the end of the last ice age.
The exam papers often ask you to focus on a study of one named soil type in your answer.
GEoTERmS
Till is the material deposited by a glacier.
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Option 7 Geoecology
zzBrown
earths are very fertile. This is due to a large volume of decaying foliage (leaf fall) found in these areas, especially in autumn. Therefore brown earths have a high humus and nutrient content. They are dark brown in colour and there can be little visible difference between the A and B horizons as both are very fertile. Owing to moderate temperatures, biological activity can take place for at least nine months of the year in these soils. Micro-organisms and earthworms are needed to help break down the organic matter and mix it in the soil. Insect burrows can also be used to aerate the soil and allow water to pass freely through it.
Brown earths Podzols Gleys Peaty soils
Fig 11.7 The main soil types found in Ireland
zzBrown
earths develop in areas of moderate rainfall and are not heavily leached, therefore they are free draining as hardpans have not developed. Brown earths have a good crumb structure because of the presence of humus, which binds the soil particles (peds) together. These normally have four horizons and are slightly acidic. earths are suitable for farming both tillage and pasture as long as crops are rotated. The soils are easily worked all year round and are highly productive. Fertility of these soils can be maintained with the addition of lime, artificial fertilisers and manure. variations in brown earths have occurred in Ireland:
Deciduous vegetation
Plant litter, insects and micro-organisms
zzBrown
A horizon or topsoil dark brown due to the presence of humus
zzTwo
B horizon or subsoil lighter in colour, biological activity lessened
1. Acidic brown earths: These occur on land over 500 m above sea level with bedrocks of sandstone or granite. They have a low pH and are very acidic due to increased rainfall. 2. Podzolic brown earths: These are brown earths that have become slightly leached, so they are paler in colour. These are found on limestone lowland areas and cover 22 per cent of the country.
C horizon
180
Fig 11.8 A soil profile of brown earth
Parent material or bedrock
Sub-continental soil: aridisols ?

The sub-continental region that we have studied is India. One of the soil types found in the north-west of this region especially near to the Thar Desert is aridisol. We will examine this soil type in more detail in Chapter 12, but the main characteristics are as follows:
zzOccurs zzPoorly zzLight
1. What is the main difference between zonal and intrazonal soils? 2. From the map in Fig 11.6, name two zonal soils of the world and where they are located. 3. Name two types of brown earth soils. 4. What are the main characteristics of aridisols?
in hot, dry conditions.
developed.
grey in colour.
zzHumus
is limited due to nearly complete absence of vegetation. nutrients so rapid growth can occur in these soils after rainfall. is a problem.
zzAbundant
INTERESTING FACTS
zzSalinisation
In the USA soil is lost at the astounding rate of 2 billion tonnes of topsoil per annum.
Human interference with soil characteristics

Soil is a valuable natural resource but only if it is managed properly. Vegetation cover helps to protect the soil but when this is removed the soil is open to erosion by water, wind and ice. The rate of soil erosion in the world today is accelerated by the impact of climate change on vulnerable areas of the planet. These areas experience extremes of drought and flooding.
GEoTERmS
Overgrazing is allowing too many animals to graze the land. Therefore the land is being used beyond its carrying capacity. Overcropping/overcultivation is planting crops on the same piece of land year after year and not allowing its minerals and nutrients time to regenerate by introducing crop rotation or fertilisers.
Humans are one of the biggest threats to the worlds soils through mismanagement, extensive forest clearances and poor farming practices. Overgrazing and overcropping are two of the main causes of extensive soil erosion across the world. These practices can damage soil structure and change soil characteristics. Soil erosion is a worldwide problem.
Fig 11.9 Soil erosion can be caused by overgrazing and overcropping
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Option 7 Geoecology
The Burren in Co. Clare is a region that suffers from poor quality soil but this was not always the case. Given the extensive megalithic tombs from Neolithic times and settlement features from the Celtic period in the area, it is safe to assume that this region was once able to sustain a higher population density than today. It also appears to have been farmed successfully in the past. Degradation of soil resources in this region has occurred. It is believed that this happened due to two main factors: climatic and human. The region experiences a higher than average level of rainfall than the rest of Ireland, leaving the soil open to raindrop and gully erosion. The farmers of the area are also believed to have overgrazed and overcultivated the land over thousands of years, leaving the soil and underlying limestone rock exposed to the harsh elements of the region. In north-west India the regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan are under threat from soil erosion as sands from the nearby Thar Desert are blown into the area. People of the region are dying of starvation as drought-stricken fields are unable to produce crops. Monsoon rains did not reach the area for many years until the floods that affected Pakistan and nearby regions of India in 2010. Rajasthan was once a relatively prosperous area with a largely rural society. The ecological balance of the region was upset as deforestation increased to make way for settlement and farming. Cash crops were introduced to the region by the government to earn badly needed foreign income. Unfortunately this led to monoculture and the further degradation of the regions soils.
Fig 11.10 A megalithic tomb in the Burren, Co. Clare

DOAB JAMMU AND KAHMIR Lahore
HIMACHAL PRADESH
PA K I S TA N
B A L U C H I S TA N
PUNJAB
Karachi
SIND
TH R A J A S T H A N
AR
DE
SE
R T HARYANA
Delhi U T TA R PRADESH BIHAR M A D H YA P R E D E S H
SIKKIM ARUNACHAL PRADESH
ASSAM
MEGHALAYA
NAGALAND
BANGLADESH
AGARTALA
MANIPUR
I
Bombay
A
O R I S S A
WEST BENGAL
Calcutta
MAHARASHTRA
ANDHRA PRADESH GOA

KARNATAKA
Bangalore Madras
KER ALA
TAMIL NADU
Severely affected
0 500 1,000 km
Moderately affected
Fig 11.11 The regions of India affected by soil erosion and desertification
GEoTERmS
Population density refers to the number of people per km. Soil degradation is destruction caused to the quality of soil. Gully erosion is when fast-moving water concentrates on a small area and carves out channels in the land. A monsoon is a seasonal wind created in south-east Asia. Heavy rain follows it. Cash crops are crops grown for selling. Monoculture is when the same crop is grown every year.
182
The Sahel
Desertification
Desertification is the spreading of the deserts. Its impact has increased in recent years because of climate change and human interaction with regions.
zz Climate
CASE STUDY 11.1
change has caused world rainfall levels to decrease by one-third in the last 20 years. temperatures have led to higher rates of evaporation. have occurred, for example in 1968 and 1973 in the Sahel and other parts of Africa.
zz Rising
zz Droughts
Fig 11.12 Cracked earth due to drought
zz Cattle
dung was once used to fertilise the land. It is now used as a fuel because of lack of trees in the area. Owing to lack of humus in the ground and fertiliser, the soil quickly lost its nutrients and became sterile. The lands were abandoned and open to desertification. for grazing lands and the need for more land to harvest the same amount of crops led to vegetation being removed from marginal land and these areas were also brought under cultivation. Local people are also being pushed to more marginal lands to grow crops to support their own families. These lands are the most vulnerable to desertification. Once sand has encroached on farmland in these areas it cannot be brought back under cultivation again.
zz Competition
See also pages 1248 for more information on desertification.
The Sahel
The Sahel is a semi-arid region of Africa located directly south of the Sahara Desert. The Sahel was originally a grassland savannah biome and it is now being converted into a hot desert biome. The Sahel supports a nomadic pastoral-based society.
zz From
the 1960s onwards rain in the Sahel has decreased and the area suffers from drought conditions. rains are becoming less reliable and in the last 20 years alone they have reduced by 30 per cent. are unable to support vegetation. The area has become increasingly barren as the prevailing winds have blown away the regions topsoil. Sahara Desert is spreading at a rate of 5 to 10 km per year into this vulnerable area.
Fig 11.13 A farmer with his herd of zebu cattle
zz Seasonal
zz Soils
GEoTERmS
A prevailing wind is a wind that is most common to that region. A savannah is a mix of grass with sparse woodland. A biome is a major world region that has its own unique climate, soil type, flora and fauna.
zz The
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Option 7 Geoecology
The Sahel
AT L A N T I C OCEAN
MOROCCO
TUNISIA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Direction of desertification
WESTERN SAHARA MAURITANIA SENEGAL GAMBIA GUINEA BISSAU GUINEA SIERRA LEONE LIBERIA GHANA
ALGERIA
LIBYA
miles 0 km 1,000
1,000
EGYPT
S A H A R A
MALI NIGER
D E S E R T
CHAD SUDAN
RED
ERITREA
SEA
BURKINA FASO IVORY COAST NIGERIA CAMEROON CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC ETHIOPIA
DJIBOUTI
INDIAN
SOMALIA
TOGO BENIN
OCEAN
Fig 11.14 The Sahel region of Africa
EXA EXAm HINTS
Human interaction has also contributed to desertification in the Sahel in the following ways:
If the exam question looks for two ways in which soils have been eroded, overgrazing and overcropping could be examined under one heading as poor farm practices and deforestation under the other.
Overgrazing
From the 1930s to the 1970s, the Sahel region of Africa received wetter weather than usual and people were attracted to the region.
zz The
GEoTERmS
Birth rate is the number of babies born per 1,000. The water table is the area underground beneath which soil and rock are saturated with water. Fallow is the stage in crop rotation when the land is not used to grow crops.
population of the region increased by a third due to high birth rates. The number of cattle in the Sahel doubled as the local people of the area measure their wealth by the number of cattle a person owns. Therefore overgrazing of the region took place as the Sahel contained more animals than it had the potential to sustain. The vegetation cover was lost and the soil became exposed to the elements. It was now open to aeolian (wind) and raindrop erosion.
zz The
practices of the people of the region changed as they began to settle in one area. Herders also remained longer in one area as wells were created as drinking holes for cattle. This groundwater took centuries to accumulate and was being used up at an alarming rate. As rainfall in the Sahel had decreased, the groundwater was not being replenished. Wells of the areas dried up as the regions water table dropped.
zz Large
numbers of animals in the region also helped to compact the soil, making it harder for rainwater to infiltrate the land. This increased surface run-off and, in turn, increased soil erosion in the area.
Overcropping
As the population of the Sahel increased, so did demand for food. This caused continuous farming of the land.
zz The
The word Sahel means shore in Arabic.
fallow year was abandoned to increase the production of food in the short term.
184

zz In
the 1960s, countries of the Sahel received cheap loans, which they cannot now repay. They are regarded as HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries). For these countries to qualify for debt relief they must put more of their land under cash crops, such as cotton. Huge plantations have been set up in the region to produce these crops. The crops are then sold on the world market to pay off national debts. growth of cash crops has led to monoculture in the region and the degradation of the Sahels soil.
zz This
Fig 11.15 Overgrazing contributes to soil erosion in the Sahel region
Deforestation
Trees are cut down in the Sahel region for firewood, building materials and to make way for agriculture. In Mali alone half a million hectares of trees have been cleared.
zz The
G GEoTERmS
demand for wood in the Sahel increased as the population of the region also increased. Trees are being cut down 30 times faster than they are being replaced. The people of this region do not have the resources to replant the trees. are invaluable to this region as they act as barriers to prevent wind erosion. Their roots help to bind the soil. When trees die they add valuable nutrients to the soil and they also absorb water during periods of heavy rainfall.
A resource is anything that can be used by humans. Resources can be divided into renewable and nonrenewable.
EXA EXAm HINTS
zz Trees
Reference can be made to the texture, colour and structure of the soils in the Sahel and how desertification, farming practices and climate change have affected them in exam answers on this section. Use Chapter 11 Soil Characteristics to help you with this.
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Option 7 Geoecology
Soil conservation
If managed properly, soil is a sustainable resource. There are methods that can be put in place to prevent soil erosion. The method chosen should be appropriate to the technology and skills base available in the region.
1. Contour ploughing
This is the ploughing of a field that is done in line with the contours of the field. During heavy rainfall the water is trapped in the furrows and has time to soak in, reducing soil erosion in the area. Soil and vegetation quality is also improved due to increased water infiltration. Soil erosion in an area can be reduced by up to 50 per cent by contour ploughing. Ploughing should not be carried out in dry weather to reduce the risk of wind erosion of loose soil.
G GEoTERmS
2. Crop rotation
Farmers are encouraged to plant different crops in the same field every three years as they will remove different minerals from the ground. During the fourth year the field is left fallow (no crops just grass) and this allows time for the minerals in the soil to regenerate. This process helps to keep the soil healthy and fertile.
Crop rotation is the practice of changing the crop grown in an area regularly to prevent certain soil nutrients getting used up by the main crop.
3. Terracing
This is put in place in areas that are too steep for contour ploughing. A series of small walls is built along a hill slope, similar to steps of a stairs, and behind it the land is flattened and planted. There is a lip or bund at the edge of each step that traps water and allows it time to soak into the soil. This prevents soil erosion and leaching in the area by surface run-off.
Fig 11.16 Terracing on steep slopes in China
4. Forest management and afforestation

Deforestation of an area should be carried out in a sustainable fashion, by cutting and replanting trees (afforestation) at a sustainable rate.
5. Shelter belts
Trees are planted as a barrier around fields to prevent sands blowing across crops and destroying them. The trees break the force of the wind and their roots help to bind the soil. If fruit trees are planted, they will also be another source of humus.
186
6. Stone lines
Lines of stones are evenly placed along upland fields to prevent surface run-off removing the top layer of soil. The rain gathers behind the stone, allowing it time to soak into the soil. It is most effective on gentle slopes. The stone lines take up 2 per cent of the land but can increase crop yields by 50 per cent.
The stone lines method of soil conservation is used in Burkina Faso.
1. What are the main threats to soils of the world today? 2. What are the main causes of soil erosion in the Rajasthan region of India? 3. What problems did increased numbers of cattle have on the Sahel region of Africa? 4. What is monoculture and how did the introduction of cash crops accelerate this? 5. Name and explain two methods of soil conservation.
Fig 11.17 Stone lines
7. New breeds of animals

Smaller, better quality breeds of animals cut the number of animals in a region and reduce the risk of overgrazing. These animals produce more milk and meat, which means that fewer are required.
8. Strip farming
The field is divided up into widely spaced rows and planted; the gaps are filled with a different crop. This allows the entire field to be under cultivation at once but the soil will not become exhausted as the crops use different minerals and nutrients from the ground.
187
Questions
Higher Level Long Questions
|
Geoecology
EXA EXAm HINTS
2. Describe and explain the characteristics of any one soil type studied by you.
2010, Section 2, Q18, 80 marks
All questions are worth 80 marks and require an essay-style answer. Your answer should include: An introduction: Lay out all the material that will be covered later in the essay. 34 paragraphs: Each should focus on a new aspect of the answer; there should be 68 SRPs in each paragraph. A conclusion: Draw together all the information that was discussed in the essay.
The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 @ 27+27+26 Identifying aspect 4 marks Examination 8 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded Total 80 marks (SRP marks gained for biome named) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
1. Soil characteristics are affected by their immediate environment and by a combination of processes operating in that environment. Examine any three soil processes that affect soil characteristics.
3. With reference to one soil type you have studied, examine how parent material, climate and organic matter influence the soil.
4. Discuss how human activities can accelerate soil erosion.

The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 @ 27+27+26 Identifying aspect 4 marks Examination 8 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded Total 80 marks (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
5. Examine two of the natural processes which influence soil formation.

6. Explain how overcropping/overgrazing and desertification can affect soils.

7. Examine the general composition and characteristics of any one soil type that you have studied.
EXA EXAm HINTS
The 2007 Chief Examiners report mentioned that some students failed to go into enough detail on a specific soil type. They gave only a general account of soils. 8. Examine the factors that influence soil characteristics.
188
M IN D M A P
SOIL-FORMING FACTORS Parent material
zz Original zz Material
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS Zonal soils soils linked to a climatic region Intrazonal soils in local factors leads to slightly altered zonal soils Azonal soils
zz Immature zz Variations zz Well-developed
The Sahel: soil erosion south of Sahara, nomadic society, drought Overgrazing increased by one-third zz Cattle = wealth, pressure on soil zz Wells, compacted soil Overcropping cash crops, monoculture zz No fertiliser, dung used as fuel, no fallow year Deforestation building material have resources to replant zz Aeolian erosion Desertification
zz Dont zz Firewood, zz HIPC, zz Population zz Semi-arid,
bedrock transported by agents and temperature
Climate
zz Precipitation
Topography altitude poor altitude good zz Aspect north cold, south warm Biological activity
zz Lower zz Higher
formation aerate and mix zz Vegetation plant litter Human interference

zz Animals
zz Humus
soils that are not fully developed, recently deposited
fertilisers, drainage and irrigation schemes zz Or remove organic matter/ foliage protection Time
zz 400
zz Add
years for 1 cm
SOIL PROCESSES 1. Weathering zz Physical: exfoliation and freeze-thaw zz Chemical: carbonation, hydrolysis, oxidation 2. Erosion zz Breakdown and removal of soils zz Deposition of fertile soils 3. Leaching zz Washing nutrients out of reach of roots 4. Podzolisation zz Severe leaching under coniferous trees, hardpan 5. Laterisation zz Extreme leaching, tropical regions, formation of tropical red soils/latosols 6. Humification zz Creation of humus 7. Calcification zz Capillary action brings calcium to the surface, beneficial to plants 8. Salinisation zz Salts brought to the surface, harmful
e charact
Soil
ristics
decreased by onethird zz Higher evaporation zz Droughts 1968 and 1973 zz Marginal lands used zz Spreading of deserts onto farms Soil conservation 1. Contour ploughing 2. Crop rotation 3. Terracing 4. Forest management and afforestation 5. Shelter belts 6. Stone lines 7. New breeds of animals 8. Strip farming
zz Rainfall
Aridisols (sub-continental soil)

zz Hot
Brown earths (Irish soil)

zz Zonal
soils under deciduous forest zz Cool temperate oceanic climate zz Most common Irish soil type zz Fertile, dark brown, high humus zz Crumb structure, loamy, slightly acidic, easily worked, productive zz Biological activity, aerate and mix, 9 mth zz Acidic brown earths: low pH zz Podzolic brown earths: leached
dry conditions developed zz Light grey zz Limited humus zz Rapid growth after rainfall
zz Poorly
189
12 Biomes
zz zz zz zz
Higher Level Only
SYLLABUS LINK
The nine main biomes of the world The origins of the desert biome The main characteristics of the desert biome How climate, soil type, flora and fauna of the desert biome are interrelated
The pattern of world climates has given rise to distinctive biomes. These biomes are world regions characterised by groups of plants and animals adapted to specific conditions of climate, soil and biotic inter-relationships.
EXA EXAm HINTS
Introduction
A biome is a major world region that has its own unique climate, soil type, flora and fauna. The overall controlling factor of any biome is climate. It controls the distribution and the location of all biomes. There are nine main biomes in the world today and all aspects of the biomes are interrelated. Many biomes around the world have been altered by human activities.
The material in this chapter has appeared on the exam papers nearly every year since 2006.
Traditionally a biome is named after the original vegetation of the region, for example Taiga is named after the taiga forests located there.
Tropic of Cancer Tundra Taiga (boreal forest) Polar Grassland (savannah) Tropical rainforest Temperate forest Mediterranean Desert Mountain Tropic of Capricorn Equator
0 0
miles km
2,000 2,000
Fig 12.1 The major biomes of the world
190
Biomes Chapter 12
Desert biome
A desert biome can be defined as an arid region that is characterised by little or no rainfall, in which vegetation is scarce or absent, unless it has specially adapted (Dictionary of Physical Geography). Many of the worlds deserts are located between 15 and 30 north and south of the equator, GEoTERmS for example the Sahara. Diurnal temperature
zzNot
all deserts are sandy. This accounts for only 10 per cent of the worlds deserts. Most are bare rock. all deserts are hot. The Gobi Desert is cold with temperatures in the winter falling to as low as 40 C. Desert regions experience a large diurnal temperature range. It can be up to 30 C. This is why geographers often say night is the winter of the desert. Desert regions can experience temperatures of up to 45 C as the sun is high in the sky and its rays are concentrated on a small area of land, giving great heat. Deserts have no cloud cover, another factor causing high temperatures during the day but the main factor for rapid heat loss during the night. deserts are dry, some receiving as little as 1 cm of rainfall a year. The rainfall is unpredictable and can often occur in short heavy downpours called desert storms. Most of this much-needed moisture can be lost through evaporation and the inability of the rain to infiltrate the hard soil. Rapid run-off can lead to flash flooding and gully erosion. Evaporation rates of deserts can often be higher than precipitation levels. Cold deserts are also dry as precipitation is often in solid form, such as snow, and if temperatures do not reach ablation levels, the snow will not provide water for plant and animal use. are three main types of desert:
zzNot
variation is the change in temperature over a 24hour period, from the high temperatures during the day to the cool temperatures at night. Precipitation refers to water vapour that falls to the ground in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow. Ablation is the temperature point that needs to be reached for ice to melt. Gully erosion occurs when fast-moving water concentrates on a small area and carves out channels in the land.
zzAll
zzThere
1. Extremely arid: Almost no precipitation over a 12-month period 2. Arid: Less than 250 mm annually 3. Semi-arid: 250500 mm annually
Mid-latitude deserts are often found in continental interiors. Some of the hottest temperatures on Earth, for example 57 C in 1913, were recorded in Death Valley, part of the Mojave Desert, USA.
Fig 12.2 A desert storm
191
Option 7 Geoecology
Great Basin Mojave Sonora Chihuahua Sahara Arabian Turkestan Gobi Tropic of Cancer
Equator Extremely arid Arid Semi-arid Atacama Namib Kalahari Great Australian Tropic of Capricorn
0 0
miles km
2,000 2,000
Fig 12.3 The desert biomes of the world
The main characteristics of the desert biome

1. Climate
Trade winds
Most deserts of the world are located between 15 and 30 north and south of the equator because of the effects of the global wind patterns on the region.
zzWarm
C NORTH HIGH PRESSURE 30N
15N
air rises at the equator; warm air can hold moisture. it continues to rise, it cools and condenses, forming convectional rain over equatorial regions. approximately 30 north and south of the equator (horse latitudes) the air has been cooled. It starts to fall, as cold air is heavier.
B B
A A
LOW PRESSURE
Equator
zzAs
15S
zzAt
SOUTH
HIGH PRESSURE
30S
A Sun shining directly on the equator, warm air rises, gathering moisture B Rises, cools, condenses, creating rain over the equatorial regions C Cold air heavy so falls, creates dry winds and high pressure over the desert regions
zzAs
it descends, it becomes a warm, dry wind that blows Fig 12.4 High-pressure belts and trade winds over these areas bringing desert conditions as it absorbs rather than releases moisture. The region also experiences clear, cloudless skies and maximum sunshine.
zzThe
cycle continues as air moves from this high-pressure system found at the horse latitudes to the low-pressure system of the equator as part of the trade wind system.
192
Biomes Chapter 12
Rain-shadow effect
Some of the worlds deserts occur on the western edges of continents.
zzAs
Moisture-laden winds Dry winds Windward (wet) slope Leeward (dry)
moisture-laden winds move inland from the ocean, they have to rise over coastal mountains. This causes the air to cool and condense, forming rain. the winds moisture is lost on the windward side of the mountain range.
Sierra Nevada range Pacific Ocean Coast range
R A I N
S H A D O W
Great Basin Desert and Mojave Desert
zzAll
Fig 12.5 The rain-shadow effect
zzThe
winds then blow over the leeward side of the mountain range as dry winds. Desert conditions can develop here, as can be seen in the Mojave Desert, USA. This is referred to as the rain-shadow effect.
Influence of cold ocean currents

As mentioned above, some deserts form on the western edges of continents. This is also due to the influence of cold ocean currents.
zzAs
moisture-laden coastal winds move in over these currents, they are cooled.
zzCold
air cannot hold any moisture so these winds moisture is lost at sea in the form of coastal fog. blows inland as dry, warm winds that take up any moisture in the area, creating desert conditions over the regions in which the winds blow.
zzIt
California Current
Mojave
Canaries Current
Tropic of Cancer Sahara
Equator Atacama Humboldt Current Benguela Current Namib West Australian Current Great Australian
Tropic of Capricorn
0 0
miles
2,000
Cold ocean current
km 2,000
Fig 12.6 Cold ocean currents
Continentality
Some deserts form in the interior of continents.
zzMoisture-laden
winds blow in from the oceans and by the time they reach the interior of the continents they have lost most of their moisture. they are warmed by the sunshine and blow as warm, dry winds in these regions, adding to the desert conditions experienced there, such as in the Gobi Desert in Asia.
zzTherefore
193
Option 7 Geoecology
Fig 12.7 The rocky Mojave Desert in California.
2. Soil
Characteristics
The dominant soil type of the desert region is aridisols. These are dry soils that occur in regions of very low precipitation levels. The texture of the soil type ranges from fine and sandy to coarse and gravelly. These soils originated in mountainous regions thousands of years ago.
zzThe
coarser-grained aridisols are found close to the lower slopes of the mountains. These are unable to hold moisture and tend to be infertile. These soils originated from rocks that had undergone the weathering process of exfoliation. Extremes in temperature caused the rocks in the region to rapidly expand and contract on a frequent basis until eventually pieces of rock broke off to become sand particles, the main component of aridisols. finer materials have been moved further on to lowland basins by torrential downpours and dry winds. Here there is deep soil cover but they do not favour the growth of a wide variety of plants.
zzThe
Few desert regions have deep soil cover as most are rocky or stony.
1. What are the main characteristics of a desert region? 2. How can a cold desert such as the Gobi Desert also suffer from drought? 3. How can cold ocean currents create desert conditions? 4. What is the rain-shadow effect? 5. Can you remember what is created when air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure?
194
Fig 12.8 The sandy Sahara Desert in Libya
Biomes Chapter 12
Lack of vegetation
Aridisols are poorly developed and there is no noticeable A horizon due to little organic matter in the region. Both the A and B horizons have a high mineral content, giving the soil its light grey colour. The lack of humus in the region also limits the activity of micro-organisms.
GEoTERmS
Capillary action is the upward movement of water. Calcification is the build up of calcium in the ground which can be caused by irrigation in an area. This layer of calcite is impermeable. Plant roots are unable to penetrate it and it can lead to crop failure. Salinisation is the build up of dissolved salts in the land. It can be caused by irrigation. This layer of salt is poisonous and prevents crop growth.
Lack of rainfall
Aridisols can be productive soils as they have abundant nutrients. This is evident after heavy downpours when rapid plant growth occurs. Intensive evaporation in the desert region means that the water does not last long.
Soil-forming factors
Owing to a lack of rainfall in desert regions, capillary action is active on groundwater of the region. Dissolved minerals are present in the groundwater. As it reaches the surface, rapid evaporation occurs, leaving behind a layer of minerals, hindering the growth of plants in the desert.
zzExtensive
Fig 12.9 A desert in full bloom in Arizona
salt pans can form if salinisation occurs, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. Salt is poisonous to plants, which means nothing can grow. calcification occurs, a layer of calcium forms on the surface. As it dries out it forms a hardpan of calcite. This can become impermeable, making it impossible for plant roots to penetrate it.
Little humus Saltpan
zzIf
Poorly developed horizons
Tap roots Calcite Capillary action
3. Flora (vegetation)
Vegetation in the desert regions is sparse, mainly due to a shortage of water and a lack of fertile humus in the soil. Plant life in the regions has had to adapt to extremes of heat and drought. Productivity levels in deserts are low. The plants are also well spread out to prevent competition for limited resources. The following are the adaptations that have occurred over thousands of years to help plants cope in this harsh environment.
C
Bedrock
Fig 12.10 A soil profile of soils found in desert regions aridisols
195
Option 7 Geoecology
Life cycle
Desert plants have adapted their life cycle to make the most of the short periods of rainfall available in the region. Seeds of these fastgrowing plants (called ephemerals) can lie dormant for many years, protected by a waxy coating. Once the rains arrive, these seeds burst into life, germinating, flowering and producing seeds. This can happen in two to three weeks following heavy rains. An example is the creosote bush of North America. Ephemerals make up to 40 per cent of desert plants.
Fig 12.11 The creosote bush of the North American deserts
Succulents
Succulents are plants that have developed various ways to store precious water found in the desert. Some plants, such as the cactus, can store water in its fleshy interior, which acts like a sponge. The cactus has grooves on its trunk that allow it to expand to store more water. These grooves also act as vertical channels, bringing water directly to the root system below. Water can also be stored in roots and underground bulbs. The cactus has also developed waxy leaves and stems that prevent moisture loss.
Fig 12.12 A cactus is a succulent plant
Root systems
Two root systems have developed in plants of the desert region:
zzRadial
1. Why are horizons poorly developed in aridisols? 2. Why is capillary action active in aridisols? 3. What are ephemerals? 4. Why do you think birds and animals would want to eat succulent plants? 5. Mention the differences between the two root systems that desert plants have developed.
roots: This is the root system used by the cacti. It has shallow roots that are close to the surface and spread out in a radial pattern around the plant for great distances to create a large moisture-collecting area.
zzTap
roots: This is the root system used by the mesquite bush. It puts all its energy into creating one long root, in some cases up to 50 m long. The tap root is able to penetrate the soil and reach the water table below.
Defensive systems
Many desert plants have developed defensive systems to prevent attack from birds and animals. The cacti have developed spiky leaves to prevent its fleshy interior from being eaten. The creosote bush gives off an unpleasant taste and smell to deter animals.
G GEoTERmS
The water table is the area underground beneath which soil and rock are saturated with water.
4. Fauna (animals)
There are few large animals in the desert region as they are unable to store enough water or withstand the high temperatures. Animals have also adapted to deal with the extremes of this biome.
196
Biomes Chapter 12
Behaviour
Desert animals have adapted their behaviour to cope with the extremes of the desert climate. Some animals, such as the elf owl, are active only at night (nocturnal) when temperatures are cooler. Other animals, such as the desert tortoise, live in burrows under the ground where temperatures are cooler. Some of these animals, such as desert toads, hibernate for long periods of time, eight or nine months of the year, until the desert storms come. Insects and animals such as the jackrabbit follow the shadow of larger objects like the cacti to keep cool.
Body-form evolution
To survive the desert heat, some animals such as the desert fox the scorching desert temperatures have evolved paler fur than their relatives. This has the added advantage of camouflage as well as preventing the animal from taking in too much heat. Animals have also evolved long body parts to help them release heat from their bodies. The jackrabbit and the desert fox have very long ears containing many blood vessels that dilate to release heat, cooling the animal down under the hot desert sun.
Fig 12.13 A jackrabbit using the shade to avoid
Fig 12.14 The long ears of the desert fox release heat
Fig 12.15 Camels are known as the ships of the desert
The camel has adapted in many ways to cope with the desert climate:
zzFat
QUICK QUESTIONS
stores in its humps, which can be converted into water in times of drought of tough skin on its knees and belly to enable it to lie on the hot sand eyelashes to protect the camels eyes from sandstorms padded feet to allow the camel to walk on soft sand without sinking tough-skinned mouth to enable the camel to eat thorny desert plants
1. Why can few large animals survive in the desert? 2. What does nocturnal mean? 3. In what ways has the camel adapted to the harsh climate of the desert region? 4. Why do the desert tortoise and the desert toad burrow underground? 5. Why does the roadrunner not fly?
zzPads
zzLong zzWide
zzA
Body-function evolution
The desert toad has evolved horns on its hind feet to act as digging tools to build burrows to escape the desert sun. Some animals (the desert gazelle) and reptiles reserve water in their bodies by producing uric acid instead of urine. Other animals, such as the collard lizard, have evolved waterproof skin to prevent moisture loss from their bodies. Birds of the desert, such as the roadrunner, reserve energy by not flying.
197
Questions
|
Geoecology
EXAM HINTS
All questions are worth 80 marks and require an essay-style answer. Your answer should include: An introduction: Lay out all the material that will be covered later in the essay. 34 paragraphs: Each should focus on a new aspect of the answer; there should be 68 SRPs in each paragraph. A conclusion: Draw together all the information that was discussed in the essay.
2. Examine the influence of climate on the characteristics of one biome that you have studied.
1. Examine the characteristics of any one biome that you have studied under three of the following headings:
zz Climate zz Soils zz Flora zz Fauna
The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 (27+27+26) or (4 @ 20 marks each) Identifying aspect 4 marks Examination 8 SRPs or 6 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded or 4 marks graded Total 80 marks Select scheme based on number of aspects discussed (SRP marks gained for biome named) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
3. Describe and explain the main characteristics of one biome that you have studied.
2008, Section 3, Q18, 80 marks 2011, Section 3, Q17, 80 marks
The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 @ 27+27+26 Identifying aspect 4 marks Discussion 8 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded Total 80 marks (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
4. Describe how plant and animal life adapt to soil and climatic conditions in a biome which you have studied.
EXAM HINTS
The Chief Examiners report 2007 mentioned that students did not refer to the question asked and some failed to deal with adaptation of plant and animal life in detail as they concentrated too much on climate. 5. Examine the main characteristics of a biome that you have studied.
198
Biomes Chapter 12
M IN D M A P
SOILS 1. Characteristics zz Aridisols from mts zz Coarse infertile zz Fine, deep soils found lowland basins 2. Lack of vegetation zz A horizon, lack of No humus, grey colour 3. Lack of rainfall zz Very productive after heavy rainfall, high evaporation levels 4. Soil-forming factors zz Active capillary action zz Salinisation, calcification FAUNA 1. Behaviour zz Very few large animals zz Nocturnal, live in burrows zz Hibernate, follow shadows 2. Body-form evolution zz Jackrabbit: long ears, heat loss, pale fur zz Camel: stores fat, long eyelashes, thick skin, wide feet, toughskinned mouth 3. Body-function evolution zz Toad: horns on feet digging zz Desert gazelle: uric acid instead of urine zz Roadrunner: doesnt fly zz Collard lizard: waterproof skin
Desert biome
zz Arid
region with little or no rain zz Low 1530, mid 3040 N and S zz 10% sandy, some cold, e.g. Gobi zz Large diurnal temp range zz Dry, 1 cm rain, desert storms zz Evaporation, inability to infiltrate soil zz 3 types: zz Extremely arid, no rain zz Arid, less than 250 mm zz Semi-arid, 250500 mm
ld region A major wor soil ue climate, its own uniq a and faun type, flora
Biomesthat has
CLIMATE 1. Trade winds zz Equator warm air rises = rain zz 30 N/S cools, falls, dry warm air = desert zz Part of trade wind system 2. Rain-shadow effect zz Warm, moist coastal winds zz Rise over coastal mts, lose rain zz Desert conditions form on leeward side 3. Influence of cold ocean currents zz Warm air over sea picks up moisture zz Cools over ocean currents, forms fog zz Moisture lost before winds hit land 4. Continentality zz Winds of interior warm and dry zz Distance from sea, winds lost moisture
FLORA 1. Life cycle zz Veg sparse, limited resources zz Fast-growing plants, ephemerals 40%, creosote bush 2. Succulents zz Store water, fleshy interior, bulbs, roots, waxy leaves, e.g. cacti 3. Root systems zz Radial: spread out over a large area zz Tap: long root to reach water table 4. Defensive systems zz Cacti: spiky leaves zz Creosote bush: unpleasant taste and smell
199
13 Human Interaction
with Biomes
zz
Higher Level Only
SYLLABUS LINK
The clearing and felling of forests in Ireland from ancient settlers to present day
Biomes have been altered by human activities.
zz zz
The impact of deforestation on the tropical rainforest biome of Brazil Intensive agricultural practices and the impact they have on the tropical rainforest biome of Brazil Industrial development and the impact it has had on the temperate forest biome of Europe
zz
EXA EXAm HINTS
Introduction
Human activities have had a major impact on world biomes, often clearing natural vegetation for agricultural purposes or in some cases simply replacing it. Industrial development that started in the late nineteenth century has also had a huge impact on the quality of the biomes of the world. These human activities have not only affected the vegetation of these biomes but also the unique animal and soil types found there that depend on it to survive. We will now examine the impacts these human activities have had on two world biomes: the temperate forest biome of Europe and the tropical rainforest biome of Brazil.
This section has appeared on the exam paper every year from 2006 to 2010. It is important to know about human interaction in two separate biomes.
GEoTERmS
Deforestation is the clearance of forests. This is usually due to logging (where wood is cut down for fuel or for the timber industry) or slash and burn clearances (where forests are cleared for farm land). Overgrazing is allowing too many animals to graze the land. Therefore the land is being used beyond its carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people that can be supported in a given area. Denudation is the collective name for weathering and erosion.
Early settlement and clearing of forests in Ireland: temperate forest biome

The early farmers to 1500
zzIn
Ireland, forests of deciduous mixed woodland, such as oak and pine, first began to be cleared approximately 5,000 years ago by the Neolithic people (the first farmers) to make way for farming and settlement. clearance increased with the introduction of the Celts and the beginning of the Iron Age in Ireland, 500 BCAD 400. Iron tools were sharper and stronger and deforestation in Ireland increased during this period. The Celts did exercise some management of the native forest as under Brehon law it was an offence to cut down an oak, hazel, holly, yew, ash, Scots pine or crab-apple tree. of the land occurred in the West as farmers had numbers of animals which were above the carrying capacity of the land. Therefore the Burren, Co. Clare, has exposed limestone as many of the overlying layers of soil were removed by denudation.
zzForest
zzOvergrazing
200
Human Interaction with Biomes Chapter 13
Fig 13.1 Woodland in Co. Kerry

zzDeforestation
continued over the next 1,000 years as both the Vikings and the Normans made use of the forests in Ireland for constructing bridges, defensive settlements and boats.
1500 to today
zzIn
the sixteenth century, English and Scottish planters arrived and deforestation of the natural vegetation increased again. They cleared large areas of natural woodland for agricultural use, towns and road construction. clearance continued at an alarming rate and in 1922 only 1 per cent of the natural forests of Ireland remained, approximately 35,000 hectares. The natural habitat of the native red deer and Irish elk had been destroyed and some animals of the biome became extinct, for example the wolf was wiped out in Ireland. The soils of the region were open to soil erosion because of exposure to the processes of denudation. The fertility 70 of the soil was reduced as decaying leaf litter was 60 removed from the region along with the trees. 50
Percentage of land surface covered by woodland
During the sixteenth century the last of the remaining Irish oak forests were cut down to build English naval ships.
GEoTERmS
zzThis
A biome is a major world region that has its own unique climate, soil type, flora and fauna.
zzToday
in areas such as Kenmare, Co. Kerry, tiny fragments of the original Irish biome remain. Only 12 per cent of Ireland is covered in woodland, one of the lowest percentages in Europe, where the average is 31 per cent. The Irish government hopes to improve this figure in the future and by 2035 it is estimated it will reach 16 per cent.
40 30 20 10 0
3000
1600
1800
1900
1995
2050
Fig 13.2 The decline of forests in Ireland from 3000 BC to
(estimated) ad 2050
201
Option 7 Geoecology
Felling of tropical forests in Brazil: tropical rainforest biome
Tropic of Cancer
Present tropical forest Original tropical forest Present temperate and boreal forest Original temperate and boreal forest
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
0 0
miles km
2,000 2,000
Fig 13.3 The distribution of world forests past and present
GEoTERmS
Slash and burn

Originally in the tropical rainforest biome of Brazil, the native people, such as the Yanomani tribe of the Amazon Basin, practised slash and burn cultivation and small areas of land were cleared for subsistence farming. After a couple of years, the land was exhausted and the people moved on but because the area of land was so small, it was easily taken over by the forest again. This is referred to as sustainable exploitation of the forest.
Slash and burn cultivation is when people remove the vegetation layer by hand and then burn the remaining scrub vegetation that is of little use to them. Once it has burned, the land is ploughed, returning the charred nutrients to the ground to act as a fertiliser.
Deforestation and logging

zzSince
Fig 13.4 A member of the Yanomani tribe of the Amazon rainforest
202
the 1970s, deforestation of the tropical rainforest biome has increased greatly as the global demand for hardwoods, such as teak and mahogany, continues. These clearances have normally been done by people outside the forest biome. Less than 2 per cent of the natural rainforest along Brazils Atlantic coast has survived. The tropical rainforests of the world have decreased from 2.9 billion hectares in 1800 to little over 1.5 billion hectares today. Felling of tropical rainforests has increased in recent years as farming yields higher profits per hectare than forestry.

zzOne
of the main activities to cause large areas of deforestation in Brazil is logging, which accounts for 3 per cent of Brazilian economic activities. The Brazilian government wants to take advantage of mineral and timber wealth in the region. It also adds to the industrial strength of the country as the government receives a portion of the timber companys profits. timber felling is a problem in Brazil and accounts for 80 per cent of all timber felled in the Brazilian rainforest. It is used to produce products such as cheap plywood.
zzIllegal
Fig 13.5 (a) and (b) Deforestation in the Brazilian rainforest
Mining and construction

zzIron
ore and copper are mined in the region and once again large tracts of land are cleared to bring these minerals to the surface. forests are also cleared as Brazil suffers from overpopulation and poverty. The land was given freely to poor citizens by the government for settlement and farming to relieve some of the overcrowding experienced in the coastal cities of Brazil. Wood is still used as a fuel by many of these people. have also been built, opening up the rainforest to excessive exploitation. Roads such as the Trans-Amazonian Highway cut through the forest to allow access for logging companies to even the most remote parts of the rainforest. These roads often divide the forest into unviable sections and much of the wildlife of the biomes habitats is destroyed. the 1950s and the 1960s, the Brazilian government set about building a new capital, Brasilia, in the Amazon rainforest. This was to attract more people inland, away from the overcrowded coastal cities. Large-scale deforestation had to take place for the construction of the city. Today some 2.3 million people live in the city.
30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
zzThe
zzRoads
zzBetween
Deforestation (square km)
1900
1992 1995
2000 2002
2005
2009
Fig 13.6 Deforestation figures for Brazil from 1990 to 2009
203
Option 7 Geoecology
Soil erosion
zzSoil
erosion in the tropical rainforest biome is increasing as trees are felled and the canopy layer is removed, exposing the soil to the processes of weathering and erosion. The soil is easily eroded as the trees roots no longer hold the soil together.
zzAlso
heavy rainfall in the region opens the soil to large-scale leaching and in upland areas landslides and mudslides can be a problem. loose soil and regolith move down slope under the influence of gravity, trees and their roots no longer act as a barrier in the region. The soils upper layers can be fully removed in a process called sheet erosion. can also be deposited in rivers, increasing the water level and causing flooding of the region.
VENEZUELA COLOMBIA
GUYANA SURINAME Equator FRENCH GUIANA
zzAs
zzSoil
1. Why did the Celts clear more areas of forest in Ireland than other ancient settlers? 2. What percentage of forest covers Ireland today? In your opinion why is the percentage so low compared with the rest of Europe? 3. Why did deforestation of the tropical rainforest biome increase in the 1970s? 4. What is unsustainable exploitation? 5. Give three reasons why it is important to retain the tropical rainforest biome.
Am
iver azon R
B
P E R U B O L I V I A
PARAGUAY CHILE
0 500
Tropic of Capricorn 1,000 km
ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
Amazonian rainforest Irelands size compared to the rainforest
Fig 13.7 The Amazon rainforest of Brazil
GEoTERmS
Biodiversity
zzLarge-scale
The canopy is the topmost layer of foliage in a forest. Leaching is the washing away of the soils nutrients by rainfall. Regolith is loose weathered material. A carbon sink is an environmental reservoir that absorbs and stores more carbon than it releases, thereby offsetting greenhouse gas emissions.
felling is a major threat to the biome and the sustainability of the rainforest biome as a whole. It takes a mahogany tree 60 years to mature but 2,000 of these trees are cut down per minute in the worlds rainforests. This is unsustainable exploitation of the forest biome. is important to preserve the tropical rainforests of the world as a viable biome because they are home to over 15 million species of plants and animals, many of which have adapted especially to this biome. In 1 square kilometre alone, there are more plant and animal varieties than in the whole of Europe.
zzIt
Pollution
204
zzThe
deforestation of the tropical rainforest of Brazil is a world problem as this biome is referred to as a carbon sink. This

vast area of forests has a huge part to play in global warming and climate change. Trees take in carbon dioxide and convert it into oxygen. Drastically reducing the number of trees through deforestation increases CO2 and world temperatures, which could have a disastrous effect on certain areas of the world, including low-lying Bangladesh.
GEoTERmS
Global warming is a rise in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans.
Intensive agricultural practices in Brazil: tropical rainforest biome

Farming
zzDeforestation
of the tropical rainforests in Brazil has taken place to make way for large cattle ranches and soya bean cultivation. These areas are farmed intensively by large-scale multinational companies (MNCs). Tropical red soils (latosols) of the biome are fast becoming exhausted and open to soil erosion as the fallow year has been abandoned in the search for profits. use of fertilisers and pesticides to improve plant growth can increase acidity levels in the region, which can be harmful to plants and animals of the biome. of the tropical rainforest can be further damaged by agricultural practices such as increased use of machinery, which can lead to soil compaction making it impossible for plant roots to penetrate the soil. the moment the future looks bleak as even the Fig 13.8 The tropical rainforest in Brazil Brazilian government encourages large-scale clearances of the tropical rainforest for agriculture: 40 hectares of rainforest are lost every minute to agricultural GEoTERmS use. In Brazil alone, it is estimated that if the rate of destruction of forests continues, by 2050 some 40 per cent of the countrys The nutrient cycle refers rainforests will be lost. to all the processes by which
zzLarge-scale
zzSoils
zzAt
Soil erosion
The soils of the biome have become exposed to soil erosion as the overlying tree layer has been removed by deforestation. The nutrient cycle has been destroyed as the foliage layer (from which soils nutrients are derived) has also been removed. The soil has lost its fertility. This soil type is now referred to as laterite soil, a hard soil that has been baked in the sun and is useless to farmers. Grass growing in these conditions is of poor quality. To prevent the cattle that graze on them from being of poor quality too, even more land is cleared to feed them.
nutrients are transferred from one organism to another. For instance, the carbon cycle includes uptake of carbon dioxide by plants, ingestion by animals, and respiration and decay of the animal. Fallow is the stage in crop rotation when the land is not used to grow crops.
205
Option 7 Geoecology
Plant and animal habitats

zzIn
the tropical rainforest biome animal habitats have been destroyed, inevitably leading to the extinction of certain animals. have introduced new species of plants, such as soya bean, into the biome. These plants have no natural enemies, therefore they could spread into the biome at an alarming rate and compete with native species. This could result in a loss of both plant and animal biodiversity in the tropical rainforest biome.
zzPeople
Fig 13.9 Scarlet macaw parrots in the Amazon jungle
zzOne-quarter
of all pharmaceutical drugs originated from the tropical rainforest biome. For example aspirin and quinine from the cinchona tree used to treat malaria. If the biome continues to be destroyed at todays rate, scientists will not have time to discover all the plant species that live there and cures for many of todays biggest killers, such as AIDS and cancer, could be lost for ever.
GEoTERmS
Indigenous people
In Brazil alone, 90 tribes have been wiped out in the Amazon rainforest due to industrial and agricultural expansion into this biome. The number of native tribes people in the region has been reduced to less than 250,000 in 2000 from nearly 6 million in the 1500s.
Biodiversity is the range of organisms present in a particular ecological community or biome.
Industrial development in Europe: temperate forest biome
Fig 13.10 A temperate forest biome, Germany
206
Acid rain
zzIndustrial
activity in Europe is the main cause of acid rain. Emissions, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, are released from industries, homes and cars that burn fossil fuels. They mix with rainwater forming a weak nitric and sulphuric acid. This then falls as acid rain, with a pH less than 5.6. rain affects vegetation, fish, buildings, monuments and soil quality. When acid rain falls on the land, it is called acid deposition. The critical load of an area is the amount of acid rain that can fall without damage to soil and vegetation; 20 per cent of forests in Europe have acid deposition above their critical load.
zzAcid
Acid rain
Burning fossil fuels
Damaged forests
Dead lake Deposition Acidified soil
Fig 13.11 Acid rain formation
Effects of acid rain on vegetation

zzAcid
rain can affect the health of trees in a region in a number of ways:
G GEoTERmS
1. Acid rain can cause leaf damage, reducing its ability to photosynthesise. This will damage the trees overall health and reproductive ability. It also leaves the plant open to attack from insects, fungi and frost. 2. Seed germination is also affected, again reducing forest growth rates. In Sweden this is estimated to be as high as a 495 million loss of growth per year.
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes. They include coal, peat, gas and petrol. Seed germination is the growing of seeds.
3. Aluminium levels in the soil increase with acid rain. This causes damage to the trees root hairs. Trees cannot absorb essential nutrients, which also affects the health of the tree. 4. Nutrient leaching can occur as acid rain can deprive soils and, in turn, trees of important nutrients needed for healthy plant growth.
zzTo
overcome these problems lime is added to the soil to neutralise the effects of acid rain. This is an expensive job as it takes 3 tonnes of lime to neutralise a field for 20 years. It is estimated that acid rain has damaged over half of Germanys trees. Acid rain has also damaged 11,000 km of rivers and 7,500 lakes in Sweden. These have to be limed on a regular basis.
207
Option 7 Geoecology
Fig 13.12 Acid rain damage to trees
Effects of acid rain on animal life

zzAcid
rain has raised the pH of Swedens waterways, killing off snails and larvae that provide food for fish and frogs in the region. Fish also die from aluminium poisoning as excess amounts enter the water through acid rain. rain has killed millions of woodland animals in Europe.
Fig 13.13 Areas of Europe affected by acid rain
Effects of acid rain Heaviest Medium to heavy Light to medium Light
zzAcid
1. What is an MNC? 2. Briefly explain three ways in which intensive agriculture has damaged the tropical rainforest biome of Brazil. 3. What is a carbon sink? 4. Describe how acid rain forms. 5. Name three effects of acid rain on Europe.
208
Questions
|
Geoecology
EXA EXAm HINTS
2. Explain two ways in which human activities have impacted on soils.

All questions are worth 80 marks and require an essay-style answer. Your answer should include: An introduction: Lay out all the material that will be covered later in the essay. 34 paragraphs: Each should focus on a new aspect of the answer; there should be 68 SRPs in each paragraph. A conclusion: Draw together all the information that was discussed in the essay. 1. The development of economic activities can alter biomes. Discuss this statement with reference to appropriate examples you have studied.
The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 (27+27+26) or (4@20 marks each) Identifying aspect 4 marks Examination 8 SRPs or 6 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded or 4 marks graded Total 80 marks Select scheme according to number of aspects discussed (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
3. Assess how biomes have been altered by human activities.

The marking scheme for a question like this on a Higher Level paper is as follows: Number of aspects 3 (27+27+26) or (4 @ 20 marks each) Identifying aspect 4 marks Discussion 8 SRPs or 6 SRPs Overall coherence 7/6 marks graded or 4 marks graded Total 80 marks Select scheme according to number of aspects discussed (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 examples) (SRP marks gained for a maximum of 2 illustrations)
4. Examine two ways in which human activities have altered the natural characteristics of a biome that you have studied.
5. Assess the impact of human activity on a biome that you have studied.
209
Option 7 Geoecology
M IN D M A P
Early settlement and clearing of forests, Ireland: temperate forest biome
zz Deciduous zz 5,000
Industrial development in Europe: temperate forest biome

zz Primary
mixed woodland yrs, Neolithic people/ Celts, farming and settlement zz West, overgrazing, Burren zz Increased 16th century English and Scottish planters, agri, roads, towns zz 1922: 1% natural forest zz Animals of biome extinct, e.g. wolf zz Open to soil erosion, loss of fertility zz 12% woodland in Ireland, lowest in Europe, 31%
cause: acid rain = industrial activity zz Burn fossil fuels = weak nitric and sulphuric acid zz pH 5.6, acid deposition zz 20% EU forests above critical load zz Leaf damage zz Reduces forest growth zz Aluminium levels in soil zz Nutrient leaching zz Lime added to neutralise effects, 3 tonnes 20 yrs zz Damage to half of German trees zz Sweden: 11,000 km rivers and 7,500 lakes zz Fish: aluminium poisoning zz Woodland animals
raction Human inte with biomes
Felling tropical rainforest, Brazil: tropical rainforest biome

zz Yanomani
Intensive agricultural practices, Brazil: tropical rainforest biome

zz Large
tribe, slash and burn sustainable exploitation zz 1970s deforestation increased demand for hardwoods, e.g. teak zz 1800 2.9b, today 1.5b hectares zz Unsustainable exploitation zz Logging: 3% Brazilian economic activities, illegal = 80% of felled trees zz Mining, e.g. iron ore, copper, wood as fuel zz Roads, unviable sections isolated zz 1950s building of capital Brasilia, large-scale deforestation, 2.3 m people zz Soil erosion, exposed, leaching, landslides and mudflows, sheet erosion, flooding zz 15 m species of plant and animal zz Carbon sink, global warming
zz Subsistence,
cattle ranches, soya products zz MNCs, soil exhaustion, overused, fertilisers, soil compaction zz Soil erosion, denudation, nutrient cycle lost = laterite zz Habitats destroyed, new species introduced, reduces biodiversity zz 25% all pharmaceutical drugs, e.g. aspirin, new cures lost, e.g. AIDS and cancer zz Native people wiped out from 6m in 1500s to 250,000 today zz Brazilian government encourages deforestation zz By 2050 40% rainforest destroyed
210
Index
A
ablation 191 acid deposition 207 acid rain 82, 89, 207208 acquisition 42 ActionAid Ireland 140 Adidas 113 aeolian erosion 176, 184 aeration 168 afforestation 186 Africa 115116 Arklow Bank Wind Park 81 Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) 47 asylum seekers 129132 authorities capital 61 carbonation 177 carbon dioxide 8485 carbon emissions 77, 80, 8586 carbon sink 122, 204 carrying capacity 200 cash crops 127, 182, 185
local 90
autoroute system 21 azonal soils 179
B
Bangladesh 205 banking 20 Battle of Plassey (1757) 30 Belgium
cotton 127
Celtic period 182 Celtic Tiger era (19972007) 27 Celts 200 certified forest products 124 chalk 172 Channel Tunnel 2122, 61 Chernobyl 79 chernozem (black earths) 178 child labour 33 China 113114
Mombasa tea auction 115 tea trade 115

agriculture 26 aid
government 132
bilateral aid 136 bilateral debt 135 biodiesel 81 biodiversity 122123, 204, 206 bioethanol 81 biofuel directive 81 biofuels 8081 biogas 81 biomes 183, 190199, 200210
bilateral 136 debate, the 136, 141, 143 development 136 donor country 141, 142 emergency 136 EuropeAid 137 European Union (EU) 137 humanitarian 136 international 136 Irish 137 Irish, in Tanzania 138 multilateral 136 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 136 politically motivated 141 strategic practices 142
AIDS 32, 206 Air Pollution Act (1987) 84 alternative fuels 88 aluminium poisoning 208 Amazon rainforest 123 America 178 American Civil Rights
textile industry 113

cinchona tree 206 citizenship 129 civil partnership 160 civil rights 160
desert biome 191197 temperate forest biome 200201, 206208 tropical rainforest biome 202206
birth rate 184 Brasilia 203 Brazil 202206
protests 161
Civil Rights Law (1964) 161 Clean Air Act (1956) 83 climate 1516, 87 climate change 87, 117121, 123, 181, 183
anthropogenic (human) 118

coal 77 cohesion 72 Cohesion Fund, the 72 collard lizard 197 colonialism 2730, 4950, 64, 103 colony 66, 103 commercial debt 135 commodities 51 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 66 common European currency 62 Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) 25, 66, 70, 92 common market 6061 common policies 62 Common Transport Policy 61 Concern 140
Brasilia 184
Brehon law 200 brown earths 179180 Brundtland Commission, the 90 Burren, the 182, 200
C
cacti 196 calcification 175, 178, 195 calcite 195 calcium 178 camels 197 Campaign for Homosexual Law Reform 160 canopy 204 Cap dAgde, France 19 capillary action 178, 195
protests 160161
Amnesty International 132
Amnesty International Ireland 140

An Brd Pleanla 94, 96 archaeological assessment 95 Ardnacrusha 78 aridisols 181, 194195
211
Index
conservation zone 71, 92 container transport 40 contour ploughing 186 convectional rain 192 Coopration Internationale pour le Dveloppement et la Solidarit (CIDSE) 140 cooperative movement desert tortoise 197 destination countries 129 deterministic 103 developed world 101, 106, 116 developing world 103106, 116, 134139, 143 development aid 136 Development Assistance Committee (DAC) 33 dictator 51 direct income supports 68 discriminate 163 diurnal temperature range 177, 191 diurnal temperature variation 177, 191 domestic debt 135 drought 87, 88, 172, 175, 181, 183, 195 Dublin 2526 EuropeAid 137 European Central Bank (ECB) 62 European Court of Human Rights 132, 160 European Fisheries Fund (EFF) 71, 92 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) 17, 71, 73 European Social Fund (ESF) 7172 EU single market 62 EU Structural Funds 66 EU sugar regime 69 evaporation 183, 191, 195 exfoliation 176177 expected years of schooling (EYS) 6 exploitation 103, 147149
Ireland 145147
copper 77 core countries 48 core regions 14, 24, 47, 56 Cork Harbour 44 corporation tax 27 Corrib gas field 78 Corrib Gas project 9495 creosote bush 196 critical load 207 crop rotation 186 cultural groups 7
Indias cotton industry 149 Irelands catering industry 147148

extinction 206 extra-EU trade 60, 63 Exxon Mobil 41
Dublin Port 44
E
East African Community (EAC) 47 e-commerce 56 Economic and Social Infrastructure Operational Programme 73 economic barriers 60 economic development 14 economic migrants 129 electric cars 155156 Electric Power Research Institute (USA) 156 embargoes 92 emergency aid 136 empowerment 134 energy 76 energy resource 76, 154 Enterprise Energy Ireland (EEI) 94 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) 90, 93, 9596 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) 90, 96 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 9091 ephemerals 196 erosion 177, 181 ESB 156 EU Cohesion Fund 24 EU (European Union) 31, 47, 51, 59, 62, 6573, 79, 9192, 130, 137 eurocentric 103, 106 Euronext Paris 20
D
DART 73 Davitt, Michael 144 Death Valley 191 debt
F
Fairtrade 31, 52, 157159
Malawi 158
Fairtrade Certification 159 Fair Trade Certified Mark 158 Fairtrade Premium 158159 fallow 184, 205
bilateral 135 cancellation 135, 186 commercial 135 domestic 135 Jubilee Debt campaign 135 multilateral 135 private 135
debt cancellation 135 debt crisis 134 decoupling 68 deforestation 8586, 88, 117, 123124, 128, 176, 182, 185, 201205
year 184, 186

famine 88 fermentation technology 41 financial services 18 Finlay, James 116 First World 105 fishing industry
Irish 7071, 9192

Flanders 24 flash flooding 191 fleet regulations 70, 92 flooding 87, 181, 204 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations 122 food mountains 67 food safety 68 footloose industries 18 Ford 108 fossil fuels 7677, 7980, 85, 8889, 119, 207
Brazilian cattle industry 123

Dell Inc. 111
Ireland 112
denudation 168, 200 Dependency Theory 103 desert fox 197 desertification 117, 124128, 183 desert storms 191, 197 desert toad 197
212
Index
France 1822 granite 176 grants 53 Greece insurance industry 20 integration 161 Intel 5455
applications for asylum 130

Frank, Andre Gunder 103 free trade 30, 40, 46, 61, 6465 Free Trade Agreement (FTA) 65 free-trade zones 46, 60 freeze-thaw action 176177 French Stock Exchange 20 fuels
immigrant detention centres 131

Greencore 69 greenhouse effect 8485, 118119 greenhouse gases (GHGs) 79, 8486, 119, 125
Intel Education Initiative 55 Intel Ireland Campus 54 Intel Shannon Ltd 54

interdependent global economy 125, 128 interdependent world 109 interest rates 62 international aid 136 International Day for Biological Diversity 122 international division of labour 48 International Energy Agency 79, 81 International Fairtrade Certification Mark 158 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 40, 135 International Year of Forests 122 intra-EU trade 60, 6364 intra-regional trade 46 intrazonal soils 179 inward migration 16 Ireland 2527, 6573
emissions 89
Greenpeace 113114 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 4, 108 Gross National Income (GNI) 4, 100 Gross National Product (GNP) 4, 100 gully erosion 182, 191
alternative 140
Fukushima Daiichi 79
G
gas 79 gas emissions 88 gateways 26 gender
H
heritage 90 Hill of Tara 95 Howth 26 hubs 26 Human Development Index (HDI) 4, 6, 18, 29, 32, 44, 100, 101102, 138 humanitarian aid 136 human rights issues 129, 131132
roles 150151
gender inequality 150151
Tanzania 151
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 40 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 91 Genzyme 43 geothermal energy 80 Germany 207 gerrymandering 162 glaciation 174, 176 Glanbia 146 GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) 43 global development 139 global economic downturn
1881 Land Act 145 ActionAid Ireland 140 asylum applications 131 Brehon law 200 Campaign for Homosexual Law Reform 160 civil partnership 160 cooperative movement, the 145 corporation tax 27 gender inequality 150 Irish Supreme Court 160 landlordism 144 land ownership 144 Land Purchase Act (1903) 145 Land War 144 local enterprise boards 146 micro-enterprises 146 renewable energy 154 sexual orientation equal rights 160 sugar industry 182 wave energy 156
Irish Agricultural Organisation Society 145 Irish aid 137
immigrant detention centres 131

humification 178 humus 168173, 175, 178, 183, 186, 195 hydroelectric power (HEP) 18, 78, 80 hydrolysis 177 hydropower (water power) 80
Taiwan 8
global economy 53, 123, 128 global inequality 100, 105 globalisation 3940, 109 global trade 45, 117 global trading patterns 110 global warming 77, 80, 8489, 117121, 125, 128, 205 GOAL 140141
I
igneous rock 174 immunisation 32 India 16, 2930, 50, 6465, 149, 181182
cotton industry 149 Sumangali Scheme 149

industrial decline 18, 2324 Industrial Development Agency (IDA) 2627, 109110 industrialisation 8, 39, 85, 89, 119120 Industrial Revolution 20, 85 Indus Valley Civilisation (2800-1800 BC) 29 infant mortality rate 137138 informal economy 5 innovation 56
Haiti 141
Gobi Desert, China 191, 193 Good Friday Agreement (1998) 163 government 27 Government of Ireland Act (1920) 162 Grameen Bank of Bangladesh 164
Tanzania 138
213
Index
Irish Box, the 70, 92 Irish Cooperative Society (ICOS) 145 Irish elk 201 Irish National Land League 144 Irish red deer 201 Irish Supreme Court 160 Irish wolf 201 Iron Age 200 iron ore 77 irrigation 138, 170, 176, 178 Local Action Groups 68 local enterprise boards 144, 146147 location 15 logging, Brazil 203 low population density 26 Luas 27, 73 Luther King, Martin 160 monopoly 28 most developed countries (MDCs) 2 Moyo, Dambisa 143 multilateral aid 136 multilateral debt 135 multinational corporations (MNCs) 17, 2627, 30, 3944, 48, 51, 5356, 66, 108116, 205
M
M3 Motorway 95 Maastricht Treaty, the 62 majority world 106 malaria 88 Malawi 158 Mali 185 malnutrition 30 manufacturing 2, 26, 31, 38, 41, 45, 4849, 51, 66 Marathon Petroleum 94 mass tourism 16, 1819 Mayo County Council 94 McAleese, former President Mary 160 mean years of schooling (MYS) 6 mechanisation 25 merger 42 mesquite bush 196 metamorphic rock 174 micro-enterprises 146 microfinance 163164 Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) 163 micro-organisms 168, 178, 195 Microsoft 40, 108 migrants 23, 27 Migrants Rights Centre Ireland (MRCI) 148 migration 16, 126
N
National Development Plans (NDPs) 7172 National Development Programme (20072013) 73 National Employment Rights Authority (NERA) 147 nationalists 162 National Roads Authority (NRA) 96 National Roads Programme (NRP) 73 National Spatial Strategy (NSS) 26 natural gas 7778 neo-colonialism 28, 50 Neolithic people 200 Neolithic, the New Stone Age 182 newly industrialised countries (NICs) 3, 11920 Nike 113 nitrogen oxides 82 nodal point 27 non-governmental organisation (NGO) aid 136 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 136, 139141
J
jackrabbit 197 Jubilee Debt campaign 135 Jubilee South 135
K
kaolin clay 177 Kyoto Protocol, the 88, 119120
L
Land Act (1881), the 145 land degradation 124126 landlordism
Ireland 144
land ownership
Ireland 144
Land Purchase Act (1903) 145 landscape 1516 Land War
Ireland 144
language 105 Languedoc 19 laterisation 178 laterite soil 205 latosols 178 leaching 169170, 175, 177, 186, 204, 207 least developed countries (LDCs) 3 life cycle 53 life expectancy 23, 7, 32 Lifelong Learning Programme 72 lime 172, 176, 207 limestone 172, 174, 177, 200 Lismullin 96 literacy rate 23 loamy soils 179
ActionAid Ireland 140 Amnesty International Ireland 140 Concern 140 GOAL 140 Haiti and GOAL 141 Irish 140 Oxfam 142 Oxfam Ireland 140 Trcaire 140
non-renewable resources 77, 154 Nord-Pas-de-Calais 20 Normans, the 201 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 47, 51 Northern Ireland
patterns 129
migration strategy 95 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 137, 142143 mining 85, 89, 93, 203
surface 93
minority world 106 Modernisation Theory 102103
five stages of growth 102

Mombasa tea auction 115 monetary union 62 monoculture 182, 185
Good Friday Agreement (1998) 163
214
Index
nationalists 162 Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) 162 Provisional IRA 163 Religious discrimination 162 Troubles, the 163 unionists 162
Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) 162 North-South Divide 105 plantation 28, 30 planters 201 podzolisation 178 pollution 24, 89, 93, 204205 population
vessel 70
religious discrimination 162163 renewable energy 154 renewable resources 76, 154 resource 185 restructuring fund 69 roadrunner 197 Robinson, former President Mary 160 Robotic & Drives Services Ltd 146147 root systems 196 Rostow, W. W. 102 Rural Development Policy 68 rural-urban migration 26
population density 25, 182 population growth 8586

pore spaces 169 Poulaphouca 78 power
economic divide 28
nuclear power 7980 nutrient cycle 205
solar 78, 80 water 78 wind 81

precipitation 118
O
Obama, US President Barack 161 Objective 1 region 71 organic farming 67 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 33, 136, 142 outward migration 16, 21, 24 overcropping 181, 184 over-cultivation 181 overfishing 70, 92 overgrazing 181182, 184, 200 Overseas Development Aid (ODA) 137 Oxfam 142
precipitation patterns 87
prevailing wind 183 primary economic activities 26 primary industries 23 primary sector 25 private debt 135 product life cycle, the 53 Provence-Alpe-Cte-dAzur (PACA) 18 Provisional IRA 163 purchasing power parity (PPP) 6
S
Sahara Desert 183 Sahel, the 127128, 175, 183185 salinisation 175, 178, 181, 195 salt pans 195 Sambre-Meuse Valley 85 sandstone 174, 176 savannah 183 sea levels 87 secondary industries 2 secondary sector 2526 Second World 105 seed germination 171, 207 segregation 160 Sellafield 79 service industries 17, 24 shale 174 sheet erosion 204 Shell 94 shelter belts 186 single market 60 slash and burn cultivation 202 smog 83
Q
quotas 25, 68, 70
Oxfam Ireland 140

oxidation 177
quota restriction 40
P
Pacific Rim 45, 47, 59 package holidays 19 Pakistan 182 Palavas, France 19 parent rock 168, 174 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness (2005) 33, 143 peat 77
R
race 159 racial discrimination
USA 160
raindrop erosion 176, 182, 184 rainforests 86, 203
Amazon 124, 140

rain-shadow effect 193 rationalisation 25 raw materials 15, 103 recession
Dublin 84 Great Smog of London (1952) 83

soil compaction 205 soil degradation 182 soil erosion 175, 182, 184, 186, 201, 204205 soils 1516, 168173, 174188
peaty soils 179

peds 171 per capita 6, 100 peripheral regions 14, 4749, 54, 56
Taiwan 8
recycling 157 refugees 128, 131 regeneration programmes 17 regolith 204 regulations
Ireland 25
Pfizer/Wyeth 4144 pharmaceuticals 66
clay 170172 loamy soils 170 sandy soils 170172
industries 16
fleet 70
215
Index
silty soils 170 soil characteristics 169172, 174187 soil composition 168169 soil conservation 186187 soil pH 172 soil profile 169
source countries 129 Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) 47 specialisation 48 Statoil 94 stone lines 187 strategic aid practices 142 strip farming 187 Structural Funds 71 subsidies 17, 127 subsistence farming 202 succulents 196 sugar industry TGV 1819, 21 Thar Desert 181182 theory 102 thermal expansion 118 Third World 105 tied aid 33 UN (United Nations) 6, 47 urban regeneration 93 urban renewal 17 USA 45, 47, 54, 59, 63
V
vaccination 32 Van Rees 116 vessel regulations 70 Vikings, the 201
donor country 141

Tiger economies 3, 119 till 179 Total Annual Catch (TAC) 70, 92 tourism 17, 25 trade agreements 52 trade barriers 31, 3940, 52, 64 trade blocs 31, 46, 59 trade deficit 63 trade disputes 52 trade surplus 63 trade winds 192 Trans-Amazonian Highway 203 Treaty of Rome, the 61 Trcaire 140141 tropical red soils (latosols) 205 Troubles, the 163 tsunami 87
W
Wallonia 23 waterlogging 175, 177178 water stress 172 water table 184, 196 Wavebob generator 156 Wavebob Ltd 156 wave energy 156 weathering 174177, 204
Ireland 69
Sumangali Scheme 149 surface mining 89 sustainability 159164 sustainable development 90, 93 Sustainable Energy Ireland 156 sustainable exploitation 202 Sweden 207208
chemical 177 physical 176

Western Development Commission (WDC) 26 Western region (Ireland) 25 Westmeath County Enterprise Board 146 WHO 32 wind energy 8081 World Bank 47 World Fair Trade Organisation 158 world income 29 world trade 31, 38 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 40, 47, 52, 69
U
dars na Gaeltachta 26 underdeveloped countries 103 underdeveloped world 106 undernourishment 104 unemployment 21, 2930, 93, 150
T
Taiwan 89 Tanzania 138139, 151
gender inequality 151

Tara Mines 93 Tara-Skryne Valley 9596 tariffs 31, 40, 61, 64 Tata Tetley/Stansand 116 tax incentives 53, 55 teleservices 56 temperature 87 terracing 186 tertiary industries 2, 17 tertiary sector 2526
Sambre-Meuse Valley 23
Unilever 116 unionists 162 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the 126 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 129 United Nations Millennium Declaration 142 United Nations (UN) 6, 47 University College Cork 43 unsustainable exploitation 204
Agreement on Agriculture 69
Y
Yanomani (tribe) 202 Yunus, Dr Muhammad 164
Z
zonal soils 179
216

Horizons 3 - Sample Chapter

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OPTION 7

Higher Level Only

INTERESTING FACTS FACT

It takes approximately 400 years to create 1 cm of soil.

General composition of all soil types

Aeration is the introduction of air.

Fig 10.1 The main components of soil

Irrigation is the artificial watering of land.

50 40 Sandy clay Sandy clay loam

50 Silty clay loam Silty loam

Sandy 10 Loam loam ys and Sand 100 90 80 70 60 50 40

Silt 30 20 10 Sand separate, %

Fig 10.4 Soil textures

Experiment to test soil texture

Fig 10.5 Soil sample test

Fig 10.6 Tropical red soil

Seed germination is the growing of seeds.

Water content and retention properties

QUICK QUESTIoNS QUESTI

Fig 10.8 Alkaline soils often develop in areas of limestone

loose A layer of material weathered

bacteria and SOIL PROFILE A horizon

brown zz Most fertile B horizon

in colour zz Lacks humus, hardpan created C horizon

aerates and binds soil

pH, for most fertile soils reduces acidity

Higher Level Only

EXA EXAm HINTS

Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

Fig 11.1 Soil waterlogged from the monsoon rains

Low lying, flat areas

Fig 11.2 Topographical influences on soil

QUICK QUESTIoNS QUESTI

Mechanical and chemical weathering act on bare rock

2 Organic materials help disintegration

Fig 11.3 The formation of soil over time

4 Developed soil supports thick vegetation

Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

W do ater wn so thr aks ou gh soi

QUICK QUESTIoNS QUESTI

Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

Fig 11.6 Global pattern of zonal soils

Irish soil type: brown earths

EXA EXAm HINTS

Till is the material deposited by a glacier.

Brown earths Podzols Gleys Peaty soils

Fig 11.7 The main soil types found in Ireland

Plant litter, insects and micro-organisms

A horizon or topsoil dark brown due to the presence of humus

B horizon or subsoil lighter in colour, biological activity lessened

Fig 11.8 A soil profile of brown earth

Parent material or bedrock

Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

Sub-continental soil: aridisols ?

QUICK QUESTIoNS QUESTI

in hot, dry conditions.

Human interference with soil characteristics

Fig 11.9 Soil erosion can be caused by overgrazing and overcropping

Fig 11.10 A megalithic tomb in the Burren, Co. Clare

ANDHRA PRADESH GOA

Soil Characteristics Chapter 11

CASE STUDY 11.1

Fig 11.12 Cracked earth due to drought